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Pre-Contact America

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. People lived in the Americas for at least ten thousand years before the arrival of Europeans and Africans beginning in 1492. This history is both important in its own right and relevant to the interactions between the Americas and the Atlantic World that emerged in the 16th century. Because most precolonial Americans did not have written languages and because their oral histories either were destroyed or much changed by the devastation of colonization, most information about the precolonial Americas comes from archaeology, combined with information gleaned from early European documents. Increasingly, historians are integrating the “pre-contact” period (which has also been called “prehistory”) into a longer version of the history of the Americas, cognizant of continuities as well as ruptures in the 15th and 16th centuries. This entry seeks to provide readings in English by historians familiar with archaeology and by archaeologists writing in ways accessible to historians and general readers. Bibliographies within individual works will lead researchers to more works in particular fields, including in languages besides English and by archaeologists and anthropologists writing for specialists.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. These works provide overviews of the Americas before 1492. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas (1996–2000) is a sweeping collection on a vast number of topics throughout the Americas. Mann 2005 is written for a popular audience and would work well in the classroom. The other books are written for scholarly audiences, but not just for those trained in archaeology. Bruhns and Stothert 1999 focuses on women, giving a useful introduction to the continent through the lens of gender. For introductions, see Confer 2008 on North America, Florescano 1994 and Knight 2002 on Mexico, and Bruhns 1994 on South America. Arkush and Allen 2006 employs a comparative approach to studying ancient warfare. For other general treatments, see Textbooks and Surveys.
  8.  
  9. Arkush, Elizabeth N., and Mark W. Allen, eds. The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.
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  11. A comparative study of warfare and its social and political effects in the precolonial Americas as well as other continents.
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  13. Bruhns, Karen Olsen. Ancient South America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  15. Accessible and readable introduction to precolonial South America.
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  17. Bruhns, Karen Olsen, and Karen E. Stothert. Women in Ancient America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
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  19. Valuable survey of women and gender in the precolonial Americas starting around 10,000 BCE.
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  21. Trigger, Bruce G, et al. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996–2000.
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  23. Ten-book reference collection with volumes on North, Central, and South America (including the Caribbean). Each book edited by scholars in the relevant field.
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  25. Confer, Clarissa W. Daily Life in Pre-Columbian Native America. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2008.
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  27. Basic but useful accounts of how people lived in various regions of North America in the 15th century.
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  29. Florescano, Enrique. Memory, Myth, and Time in Mexico: From the Aztecs to Independence. Translated by Albert G. Bork and Kathryn R. Bork. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
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  31. Although this book’s content goes as far as Mexican independence, most of it deals with the cultures of Mexico before the Spanish.
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  33. Knight, Alan. Mexico. Vol. 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  35. This first volume in a projected three-volume set, which will span the entire history of Mexico, provides both a useful overview of the long history of precolonial Mexico and a model for integrating precolonial and postcolonial history.
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  37. Mann, Charles C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. New York: Knopf, 2005.
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  39. Vivid account of the late-15th-century Americas written by a journalist who is well-informed on current archaeology.
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  41. Textbooks and Surveys
  42.  
  43. There is no truly textbook-like survey of this entire subject. Fiedel 1992 covers the whole subject, although the author does not hesitate to take sides in debates. Fagan 2005 is more textbook-like but covers only North America. Kehoe 2002 and Salisbury 1996 provide shorter accounts on North America only. Mills, et al. 2002 covers Latin America.
  44.  
  45. Fagan, Brian M. Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. London: Thames and Hudson, 2005.
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  47. Very valuable, clear synthesis of mainstream archaeological views of precolonial North America, which also provides good explanations of recent findings and controversies.
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  49. Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  51. An archaeologist’s sweeping study of the precolonial Americas starting in about 10,000 BCE. Informative both about archaeological findings and about disputes among archaeologists interpreting this history.
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  53. Kehoe, Alice. America before the European Invasions. New York: Longman, 2002.
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  55. Accessible cultural history overview of the peoples of precolonial North America from about 10,000 BCE. [ISBN: 9780582414860]
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  57. Mills, Kenneth, William B. Taylor, and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, eds. Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002.
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  59. Collection of primary sources in English translation, which includes documents on early contact that reflect on the years before contact.
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  61. Salisbury, Neal. “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans.” William and Mary Quarterly 53 (1996): 435–458.
  62. DOI: 10.2307/2947200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  63. Written by a historian, provides an excellent brief introduction to North America on the cusp of European arrival.
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  65. Journals
  66.  
  67. There is no general journal on the precolonial Americas. Ethnohistory publishes on all eras, including precolonial. American Antiquity, the Journal of Field Archaeology, Latin American Antiquity, North American Archaeologist, and Southeastern Archaeology publish cutting-edge archeology on particular places. The Annual Review of Anthropology and Current Anthropology are anthropology journals that include coverage of the pre-1500s Americas.
  68.  
  69. American Antiquity (1935–).
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  71. Until 1990, this quarterly published on the archaeology of the Americas. Since the founding of Latin American Antiquity, this journal mostly focuses on the Americas north of Mexico.
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  73. Annual Review of Anthropology (1972–).
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  75. Prestigious annual general-interest anthropology journal, which includes articles on the precolonial Americas.
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  77. Current Anthropology (1959–).
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  79. Published six times per year, this usually accessible general-interest anthropology journal includes articles on the precolonial Americas.
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  81. Ethnohistory (1954–).
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  83. Articles in this quarterly combine methods from anthropology and history to study peoples of the past who left no written records. Articles and book reviews include the precolonial Americas.
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  85. Journal of Field Archaeology (1974–).
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  87. Publishes quarterly on archaeological findings for all times and places, including the precolonial Americas.
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  89. Latin American Antiquity (1990–).
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  91. This quarterly publishes articles on precolonial Latin America. A spin-off journal from American Antiquity.
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  93. North American Archaeologist (1979–).
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  95. This quarterly covers the archaeology of North America, including northern but not central Mexico.
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  97. Southeastern Archaeology (1982–).
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  99. Published twice each year, this journal focuses on the archaeology of the North American Southeast, including Mississippian cultures.
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  101. Primary Sources
  102.  
  103. Of course, most important primary sources for the pre-contact Americas are archaeological, but Salomon and Urioste 1991 and Tedlock 1996 provide annotated translations of rare precolonial texts. Most sources in this list were written at the time of contact and give insights into pre-contact times. Columbus 1961 observes the West Indies at the time of its first contact with Spaniards. León-Portilla 2006 covers 16th-century central Mexico. Staden 2008 is an account from Brazil. Cabeza de Vaca 1999 and Laudonnière 2001 deal with the 16th century north of Mexico. Smith 1624 is on the early-17th-century North American Atlantic coast.
  104.  
  105. Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Núñez. Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca: His Account, His Life, and the Expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez. 3 vols. Edited and translated by Rolena Adorno and Patrick Charles Pautz. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
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  107. Cabeza de Vaca wrote this account of his time among the Karankawas and other native peoples from Florida to Texas from the late 1500s through the mid-1530s. Spanish title of Cabeza de Vaca’s account: Naufragios.
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  109. Columbus, Christopher. Four Voyages to the New World: Letters and Selected Documents. Translated and edited by R. H. Major. New York: Corinth, 1961.
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  111. Provides Spanish and English versions of Columbus’s letters from his voyages beginning in 1492 and related documents.
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  113. Laudonnière, René Goulaine de. Three Voyages. Edited and translated by Charles E. Bennett. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001.
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  115. The 1564 French settlement of Fort Caroline near the present-day northeastern border of Florida had extensive interactions with local Indians in its short existence. Original French title: L’histoire notable de la Floride située es Indes Occidentales, contenant les trois voyages.
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  117. León-Portilla, Miguel, ed. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Translated by Angel María Garibay and Lysander Kemp. Boston: Beacon, 2006.
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  119. Fascinating collection of Aztec accounts of the overthrow of Montezuma’s Mexicas. These accounts were recorded in the years following the war from survivors from both sides: the Mexicas and their native enemies who sided with Hernán Cortés and the Spanish. Includes drawings from the original codices.
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  121. Salomon, Frank, and George L. Urioste, eds. and trans. The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
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  123. Early-17th-century documentation of Andean worldviews and religious beliefs. This edition includes a scholarly introduction, an English translation with helpful footnotes, and transcription of the original Quechua.
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  125. Smith, John. The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles with the names of the Adventuerers, Planters, and Governours from their first beginning Ano 1584 to this present 1624. London: Michael Sparkes, 1624.
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  127. John Smith’s account has given historians insights into the powerful Powhatan chiefdom before and after the founding of Jamestown.
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  129. Staden, Hans. Hans Staden’s True History: An Account of Cannibal Activity in Brazil. Edited and translated by Neil L. Whitehead and Michael Harbsmeier. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.
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  131. Mid-16th-century account of the Tupi Indians of Brazil by a German prisoner.
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  133. Tedlock, Dennis, ed. and trans. Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
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  135. The Popol Vuh is one of the few available precolonial texts. Tedlock translates, edits, and comments to put the document in context.
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  137. North America
  138.  
  139. Early contacts between Europeans and American Indians give us our first documentary accounts of the Americas and help to supplement what we can glean from archaeology. The archaeology on Mississippian cultures, which thrived from around 1000 to 1500 CE and were visited by Hernando de Soto, is some of the richest on the precolonial Americas. Hudson 1978 and Shaffer 1992 provide nontechnical overviews. Steponaitis and Knight 2007 takes us deep into the rise, long life, and fall of one chiefdom. Cobb 2000 focuses on how one Mississippian economy worked, whereas Ehrhardt 2005 shows technological development, also in the Illinois region. In other parts of North America, Rouse 1992 investigates the first Americans to meet Columbus, and Reséndez 2007 reveals much about the precolonial peoples along the North American Gulf Coast. La Vere 1998 shows how one people in the Southwest dealt with change over centuries.
  140.  
  141. Cobb, Charles R. From Quarry to Cornfield: The Political Economy of Mississippian Hoe Production. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000.
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  143. Fascinating study of the ancient production and distribution of agricultural tools from southern Illinois throughout the Mississippi Valley.
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  145. Ehrhardt, Kathleen L. European Metals in Native Hands: Rethinking the Dynamics of Technological Change, 1640–1683. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005.
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  147. This study of how native Illinois peoples acquired and incorporated European goods before they had direct contact with Europeans provides an important revision to deterministic views of technological change.
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  149. Hudson, Charles M. The Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978.
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  151. Valuable, although aging, study of precolonial Southeastern Indians’ economies, political and social structures, ceremonies, and belief systems.
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  153. La Vere, David. The Caddo Chiefdoms: Caddo Economics and Politics, 700–1835. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
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  155. Drawing on archaeology, oral history, and the documentary record, this book examines the Caddos before the arrival of Europeans and analyzes how that history affected their interactions with Europeans.
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  157. Reséndez, Andrés. A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca: The Extraordinary Tale of a Shipwrecked Spaniard Who Walked across America in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Basic Books, 2007.
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  159. Historian’s account of the Cabeza de Vaca journey across Florida, the Gulf, and Texas, with many insights into the precolonial peoples of those regions.
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  161. Rouse, Irving. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
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  163. Traces the long history of the Tainos up to and beyond their encounters with Columbus.
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  165. Shaffer, Lynda Norene. Native Americans Before 1492: The Moundbuilding Centers of the Eastern Woodlands. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992.
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  167. Very readable survey of the Mississippian chiefdoms and their ancestors.
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  169. Steponaitis, Vincas P., and Vernon J. Knight Jr., eds. Archaeology of the Moundville Chiefdom. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007.
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  171. In-depth study of the six hundred years of one Mississippian chiefdom by leading experts.
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  173. Mesoamerica and the Caribbean
  174.  
  175. The ancient Aztec and Mayan societies have attracted many archeologists with their centralized structures, building projects, and archaeological remains. Clendinnen 1991, Schele and Freidel 1990, and Wilson 1997 provide analytic overviews. Boone and Mignolo 1994 investigates their writing. Carrasco 1999 focuses on the role of violence, whereas Sigal 2000 provides an innovative study of sexuality. Manzanilla and Chapdelaine 2009 looks at life in urban centers in Peru as well as Mesoamerica. Foster and Gorenstein 2000 is a broad introduction to the archaeology of precolonial Mesoamerica.
  176.  
  177. Boone, Elizabeth, and Walter Mignolo, eds. Writing Without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.
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  179. Innovative examination of precolonial memory systems, including hieroglyphs and mnemonics.
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  181. Carrasco, Davíd. City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston: Beacon, 1999.
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  183. Investigation of Aztec ritual violence and its role in building and maintaining the city of Tenochtitlan.
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  185. Clendinnen, Inga. Aztecs: An Interpretation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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  187. Highly readable account of the people of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
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  189. Foster, Michael S., and Shirley Gorenstein, eds. Greater Mesoamerica: The Archaeology of West and Northwest Mexico. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000.
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  191. Archaeological essays on precolonial Mesoamerica and regions of Mesoamerica that were not colonized when central Mexico was.
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  193. Manzanilla, Linda R., and Claude Chapdelaine, eds. Domestic Life in Prehispanic Capitals: A Study of Specialization, Hierarchy, and Ethnicity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, 2009.
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  195. The essays in this collection explore daily life in a wide range of precolonial places, throughout present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, and Bolivia.
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  197. Schele, Linda, and David Freidel. A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York: Morrow, 1990.
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  199. Synthesis of new perspectives on the long history of the Maya, based on newly translated Maya hieroglyphics.
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  201. Sigal, Pete. From Moon Goddesses to Virgins: The Colonization of Yucatecan Maya Sexual Desire. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
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  203. Fascinating study of precolonial Maya sexuality and the evolution of those beliefs and practices after colonization.
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  205. Wilson, Samuel M., ed. The Indigenous People of the Caribbean. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1997.
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  207. Accessible essays that include ethnohistorical accounts combining archaeological data and contact narratives.
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  209. South America
  210.  
  211. Most work on precolonial South America examines the Inca Empire. Moseley 2001 synthesizes Inca history. Morris and Van Hagen 1993 provides the best images of the Incas. Silverblatt 1987 focuses on gender, whereas Julien 2000 and Urton 2003 look at Inca writing and shaping of history. Heckenberger 2005 and Roosevelt 1994 turn their attention to the Amazon.
  212.  
  213. Heckenberger, Michael J. The Ecology of Power: Culture, Place, and Personhood in the Southern Amazon, A.D. 1000–2000. New York: Routledge, 2005.
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  215. Draws on and analyzes archaeological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic evidence on the lifeways of precolonial Amazonians.
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  217. Julien, Catherine. Reading Inca History. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2000.
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  219. This book examines Inca history as told by Incan leaders to Spaniards in the 16th century.
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  221. Morris, Craig, and Adriana Van Hagen. The Inka Empire and Its Andean Origins. New York: Abbeville, 1993.
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  223. Gives an overview of Inca history and archeology, supplemented by amazing color plates of Inca artifacts.
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  225. Moseley, Michael E. The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. London: Thames and Hudson, 2001.
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  227. The best overview of the long history of the Incas.
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  229. Roosevelt, Anna, ed. Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
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  231. Provides overviews of the long history of various Amazonian peoples.
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  233. Silverblatt, Irene. Moon, Sun, and Witches: Gender Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
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  235. Shows the intertwined nature of gender and politics in Andean societies before and after conquest.
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  237. Urton, Gary. Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records. Austin: University of Texas, 2003.
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  239. Up-to-date research on Inca record-keeping through the elaborate use of knotted strings.
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  241. Post-Contact Changes
  242.  
  243. These works explore the changes brought by early colonialism and thus reflect back on how precolonial societies worked. In most of the lands north of Mexico, early exploration was followed by decades without European intrusions, so documents are scarce. Clendinnen 1987 shows how people in the Yucatan responded to European political and religious pressures. Adorno 2000 and Wood 2003 do the same for Peru and Mexico. Many peoples greatly affected by disease and warfare went through a period of ethnogenesis, coalescing with other Indian peoples into new ethnic identities and societal organizations. Galloway 1995 shows this process for the North American Southeast, and Anderson 1999 does the same for the Southwest. Dealing with the North American Atlantic Coast, Richter 2001 explores encounters with the Dutch and English as well as Spanish. Crosby 2004 and Kelton 2007 examine the effects of European diseases.
  244.  
  245. Adorno, Rolena. Guaman Poma: Writing and Resistance in Colonial Peru. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
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  247. Through examining Andean Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s protest to Philip III regarding colonial practices, Adorno shows both precolonial Andean beliefs about proper society and government and native Andean use of colonial forms and discourse.
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  249. Anderson, Gary Clayton. The Indian Southwest, 1580–1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
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  251. Shows how Caddos, Apaches, Comanches, Jumanos, Coahuiltecans, and other Indians of the Southwest dealt with the arrival of Spaniards (and their horses and diseases).
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  253. Clendinnen, Inga. Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517–1570. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  255. Brilliant study of Mayan encounters with Spaniards, which gives insights into precolonial Mayan culture and practices.
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  257. Crosby, Alfred W. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  259. A pathbreaking, although overly deterministic, overview of how diseases, plants, and animals from Europe, Africa, and Asia dramatically changed the Americas.
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  261. Galloway, Patricia Kay. Choctaw Genesis, 1500–1700. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
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  263. Pathbreaking study of how some Mississippians became the Choctaws.
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  265. Kelton, Paul K. Epidemics and Enslavement: Biological Catastrophe in the Native Southeast, 1492–1715. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
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  267. In contrast to more deterministic accounts of the effects of disease, this book helps to disentangle when epidemics hit and how Indians responded.
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  269. Richter, Daniel K. Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.
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  271. The first chapters of the book show how eastern North American Indians incorporated European people and goods into their preexisting beliefs and practices.
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  273. Wood, Stephanie. Transcending Conquest: Nahua Views of Spanish Colonial Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003.
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  275. This study of how the native peoples of central Mexico viewed Spanish colonization gives insight into precolonial beliefs and practices.
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