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Artillery (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. During the early years of the 21st century, field artillery achieved unparalleled accuracy with the introduction of precision-guided munitions. Such munitions allowed a gun crew to hit a target with one round or to engage a target without adjusting fire as long as the target was precisely located. In Iraq and Afghanistan in the first decade of the 21st century, the US Army fired Excalibur precision munition from its 155-milimeter (mm) howitzers and the Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System precision munition from its Multiple Launch Rocket System to destroy insurgent safe houses and other pinpoint targets. This precision capability revolutionized field artillery because massing fire to compensate for the lack of accuracy dominated field artillery tactics since the late 18th century with the introduction of relatively light, mobile field guns to complement siege artillery, coast artillery, garrison artillery, and pack artillery. Precision artillery munitions gave armies, especially the US Army, the capability of destroying a target with minimal collateral damage, meaning the destruction of civilian property or deaths of noncombatants that were near the target but not part of the target. This precision came centuries after gunpowder siege artillery in the form of bombards and heavy cast-bronze cannons had replaced mechanical siege engines, such as trebuchets and onagers, as a means of battering down fortification walls and after European armies started employing lighter cannons on the battlefield.
  3. General Overviews
  4. Only a few good general overviews of artillery exist. For the most part authors restrict their coverage to a specific topic, such as siege engines or period of history, rather than providing broad historical coverage by writing about a lengthy period of time. The closest to good overviews are Dastrup 1994 and Bailey 2004. Dastrup examines the beginnings of gunpowder artillery in Europe through the latter years of the 20th century and includes an extensive bibliography, while Part 4 in Bailey covers gunpowder artillery since its inception in Europe to the end of the 20th century. Comparato 1965 is another solid general overview of gunpowder artillery through the early 1960s. None of these covers mechanical siege engines or machines, such as trebuchets and onagers. Rogers 1975 and Stevens 1966 also supply a broad coverage of artillery, are less scholarly, and are intended for the general reader or undergraduate student. In comparison, Norris 2000 examines mechanical siege machines and gunpowder artillery through 2000 as does Ransford 1975, which discusses mechanical siege engines and gunpowder artillery and provides interesting illustrations to accompany the narrative. The best overview on siege engines is Nossov 2005.
  5. Bailey, J. B. A. Field Artillery and Firepower. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2004.
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  7. Although the study covers gunpowder artillery since its inception through the 1990s, it examines extensively the development of rifled artillery, indirect fire, and the 20th century battlefield. The book also has an exhaustive bibliography, primarily focusing on journal articles, and is one of the best on field artillery history and provides insights that only a professional field artillery officer could give.
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  9. Comparato, Frank E. Age of Great Guns: Cannon Kings and Cannoneers Who Forged the Firepower of Artillery. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1965.
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  11. Although dated with a confusing format, this work contains valuable, detailed information on artillery technology and operations from the introduction of gunpowder artillery in Europe through the first years of the 1960s.
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  13. Dastrup, Boyd L. The Field Artillery: History and Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994.
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  15. The study provides a solid overview of the technological developments and field artillery tactics since the beginning of gunpowder artillery in Europe through the end of the Cold War in 1991 and furnishes a far-reaching bibliography.
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  17. Norris, John. Artillery: A History. Glouchester, UK: Sutton, 2000.
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  19. After a first chapter on mechanical siege weapons, the work covers the history of artillery from 1300 through 2000 in sweeping generalizations, suitable for the general reader or undergraduate student.
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  21. Nossov, Konstantin. Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons: A Fully Illustrated Guide to Siege Weapons and Tactics. Guilford, CT: Lyons, 2005.
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  23. This comprehensive and richly illustrated book focuses on western Europe and the Near and Middle East. It is an excellent reference book on siege machines and siege warfare and should be the starting point for any research on the topic.
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  25. Ransford, Simon, ed. War Machines: Land from the Primitive Weapons of Stone Age to Rocket-Assisted Grenades. London: Octopus, 1975.
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  27. This is a short pictorial book covering weaponry from the Stone Age through the present. Although it is probably more useful as a coffee-table work, the work’s illustrations are the focal point.
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  29. Rogers, Hugh Cathburt Basset. A History of Artillery. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel, 1975.
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  31. This work provides a detailed, broad history of artillery from the beginnings of gunpowder artillery in the 14th century through the last decades of the 20th century.
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  33. Stevens, Phillip H. Artillery through the Ages. New York: Watts, 1966.
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  35. This overview of artillery history from pre-gunpowder days through to the nuclear age is appealing to the generalist or undergraduate student because it lacks a bibliography.
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  37. Reference and Primary Sources
  38. Although scholarly, online primary sources are limited, the Morris Swett Technical Library at the US Army Field Artillery School, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, the Combined Arms Research Library at the US Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the US Army Military History Institute at the US Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, stand out as excellent sources for primary source documents with some being published online. Morris Swett Technical Library contains an outstanding collection of primary source documents on American artillery with an emphasis on field artillery and is the foremost source of American artillery history. It has a good collection of documents, noncirculating American and European artillery drill regulations from the 19th century, bibliographies, and unit histories. Some documents are posted online for easy access. The Combined Arms Research Library has over 270,000 books that cover all aspects of military science, joint and combined operations, tactics, doctrine, leadership, intelligence, weapons, including artillery, equipment, and training. The library also has reports, studies, historical manuscripts, after-action reports, and other primary source materials. The US Army Military History Institute provides a library, archive, and research facility with documents on military history and strategic studies. The holdings also cover the US Army’s history from before its formation to current operations, offering unparalleled resources on the evolution of the military art. The institute also has personal papers, diaries, letters, and photographs. A collection of over 300,000 military history volumes cover almost every aspect of American military history. The institute’s digital library has photographs, reference bibliographies, and manuscripts.
  39. Combined Arms Research Library.
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  41. The library has a large digital library of research and student papers, an extensive collection of professional military journals, and an extensive database. Although its collection primarily focuses on combined arms warfare in keeping with the mission of the US Army Combined Arms Center, it also has field artillery and air defense artillery documents and resources.
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  43. Morris Swett Technical Library.
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  45. Research here is a must for those interested in American field artillery. Researchers also have access to the Historical Research and Document Collection in the Command Historian’s Office, US Army Field Artillery School that contains critical documents covering field artillery tactics, equipment, and organization since the 1980s.
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  47. US Army Military History Institute.
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  49. The institute maintains invaluable documents pertaining to the US Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, reserve components, and foreign militaries. Of particular importance are the unit history collection and the holdings on field artillery and air defense artillery documents.
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  51. Journals
  52. Two professional journals are key sources on artillery history. The Fires Bulletin, formerly called the Field Artillery Magazine and Field Artillery Journal, is an excellent source on the most recent thinking on air defense artillery and field artillery tactics, organization, and materiel. Occasionally, it publishes a historical article. The Royal Artillery Journal is also a good source for the latest thinking from the British perspective and often offers historical articles.
  53. Fires Bulletin.
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  55. The Field Artillery Journal was first published in 1911 to educate US Army field artillery officers in their profession and continued this mission through 2007 when it was renamed the Fires Bulletin. The journal is critical source on American artillery tactics, organization, and materiel and articles covering the history of both branches of artillery. Articles are accessible online but the journal’s search engine is inadequate.
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  57. Royal Artillery Journal.
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  59. Published twice annually, the Royal Artillery Journal furnishes an in-depth examination of operations, lessons learned, the latest British thinking on field artillery tactics and doctrine, and insightful historical articles on British artillery.
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  61. Engines of War
  62. Employing mechanical power to throw a projectile to destroy a fortification wall or to lob an object over the wall, such as a diseased animal to infect the fortification inhabitants, engines of war or siege machines or engines represented first form of artillery, predate gunpowder artillery that was introduced in Europe in the 14th century and deserve attention. Campbell 2003 insightfully examines mechanical siege machines employed by the Greeks and Romans, while Nicolle 2002 focuses on siege warfare and siege machines in Europe as does Bradbury 1992 and Wise 1976. Purton 2009 furnishes a solid analysis of siege warfare in Europe. DeVries and Smith 2010 examines the employment of catapults and other mechanical siege weapons of the medieval period while Purton 2010 covers the transition from mechanical siege engines to gunpowder artillery as siege weapons. Unlike the previous historical studies, Nicolle 2003 goes beyond siege warfare in Europe by treating the topic in Byzantium, the Islamic World, and India.
  63. Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Siege. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1992.
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  65. The book covers sieges and fortifications as well as siege weapons and provides a useful discussion for the reader wanting a broad background on siege machines and their employment.
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  67. Campbell, D. B. Greek and Roman Artillery, 399 BC–AD 363. Oxford: Osprey, 2003.
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  69. This excellent but short work explores the early uses of stone-throwing catapults and other siege weapons and is one of the best on the topic. Also see the author’s Greek and Roman Siege Machinery, 399 BC–AD 363 (Oxford: Osprey, 2003) for additional coverage of the same topic.
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  71. DeVries, Kelly, and Robert D. Smith. Medieval Military Technology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010.
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  73. One of the best studies, this work provides a sound overview of medieval military technology, but the chapter on non-gunpowder artillery is particularly useful for its insights into mechanical siege machines and their employment.
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  75. Nicolle, David. Medieval Siege Weapons: Western Europe, 585–1385. Oxford: Osprey, 2002.
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  77. This illustrated work is a worthwhile account of siege weapons in Western Europe, Persia, India, and China. Besides covering siege engines that relied upon torsion, counterweights, manpower, or other means of stored energy, the author evaluates military engineering, such as mining and the use of chemicals and fire.
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  79. Nicolle, David. Medieval Siege Weapons: Byzantium, the Islamic World and India, AD 476–1526. Oxford: Osprey, 2003.
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  81. This is a solid, illustrated work on mechanical siege weapons and the gradual transition to gunpowder artillery as a siege weapon in the Late-Roman or Byzantine Empire, the Islamic world, and the Mongol “world empire.” The book examines stone-throwing machines that relied upon from torsion, manpowered sling devices, and even rockets.
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  83. Purton, Peter. A History of Early Medieval Siege c. 450–1220. Suffolk, UK: Boydell, 2009.
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  85. The work covers the strengths and weaknesses of the trebuchet and other mechanical siege machines that were prevalent during the time period and examines various sieges conducted at the time. Students and scholars alike will find the study useful because it has an extensive bibliography and furnishes an in-depth overview of mechanical siege machines.
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  87. Purton, Peter. A History of Late Medieval Siege, 1200–1500. Suffolk, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 2010.
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  89. The work covers the latter years of mechanical siege weapons and the gradual transition to gunpowder artillery as a siege weapon that forced significant changes in fortification design that would withstand the battering of gunpowder artillery projectiles.
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  91. Wise, Terrence. Medieval Warfare. New York: Hastings, 1976.
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  93. Although Wise covers raising armies and fortifications, he discusses siege weapons during Medieval Europe in his well-illustrated book. This is a succinct survey of European warfare in the 14th and 15th centuries, which explains the raising of armies and discusses castles and other fortifications, siege warfare, and battlefield tactics.
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  95. Smoothbore Gunpowder Artillery
  96. Sometime in the 14th century, the Europeans introduced gunpowder, often called black powder, composed of potassium nitrate (saltpeter), sulfur, and powdered charcoal as a propelling charge and bursting charge. Taking advantage of gunpowder’s explosive capabilities and searching for more powerful means to knocking down fortification walls, they abandoned mechanical siege weapons for smoothbore gunpowder siege artillery over a period of years. About the same time, the Europeans started employing smoothbore gunpowder artillery on the battlefield. Centuries passed before they adopted gunpowder rockets.
  97. Early Siege Warfare
  98. For an outstanding treatment of early smoothbore gunpowder artillery in siege warfare see Duffy 1979 and Hogg 1971. Duffy 1985 examines the contributions of Vauban to fortification design and construction. For another thorough examination of fortifications, castles, walled cities, and sieges, see Kaufman and Kaufman 1975. Norris 2003 also examines gunpowder artillery in sieges whereas Taylor 1921 narrows the focus to French siege warfare in Italy from 1494 to 1529. Hogg 1963 concentrates on English siege artillery while Patrick 1961 examines early gunpowder artillery’s impact upon European warfare and sieges.
  99. Duffy, Christopher. Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494–1660. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.
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  101. This is a succinct, solid work on siege warfare and should be the basis for all study on the topic because it provides the social, economic, and political background of the development of siege warfare and the slow transition from mechanical siege artillery to gunpowder siege artillery.
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  103. Duffy, Christopher. Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great, 1660–1789. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985.
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  105. This study examines siege warfare with an emphasis upon Vauban’s contributions that revolutionized fortification design in response to gunpowder smoothbore siege artillery and siege warfare using parallel trenches to attack a fortification and includes an extensive bibliography. It is a must for students and scholars alike.
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  107. Hogg, O. F. G. English Artillery: 1316–1716. London: Royal Artillery Institution, 1963.
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  109. This is a solid study of smoothbore gunpowder artillery in siege warfare and on the battlefield. It covers British gunpowder artillery organization, materiel, and tactics from their beginnings through the organization of the British regiment of artillery in 1716.
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  111. Hogg, O. F. G. Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday, and Decline. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1971.
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  113. The work provides a useful study on the rise of gunpowder artillery in siege warfare and its impact on fortification design and on the battlefield. However, it is difficult to read.
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  115. Kaufman, J. E., and H. W. Kaufman. The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 1975.
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  117. This work is a comprehensive coverage of medieval castles, forts, and walled cities throughout Western Europe and the Middle East. It discusses their decline that came from the introduction of gunpowder artillery that easily destroyed fortification walls that had been designed to withstand mechanical siege artillery.
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  119. Norris, John. Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600. Wiltshire, UK: Crowood, 2003.
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  121. This illustrated history provides a good overview of the early history of gunpowder artillery. Although it is not a scholarly contribution to the literature, it is worth reading.
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  123. Patrick, John M. Artillery and Warfare during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Logan, UT: Utah State University Press, 1961.
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  125. This brief study provides a thoughtful analysis of the beginnings of gunpowder artillery and its impact on European warfare.
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  127. Taylor, F. L. The Art of War in the Italy, 1494–1529. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1921.
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  129. This detailed study examines the contributions of siege artillery during the French campaign of 1494 in Italy where Charles VII of France demonstrated the lethality of mobile, smoothbore siege guns, setting the example for other armies to imitate.
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  131. Early Battlefield Artillery: 1300–1765
  132. More noted for his treatise on the art of warfare, Delbrück 1975–1985 also discusses the emergence of gunpowder artillery on the battlefield. Hime 1915 makes a solid contribution to the literature with a discussion of the rise of gunpowder artillery, and Arnold 2001 discusses the impact of gunpowder artillery on the battlefield and in siege warfare. For another look at battlefield operations, see Hughes 1974 and Norris 2005. Bellamy 1982 examines the rise of Russian artillery on the battlefield, and Brookes 1973 does the same for English artillery in a less scholarly fashion. For the American experience with cannons, see Manucy 1949.
  133. Arnold, Thomas F. Renaissance at War. London: Cassell, 2001.
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  135. Although the work examines siege craft, its discussion on the advent of gunpowder artillery and small arms is particularly useful by explaining how these weapons transformed warfare from the 15th century to the 17th century. In siege warfare, gunpowder artillery forced high-walled cities and fortifications to be redesigned to limit the impact of gunpowder, while on the battlefield it slowly ended the domination of the knight. The study is one of the best on the topic.
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  137. Bellamy, Christopher D. “The Firebird: 600 Years of the Russian Artillery.” History Today (September 1982): 16–20.
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  139. This is an outstanding contribution to the literature on Russian artillery. The author discusses six hundred years of gunpowder and cannon manufacturing in Russia and places the Russians among the leaders in cannon developments.
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  141. Brookes, Kenneth. Battle Thunder: The Story of Britain’s Artillery. Reading, UK: Osprey, 1973.
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  143. This book furnishes a well-written overview of British artillery history and should be a solid foundation for the student of British artillery.
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  145. Delbrück, Hans. History of the Art of War within the Framework of Political History. 4 vols. Translated by Walter J. Renfroe Jr. Contributions in Military History. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1975–1985.
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  147. Although the work focuses on the art of war, Volume 3 has an outstanding chapter on the rise of gunpowder artillery and its influence upon warfare.
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  149. Hime, Henry W. L. The Origins of Artillery. London: Longmans, Green, 1915.
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  151. This is one of the first scholarly accounts on the history of artillery and is a standard work on the topic even though it is dated. Specifically, the author examines the origin of gunpowder and its composition, the origin of cannon in Europe, and the origin of ammunition. The book also discusses the role of Greeks, Arabs, the Hindus, and the Chinese in the development of gunpowder.
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  153. Hughes, B. P. Firepower: Weapons Effectiveness on the Battlefield, 1630–1850. London: Arms and Armour, 1974.
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  155. One of the best works on smoothbore artillery firepower, the book discusses field artillery drill, tactics, and performance and is a must for understanding the impact of gunpowder artillery on field armies on the battlefield.
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  157. Manucy, Albert. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Artillery, Emphasizing the Types Used in America. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949.
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  159. A short but useful, illustrated book, this work examines mechanical siege artillery, gunpowder, cannon characteristics, and projectiles employed in North America from the 16th century to the 19th century. The real strength of this work is its focus on American artillery.
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  161. Norris, John. Gunpowder Artillery: 1600–1700. Wiltshire, UK: Crowood, 2005.
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  163. This is a useful, illustrated study on gunpowder artillery employed on the battlefield, covering the technological changes of the 17th century that improved mobility and lethality, especially those introduced by Gustavus Adolphus, the King of Sweden, in the 1630s.
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  165. Smoothbore Cannons and Rockets: 1765–1850
  166. As the Industrial Revolution unfolded, cannon casting techniques improved tremendously, allowing cannon manufacturers to cast relatively light mobile smoothbore cannons for the battlefield and lighter siege artillery, fortress artillery, and coast artillery. With the development of light, mobile smoothbore field guns, with those introduced by Frenchman Jean Baptiste de Gribiveauval in the 1770s being the prime example, Europeans armies adopted the tactic of massing field artillery fires on the battlefield from field guns organized into large batteries to destroy the enemy army. Smoothbore gunpowder artillery maintained it dominance on the battlefield through the mid-19th century and was supplemented by rockets. For a solid discussion on Russian and even Soviet artillery, see Bellamy 1986. Dastrup 1992 provides an in-depth branch history of the American army’s field artillery tactics, organization, and technology. Dillon 1975 examines the performance of American field artillery in the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, and Hime 1908 concentrates on English artillery. Hughes 1969 and Kiley 2004 discuss artillery in battle, and Peterson 1965 outlines American gun crew drill and weapons. For those interested in the emergence of rockets in European warfare, see Winter 1990.
  167. Bellamy, Christopher D. Red God of War: Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces. London: Brassey’s Defence, 1986.
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  169. This is the best book on Russian and Soviet cannon and rocket artillery available in English and is a must for any doing research on the topic. Bellamy suggests that the Russians were not on the backwaters of artillery developments but played a leading role, especially with the development of indirect fire that eventually replaced direct fire.
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  171. Dastrup, Boyd L. King of Battle: A Branch History of the U.S. Army’s Field Artillery. Fort Monroe, VA: Office of the Command Historian, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 1992.
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  173. This work is essential reading on the US Army’s field artillery from its beginnings through the 1980s. It discusses field artillery operations, tactics, organization, and technology and has an extensive bibliography.
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  175. Dillon, Lester R. American Artillery in the Mexican War: 1846–1848. Austin, TX: Presidial, 1975.
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  177. Although it is short, this is the standard work on American field artillery in the Mexican War of 1846–1848, illustrates the impact of well-trained gun crews on field artillery performance and effectiveness, and has a good bibliography.
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  179. Hime, Henry W. L. History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, 1815–1853. New York: Longmans, Green, 1908.
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  181. This is a groundbreaking history of the British Royal Regiment of Artillery. The author examines artillery materiel, tactics, combat operations, and the regiment’s organization during the latter years of smoothbore artillery.
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  183. Hughes, B. P. British Smoothbore Artillery: The Muzzle Loading Artillery of the 18th and 19th Centuries. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1969.
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  185. This book covers artillery technology and specialized artillery, such as mountain artillery, is a standard work on smoothbore muzzle-loading artillery, and provides an authoritative and complete record of all British smoothbore artillery complete with one hundred illustrations composed of scale drawings, prints, and photographs. Also see the author’s Open Fire (West Sussex, UK: Bird, 1983).
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  187. Kiley, Kevin F. Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars, 1792–1815. London: Greenhill, 2004.
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  189. Complete with maps and illustrations, the book covers a crucial time in the development of artillery when it gained unprecedented mobility as the result of Gribeauval reforms of the late 18th century. It covers French artillery as well as the artilleries of other European armies and explains the impact of the new technology on tactics and operations.
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  191. Peterson, Harold L. Round Shot and Rammers. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1965.
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  193. Complete with black and white drawings, this work is essential reading for early American artillery through the golden age of bronze smoothbore artillery of the mid-19th century. It is particularly good for gun crew drill, battery organization, and ammunition.
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  195. Winter, Frank H. The First Golden Age of Rocketry. Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1990.
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  197. This detailed study discusses the advent of rocket artillery late in the 18th century in Europe with the introduction of Congreve’s rocket and examines the challenges that armies faced employing rockets on the battlefield. Rockets fell out of favor with the development of long-range rifled artillery during the mid-19th century.
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  199. Smoothbore Artillery to Rifled Artillery: 1850–1880
  200. In the mid-1800s smoothbore artillery experienced its last significant combat action and was replaced by rifled artillery that had greater ranges and better accuracy. For the most part, the American Civil War and the Crimean War dominated those years when the slow but sure transition from smoothbore artillery to rifled artillery began. For British artillery in the Crimea, see Jocelyn 1911. Watson 1993 also covers the employment of artillery during the Crimean War. Cole 2002, Daniels 1984, and Downey 1958 examine the American Civil War. Ripley 1970 provides an overview of artillery and ammunition used during the American Civil War. Wise 1959 and Van Loan 1960 scrutinize the employment of artillery in the Army of Northern Virginia and Army of the Potomac, respectively, and their field artillery commanders.
  201. Cole, Philip M. Civil War Artillery at Gettysburg: Organization, Equipment, and Operations. Orrtanna, PA: Colecraft, 2002.
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  203. This book supplies a highly readable account of artillery operations at Gettysburg in 1863 where massed fires destroyed Pickett’s charge. It discusses organization, technology, ammunition, operations, gun crew drill, and chiefs of artillery for the Army of Northern Virginia and Army of the Potomac.
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  205. Daniels, Larry J. Cannoneers in Gray: The Field Artillery of the Army of Tennessee. University: University of Alabama Press, 1984.
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  207. The study covers much-neglected field artillery operations with the Army of the Tennessee in the western theater of the American Civil War and the impact of rifled field artillery on the battlefield.
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  209. Downey, Fairfax. The Guns at Gettysburg. New York: McKay, 1958.
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  211. Certainly not scholarly, the book nevertheless gives the reader a colorful account of field artillery operations at the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. Also see the author’s. Sound of the Guns: The Story of American Artillery (New York: McKay, 1955) for a broad coverage of American artillery.
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  213. Jocelyn, J. R. The History of the Royal Artillery (Crimean Period). London: Murray, 1911.
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  215. This study is dated, but as a follow-up history to Hime’s 1908 (cited under Smoothbore Cannons and Rockets: 1765–1850), it is still a solid, detailed account of British artillery in the mid-19th century that is worth consulting. This study is essential reading for British artillery action during the war.
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  217. Ripley, Warren. Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970.
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  219. Oriented around technology, the work provides a well-illustrated discussion of artillery and its ammunition during the American Civil War of the 1860s and serves as a foundation for studying American artillery of the era. It is a sound reference work.
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  221. Van Loan, Naisawald. Grape and Canister: The Story of the Field Artillery of the Army of the Potomac, 1861–1865. New York: Oxford University Press, 1960.
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  223. This is an excellent account of Colonel Henry J. Hunt’s contributions to field artillery organization and operations during the American Civil War and his critical management of the Army of the Potomac’s artillery at Malvern Hill in 1862 and Gettysburg in 1863. Hunt was one of the leading field artillery tacticians during the war. The study is must reading for student and scholar alike.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Watson, Bruce A. Sieges: A Comparative Study. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993.
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  227. Although the study analyzes five sieges, the chapter on Sebastopol in the Crimea is thorough and instructive. In that chapter the study outlines siege war principles as they existed in the mid-1800s and discusses briefly the Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman, and the employment of artillery at Sebastopol by the combatant armies.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Wise, Jennings C. The Long Army of Lee. 2 vols. Lynchburg, VA: Bull, 1959.
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  231. This is the best account of field artillery operations and organization in the Army of Northern Virginia. It is the standard for field artillery in the Army of Northern Virginia. Volume 1 covers field artillery organization and tactics and the field artillery’s performance in combat through Chancellorsville of 1863, and Volume 2 scrutinizes the combat action following Chancellorsville through Appomattox in 1865.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Indirect Fire: 1880–1919
  234. During the latter years of the 19th century, field artillerymen adopted indirect fire as the primary means of technical fire direction. Replacing direct fire that had been used since the introduction of gunpowder artillery in the 14th century and that forced gun crews to fight in the open where they could readily see their targets, indirect fire revolutionized technical fire direction by allowing armies to hide their cannons from enemy small arms and field artillery fire and simultaneously engaging targets beyond human eyesight. Bellamy 1982 discusses the role of the Russians in the development of indirect fire, and Bidwell and Graham 1982 is a key work in the British introduction of indirect fire and its implication for the battlefield. For the emergence of the modern battlefield, see Bailey 1996. Bailey analyzes the role of observed indirect fire, unobserved indirect fire, and predicted indirect fire and their impact on warfare. Brooke 1924–1925 examines the challenges of implementing indirect fire in the British army during World War I, and Broad 1922 also discusses the evolution of British field artillery tactics during World War I. For Colonel Georg Brüchmüller’s key role in indirect fire during World War I, see Zabecki 1994. Gudmundsson 1993 focuses on German efforts at adopting indirect fire. Grice 2009 provides the reader with the techniques of indirect fire from its inception during the latter years of the 19th century through the 21st century.
  235. Bailey, J. B. A. The First World War and the Birth of the Modern Style of Warfare. Strategic and Combat Studies Institute, Occasional Paper No. 22. Camberley, UK: British Army, 1996.
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  237. This is an outstanding, short study on the emergence of the modern battlefield and the role that field artillery firepower had and is must reading for its insights into observed indirect fire, unobserved indirect fire, and predicted indirect fire and how they changed the battlefield.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Bellamy, Christopher D. “The Russian Artillery and the Origins of Indirect Fire, Part 1.” Army Quarterly and Defence Journal 2 (1982): 211–222.
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  241. Continued in “The Russian Artillery and the Origins of Indirect Fire, Part 2.” Army Quarterly and Defence Journal 3 (1982): 330–337. Because of its in-depth discussion of indirect fire for field artillery that revolutionized technical fire direction, these articles make an invaluable contribution to the literature on the topic and demonstrate at least during the last years of the 19th century that the Russians were innovators and on the leading edge of field artillery developments by pioneering observed indirect fire.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Bidwell, Shelford, and Dominick Graham. Firepower: British Army Weapons and Theories of War, 1904–1945. Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1982.
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  245. This is the standard work on British field artillery. It critically examines the crucial transition from direct fire to indirect fire and how the latter changed the battlefield. The authors also discuss the development of machine guns, trench mortars, hand grenades, and the indispensable radio on battlefield tactics and operations.
  246. Find this resource:
  247. Broad, C. N. F. “Development of Artillery Tactics, 1914–1918.” Journal of Royal Artillery 12 (May 1922): 62–81.
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  249. This two-part article (completed in Journal of Royal Artillery 12 [June 1922]: 127–148) is one of the first to examine the evolution of artillery tactics during World War I. Pre-war tactics meant fire and maneuver of the infantry with field artillery being subsidiary. By the end of the war, tactics meant employing the firepower of artillery, trench mortars, machine guns, and airpower with infantry playing a relatively minor role and losing its dominant role on the battlefield that it had held for years.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Brooke, Alan F. “The Evolution of Artillery in the Great War.” Journal of Royal Artillery 51 (1924–1925): 250–267, 359–371
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  253. Continued in next two issues: 52 (1925–1926): 37–51, 369–387; and 53 (1926–1927): 76–93, 233–249, 320–329, 469–482. This is an eight-part article on artillery operations and tactics during World War I. Written by a British artillery officer who pioneered artillery tactics at division and corps levels during World War I and who later became a field marshal in the British army and chairman of the British chiefs of staff during World War Two, it is essential reading for its insights into the evolution of indirect fire, field artillery tactics, and operations.
  254. Find this resource:
  255. Grice, Michael D. On Gunnery: The Art and Science of Field Artillery from the American Civil War to the Dawn of the 21st Century. Charleston, NC: Booksurge, 2009.
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  257. In a short, illustrated format, study discusses the transition from direct fire to indirect fire and even explains the intricacies of indirect fire in plain terms so that the layperson can understand. This is an invaluable work on the topic of indirect fire and must reading on the topic.
  258. Find this resource:
  259. Gudmundsson, Bruce I. On Artillery. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993.
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  261. This is the standard work on German artillery at the turn of the 20th century. The Germans grabbed the lead in introducing indirect fire even though it was initially developed by the Russians. The study covers tactics, organization, equipment, and the emergence of indirect fire.
  262. Find this resource:
  263. Zabecki, David T. Steel Wind. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.
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  265. This book is the standard work on Colonel Georg “Breakthrough” Brüchmüller of the German army during World War I. The book examines in detail the transition from observed indirect fire to unobserved indirect fire to predicted indirect fire, the latter’s role in the German offensives of 1918, and the significant contribution of Brüchmüller to field artillery tactics and doctrine.
  266. Find this resource:
  267. Rise of Modern Artillery: 1880–1919
  268. During the first decade of the 20th century, the introduction of motor traction permitted armies to abandon their reliance upon horse and draft animals to pull their artillery in favor of motor-drawn and self-propelled artillery and to increase the sizes of their artillery, leading to the large artillery pieces of World War I, while the adoption of aircraft as a combat system paved the way for antiaircraft artillery to complement garrison, siege, field, and coast artillery. For a broad perspective on artillery of the time, see Hogg 1998 and Crabtree 1994. Whereas Hogg 1978 narrows the discussion to antiaircraft artillery, Hogg and Thurston 1972 focuses attention on British artillery developments during World War I. Kirkpatrick 1984 is a solid study of the introduction of American antiaircraft artillery, and Ogorkiewicz 1951 does the same thing for self-propelled artillery but with a broader approach. Ventham and Fletcher 1990 provides insights on mechanizing British artillery. Batchelor and Hogg 1972 furnishes minute details about the various kinds of artillery, including railroad guns, that were employed in World War I.
  269. Batchelor, John, and Ian V. Hogg. Artillery. New York: Scribner’s, 1972.
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  271. Although this is a solid illustrated history on artillery in the 20th century, its chapters on World War I era artillery are particular useful. The authors discuss rail guns, coastal guns, antiaircraft guns, antitank guns, self-propelled guns, recoilless guns, and even fuses. However, the book lacks footnotes and a sound bibliography. These deficiencies restrict the book’s usefulness as reference work. Even so, the book is essential.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Crabtree, James D. On Air Defense. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.
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  275. This study covers air defense artillery from its humble beginnings early in the 19th century through the 1970s and provides a solid discussion on air defense artillery technology. Although the book examines air defense efforts during the French Revolution when artillery gunners tried to hit balloons with their cannons, it focuses on the development of air defense tactics and technology from the Franco-Prussian War to the present.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Hogg, Ian V. Anti-Aircraft Artillery: A History of Air Defense. London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1978.
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  279. This concise work studies the development and operational employment of antiaircraft artillery at the end of the 19th century to late 20th century and is informative on the early years of the 20th century when antiaircraft artillery emerged as a branch of artillery.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Hogg, Ian V. Allied Artillery of World War One. Wilshire, UK: Crowood, 1998.
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  283. This study is a balanced account of field artillery, antiaircraft artillery, coast artillery, heavy artillery, railway artillery, and their munitions during World War I. Also see the author’s The Guns: 1914–1918 (New York: Ballantine, 1971) for additional reading.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Hogg, Ian V., and L. F. Thurston. British Artillery Weapons and Ammunition, 1914–1918. London: Allen, 1972.
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  287. The book catalogs the artillery weapons in British service at the beginning of the war and developments during the war. It also examines coast artillery weapons and heavy artillery that were pulled out of mothballs for emergency service in the trenches.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Kirkpatrick, Charles E. Archie in the A. E. F.: The Creation of the Antiaircraft Service of the United States Army, 1917–1918. Fort Bliss, TX: US Army Air Defense Artillery School, 1984.
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  291. This is the definitive account of the creation of the US Army’s antiaircraft service during World War I. The book covers the problems and successes of the artillery branch.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Ogorkiewicz, R. M. “The Evolution of Self-propelled Guns.” Military Review (October 1951): 102–109.
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  295. This article is essential reading for the development of self-propelled artillery during the first four decades of the 20th century. The author begins his study with the development of self-propelled artillery during World War I and carries the narrative through World War II with an emphasis on tactics, equipment, and operations.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Ventham, Philip, and David Fletcher. Moving the Guns: The Mechanization of the Royal Artillery, 1854–1939. London: HMSO, 1990.
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  299. The work provides an excellent history of the development of self-propelled artillery in the British army from its beginnings at the start of 20th century through World War II. Illustrations include photographs and scale drawings of over 150 different self-propelled artillery pieces employed by the British army.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Artillery Operations: 1880–1919
  302. Although modernization efforts, such as adopting high explosives as bursting charges, on-carriage recoil systems, steel as the preferred gun metal, and indirect fire, were adopted during the last years of the 19th century, World War I presented the first real opportunity for armies to test their new artillery and forced significant adaptations with the development of trench warfare on the western front. Bidwell 1970 and Strong and Marble 2011 are good overviews of artillery during the war even though Bidwell stresses British experience. Jäger 2001 furnishes a solid account of German artillery from the latter years of the 19th century through World War I. Farndale 1986 concentrates upon British operations as does Marble 2013 whose study is the most recent and the best on the British artillery in World War I. Grotelueschen 2001 has a fine study on American field artillery operations during the war. Lupfer 1981 covers infantry tactics but also field artillery tactics by explaining the move from observed indirect fire to predicted fire that the British inaugurated at Cambrai late in 1917 and that the Germans employed so effectively in 1918, and Gudmundsson 1995 covers much of the same ground but in greater detail and with greater expertise.
  303. Bidwell, Shelford. Gunners at War: A Tactical Study of the Royal Artillery in the Twentieth Century. London: Arms and Armour, 1970.
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  305. This is a solid work on British artillery and should be the beginning place for all research and reading on the topic. It is solid on World War I.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Farndale, Martin. History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Western Front 1914–1918. Woolich, UK: Royal Artillery Institution, 1986.
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  309. This book traces in detail the movements of the Royal Garrison Artillery during World War I. Its annexes and appendices cover sixty pages and contain a wealth of information to complement the book’s coverage of field, heavy, and antiaircraft artillery organization, sound ranging, training in France, and artillery intelligence, among other topics.
  310. Find this resource:
  311. Gudmundsson, Bruce. Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German Army, 1914–1918. New York: Praeger, 1995.
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  313. Without a doubt, this study has to be the best written on the development of German storm troop tactics during World War I. It also covers in painstaking detail the shift from observed indirect fire to predicted fire that proved to be so effective during the German offensives of 1918 and that laid the basis for modern technical fire direction.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Grotelueschen, Mark. American Artillery Employment in World War One. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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  317. This is the definitive account of American artillery employment during World War I and is a must read for all students and scholars of American artillery. The work explains in detail American artillery operations, organization, tactics, and equipment and the challenges of growing from a relatively small combat arm to the expansive arm that played a key role in World War I and that had to adopt rapidly unobserved indirect fire to supplement observed indirect fire.
  318. Find this resource:
  319. Jäger, Herbert. German Artillery of World War One. Rambury, UK: Crowood, 2001.
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  321. This work is a detailed study of German field artillery—light field guns and light and heavy howitzers as well as mountain, coastal, railway, antitank, antiaircraft artillery—before and during World War I. It is illustrated with over two hundred photographs and line drawings and is required reading for German artillery in World War I. Unfortunately, the book does not have a bibliography.
  322. Find this resource:
  323. Lupfer, Timothy T. The Dynamics of Doctrine: The Changes in German Tactical Doctrine during the First World War. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, US Army Command and General Staff College, 1981.
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  325. This fine study details the development of new tactics to break the stalemate of the trenches of World War I on the western front. It examines the contributions of a French junior officer, Andre Laffargue, the British, and German Colonel Georg Brüchmüller to the development of predicted field artillery fires that paved the way for breaking the deadlock and transformed fire support.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Marble, Sanders. British Artillery on the Western Front in the First World War. Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2013.
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  329. This solid study takes the British artillery from the Boer Wars of 1890s to the trenches of World War I and tells the story of artillery that was trained and equipped to fight colonial warfare and quickly found itself ill-prepared for the trenches on the western front in World War I. This required a significant transformation into a modern arm. The work is a must read for scholars on the topic.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. Strong, Paul, and Sanders Marble. Artillery in the Great War. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2011.
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  333. This study is the best discussion on artillery in the war, ranging from quick-fire artillery to railroad artillery, with an emphasis on the Allies but not to the exclusion of the Central Powers. The study examines the transition from the prewar to wartime artillery tactics, doctrine, organization, and equipment and the pressure to introduce larger and heavier artillery to overcome the sophisticated trenches. The study’s extensive bibliography furnishes guidance for further reading and research.
  334. Find this resource:
  335. Between the Wars: 1919–1939
  336. Outside of the American development of the fire direction center and organic field artillery aerial observation, artillery innovations in 1920s and 1930s focused mainly on improving upon World War I artillery by introducing self-propelled artillery and motor-drawn artillery with greater ranges and lethality. Sunderland 1958 is a key work on the development of the American fire direction center that revolutionized fire support, and Epstein 1977 provides coverage of the development of organic field artillery aerial observation in the American army. A lengthy work, Raines 2000 also discusses organic field artillery aerial observation before and during World War II. Ford 1982 provides critical insights into the development of organic field artillery aerial observation, and Wakefield 1990 is another study on the topic. Hamilton 2009 examines the founding of antiaircraft artillery training in the US Army, and McKenney 1978 analyzes the development of the American 105-mm towed howitzer, which proved to be the backbone of American artillery during World War II. Hughes 1992 covers British artillery developments between the two world wars.
  337. Epstein, Laurence B. “Army Organic Light Aviation: The Founding Fathers.” U.S. Army Aviation Digest (June 1977): 2–17.
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  339. This article deals with the pioneers of organic field artillery aerial observation. Without organic aerial observation, American field artillery would not have had the capability of locating targets far behind enemy lines during World War II and destroying them with massed fires.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Ford, William W. “Grasshoppers.” U.S. Army Aviation Digest (June 1982): 2–10.
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  343. Although the article is brief, it makes a critical contribution to the literature on the topic by explaining why the American field artillery was so intent on obtaining organic field artillery aerial observation.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Hamilton, John A. Blazing Skies: Air Defense Artillery on Fort Bliss, 1940–2009. Fort Bliss, TX: Air Defense Artillery Center, 2009.
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  347. The study examines the interaction between Fort Bliss, Texas, the home of the US Army’s air defense artillery in the 1940s and air defense artillery over a period of fifty years. It also covers the evolution of antiaircraft artillery technology, organization, training, and employment during the war and has a useful bibliography.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Hughes, B. P., ed. History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Between the Wars, 1919–1939. London: Brassey’s, 1992.
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  351. This volume concerns itself mainly with the soldiers of the regiment, details of operations in the Near and Middle East, and the transition from horse-drawn artillery to motor-drawn artillery and self-propelled artillery in the 1920s and 1930s.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. McKenney, Janice. “More Bang for the Buck in the Interwar Army: The 105mm Howitzer.” Military Affairs 42 (April 1978): 80–86.
  354. DOI: 10.2307/1987402Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. In a well-written narrative, the article examines the development of the US Army’s 105-mm howitzer during the 1920s and 1930s that served so well in World War II and the overall modernization of the Army’s field artillery.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Raines, Edward F. Eyes of Artillery: The Origins of Modern U.S. Army Aviation in World War II. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 2000.
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  359. This solid study examines the rise of army aviation during the 1920s and 1930s and the drive for organic air observation for the field artillery and provides an in-depth discussion of the aerial observation during World War II. It is the standard work on the topic.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Sunderland, Riley. “Massed Fire and the FDC.” Army (May 1958): 56–59.
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  363. By far, this short article is the best-written piece on the development of the fire direction center that revolutionized massed field artillery fires during World War II. The article explains the rationale for the fire direction center and the reluctance by many field artillery officers to adopt it.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Wakefield, Ken. The Fighting Grasshoppers: U.S. Liaison Aircraft Operations in Europe, 1942–1945. Leicester, UK: Midland Counties, 1990.
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  367. A coffee table history, this well-illustrated book tells the fascinating story of the emergence of organic field artillery aerial observation in the US Army and its role in spotting targets for massed field artillery fires.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. World War II: 1939–1945
  370. World War II highlighted the developments in artillery during the previous twenty years, especially aerial observation, the fire direction center, improved lethality, and mobility. Bidwell 1976 and Doherty 2008 are solid on British artillery tactics and operations whereas Hogg 1975 discusses German artillery. Carruthers 2013 details German artillery operations. Gaujac 2009 examines American artillery operations and organization. Müller 1998 provides insights into German antiaircraft artillery with an emphasis on weapon systems, and Semmens 1990 concentrates on American antiaircraft artillery. Rather than focusing on the guns, Walker 2013 addresses the importance of the forward observer to locate targets deep behind enemy lines for destruction by indirect fires.
  371. Bidwell, Shelford. Artillery Tactics, 1939–1945. London: Almark, 1976.
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  373. Although the book is British centric, it provides a solid foundation for artillery tactics and operations during World War II and is the standard work.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Carruthers, Bob, ed. German Artillery in Combat. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2013.
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  377. Part of a series entitled Hitler’s War Machine, this book provides the reader with a vast array of German artillery pieces and the men who operated them during World War II. It is best used as a reference book.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Doherty, Richard. Ubique: The Royal Artillery in the Second World War. Stroud, UK: History Press, 2008.
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  381. In well-written narrative, the study covers in rich detail British artillery, including field artillery, antiaircraft artillery, and antitank artillery, during World War II. The book examines the state of British artillery at the beginning of the war and the development of aerial observation and self-propelled artillery during the war.
  382. Find this resource:
  383. Gaujac, Paul. American Field Artillery: 1941–45. Translated by Roger Branfill-Cook. Paris: Histoire and Collections, 2009.
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  385. Although this highly illustrated book covers the interwar years, it also examines World War II. It discusses infantry division artillery, armored division artillery, specialized division artillery, light and medium artillery of the general reserve, heavy artillery of the general reserve, and auxiliary artillery. This is a useful reference book.
  386. Find this resource:
  387. Hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two. London: Arms and Armour, 1975.
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  389. This illustrated reference book with 250 photographs and 150 drawings details German artillery used during the war. Besides explaining organization of artillery units, it covers every German piece used by the German army, air force, and navy, gives a brief historical summary of each, and provides technical specifications.
  390. Find this resource:
  391. Müller, Werner. German FLAK in WWII, 1939–1945. Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 1998.
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  393. This slim, illustrated volume documents the employment of German Flak guns during the war in their air and ground roles. It includes discussions on the 37-mm, 105-mm, 128-mm, and 88-mm artillery pieces.
  394. Find this resource:
  395. Semmens, E. Paul. The Hammer of Hell: The Coming of Age of Antiaircraft Artillery in World War Two. Fort Bliss, TX: US Army Air Defense Artillery School, 1990.
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397. Although it is short, this study is an invaluable work on American antiaircraft artillery’s critical role in World War II, defending ground forces against enemy aircraft.
  398. Find this resource:
  399. Walker, Rodney E. Big Guns; Brave Men: Mobile Artillery Observers and the Battle for Okinawa. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2013.
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  401. The book discusses the origins of the field artillery forward observer in the US Army prior to World War II. In great detail it examines the role of the observer during the Battle for Okinawa and its contribution to the American victory.
  402. Find this resource:
  403. Cannons, Rockets, and Missiles: 1945-Present
  404. For the artillery, World War II caused critical changes. Airpower made coastal defenses obsolete because aircraft could fly over them and rendered siege artillery obsolete at the same time because it could perform the same function, causing countries to abandon these artilleries after the war. Pack artillery also disappeared as did antitank artillery in favor of man-portable antitank weapons. With the rise of airpower during the war and after the war that included aircraft, rockets, and missiles, antiaircraft artillery assumed a greater importance, while towed and self-propelled artillery became the major branches of field artillery. Thus, World War II reoriented the artillery. Siege and coast artillery that had been important for centuries and specialized forms of artillery, such as pack and antitank artillery, disappeared, leaving only antiaircraft artillery and field artillery in existence as the major branches of artillery. For a general overview of towed artillery, self-propelled artillery, rockets, missile, and antiaircraft artillery developments, see Haskew 2011. Hogg 1990 is particularly strong on field artillery in the 1990s, and Emerson 2002 discusses the revolutionizing impact of the US Army’s Crusader 155-mm self-propelled howitzer on the 21st century battlefield. McKenney 2007 examines the development of field artillery rockets and missiles as part of a broad coverage of US Army field artillery, and Toftoy 1956 examines the early years of American field artillery rockets and missiles in the 1950s. Bellamy 1983 provides solid insights into Soviet rockets forces that were a key to Soviet firepower. In comparison, Kelley 1954 focuses on immediate post-World War II American air defenses, and Werrell 2005 covers antiaircraft artillery from its beginning into the 1990s.
  405. Bellamy, Christopher D. “Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces: 1940–1980.” Jane’s Defence Weekly 3 (1983): 269–280.
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  407. For students and scholars alike, this is a fine study on Soviet artillery and a starting point for studying the topic. The article explains the Soviet reliance upon firepower and field artillery to pave the way for victory and Soviet efforts to stay ahead of the Americans in the Cold War arms race.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Emerson, Charles J. “Crusader: Hammer for Today, Forge for the Future.” Field Artillery Magazine, March–April 2002: 42–45.
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  411. The article examines the US Army’s development of the next-generation Crusader 155-mm self-propelled howitzer. Using lead-ahead technology, it promised to provide the US Army with unprecedented lethality and mobility in the 21st century.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Haskew, Michael E. Postwar Artillery: 1945–Present. London: Amber, 2011.
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  415. This is an illustrated guide to artillery systems since World War II, covering recoilless guns, towed artillery, self-propelled artillery, rocket launchers, antiaircraft missile systems and guns, intercontinental ballistic missiles, and tactical missile systems. It has a few pages on precision munitions.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Hogg, Ian V. Artillery 2000. London: Villers, 1990.
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  419. This book is absolutely essential for its discussion on major worldwide field artillery systems at the beginning of the 1990s. Besides covering weapons and ammunition in use, the book examines field artillery and fire control systems that were underdevelopment.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Kelley, Robert L. Antiaircraft in Air Defense, 1946–1954. US Army Military History Institute Historical Study no. 4. Colorado Springs, CO: Directorate of Historical Services, Headquarters, Air Defense Command, 1954.
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  423. This fine study, albeit difficult to obtain, covers the transition from cannon antiaircraft defenses to missile air defense systems in the Soviet Union and the United States to combat high-flying jet aircraft, rockets, and missiles that were emerging in the 1950s.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. McKenney, Janice E. The Organizational History of Field Artillery, 1775–2003. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 2007.
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  427. In a lengthy but well-written narrative, the work discusses the evolution of the US Army’s field artillery over the period of two centuries. It is particularly valuable for its discussion on rockets and missiles with conventional and nuclear warheads during the 1950s and 1960s and has a solid bibliography.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Toftoy, Holger N. “Army Missile Development.” Army Information Digest (December 1956): 1–34.
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  431. The article recounts the development of early US Army antiaircraft and field artillery rockets and missiles.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Werrell, Kenneth P. Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air Defense. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press, 2005.
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  435. Although this study is a revision of a 2002 study and covers antiaircraft artillery from its beginnings at the start of the 20th century through the 1990s, its strength lies in its treatment of the Patriot air defense missile, the Terminal High Area Air Defense missile system, and theater missile defense systems designed to engage ballistic missiles. All of these represented crucial developments during the latter decades of the 20th century.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Artillery Operations: 1945–Present
  438. For the most part limited wars dominated combat action since World War II. For a good study on artillery in the Korean War, see Giangreco 2006. Gleckler 1985 focuses on the Vietnam War as does Ott 1975. Ott’s study discusses the challenges of a field artillery officer corps that was trained to fight a conventional war but had to fight one without distinct frontlines. Carafano 1988 also examines field artillery fire support in the Vietnam War, focusing on the fire base. See Scales 1997 for a sound study about field artillery’s limitations in small wars. Yates 2004 covers much of the same ground as Scales but concentrates on American wars. Dastrup 2004 analyzes the impact of the Arab–Israeli War of October 1973 and the Vietnam War on the US Army’s modernization efforts of the 1970s and 1980s that focused on developing the capabilities of fighting the Soviets in Europe. Bellamy 1985 focuses on Soviet artillery.
  439. Bellamy, Christopher D. “Destruction by Fire: Soviet Artillery in the 1980s and Beyond.” Field Artillery Journal (September–October 1985): 45–50.
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  441. This article provides critical insights into Soviet artillery and its future and explains the Soviets’ reliance upon overwhelming field artillery firepower to win battles and their efforts to keep up with the Americans in the arms race.
  442. Find this resource:
  443. Carafano, James J. “Fortresses and Firepower in Vietnam.” Field Artillery Journal (August 1988): 37–42.
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  445. This brief article in a leading professional field artillery journal outlines the challenges that American field artillery encountered in Vietnam of defending fire support bases and coordinating fire support for infantry patrols.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Dastrup, Boyd L. Modernizing the King of Battle: 1973–1991. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 2004.
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  449. This well-documented history examines the US Army’s field artillery modernization after the Vietnam War that carried it into the Gulf War of 1991. The study has a chapter on the Gulf War of 1991 that explains the strengths and weaknesses of American field artillery during the war.
  450. Find this resource:
  451. Giangreco, Dennis M. Artillery in Korea: Massing Fires and Reinventing the Wheel. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2006.
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  453. Although field artillery primarily had served on the conventional battlefield through most of its history, this short study discusses the early days of the Korean War when the field artillery was forced to fight in a complete circle and when field artillerymen were forced to defend their battery positions from vicious enemy attacks. Once the war settled down into familiar circumstances, the field artillery resumed providing fires along a lineal front once again.
  454. Find this resource:
  455. Gleckler, Jim. Redleg. Miami, OK: Northeastern Oklahoma A & M College, 1985.
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  457. This is an interesting account of American field artillerymen and field artillery operations, equipment, tactics, and organization during the Vietnam War.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. Ott, David E. Field Artillery: 1954–1973. Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1975.
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  461. The study discusses the role of field artillery during the Vietnam War, the adjustment that the field artillery had to make to an insurgency, and the role of the fire support base. This is the best work available on American field artillery during the Vietnam War.
  462. Find this resource:
  463. Scales, Robert H. Firepower in Limited War. Rev. ed. Novato, CA: Presido, 1997.
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  465. The book covers the limitations of field artillery firepower in the American involvement in Indochina, the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, and the British fight in the Falkland War. The study provides a solid background on field artillery operations in limited wars and is a must read.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. Yates, Larry. Field Artillery in Operations Other than War. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2004.
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  469. For most students of warfare, field artillery has played a prominent role on the conventional battlefield. This work illustrates the arm’s role in non-traditional conflicts. It is especially useful for the US Army’s operations since World War II.
  470. Find this resource:
  471. The Precision Revolution
  472. As critical as new weapon systems were, precision-guided artillery munitions reduced the need for massed fires, reduced collateral damage, and gave artillerymen the ability to hit a target with one round with the US Army taking the lead. Since the development of precision munitions is relatively recent, articles in professional journals are the best source on the topic. For critical articles on precision-guided artillery munitions see Antoniotti 1986 and Hoffman 1985 on initial developments. Much later, Durant 2005 and Durham and Cunningham 2002 discuss 155-mm precision munitions and precision missile munitions. Tanzi and Harper 2006 focuses on cannon precision-guided munitions. Kays 2006 presents precision artillery munitions as they existed in 2006 and tries to project their future. By far the best account of precision-guided artillery munitions is Kinne, et al. 2006 with its assessment of such munitions in Operation Iraqi Freedom of the first decade of the 21st century. Dastrup 2011 also examines the development of precision-guided artillery munitions.
  473. Antoniotti, J. C. “Precision Guided Munitions.” International Defense Review 9 (1986): 1269–1276.
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  475. This is one of the first articles to examine the potential impact of precision-guided artillery munitions that relied on lasers for guidance to the target. The author sees precision-guided artillery munitions as revolutionary with the capability of ending massed fires that had been the field artillery’s main contribution to the battlefield at least since the Napoleonic Wars of the early 1800s.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Dastrup, Boyd L. Cedat Peritis Fortunis: A History of the Field Artillery School. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2011.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. This is must reading for those interested in the evolution of training field artillery soldiers in the US Army and the Field Artillery School’s role in combat developments since it opened in 1911. The study is also useful for its discussion on precision guided artillery munitions.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Durant, J. Riley. “Excalibur Unitary PGM Down Range in Iraq.” Field Artillery Magazine, July–August 2005: 3.
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  483. This one-page article provides a good introduction on the use of precision guided munitions in the Iraq during the first decade of the 21st century and their effectiveness in avoiding collateral damage.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Durham, George A., and Joseph E. Cunningham. “NetFires: Precision Effects for the Objective Force.” Field Artillery Magazine, March–April 2002: 5–9.
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  487. The article projects the impact of precision munitions upon the future battlefield and examines in detail the US Army’s Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System (a missile system), initially called NetFires, as it existed in 2002. According to the article, artillery precision munitions would limit collateral damage, reduce the logistical tail, and end the requirement for massed fires along the lines of World War II and the Korean War to destroy targets and were the wave of the future.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Hoffman, D. W. “Developments in Precision Guided Munitions.” NATO’s 16 Nations (April–May 1985): 13.
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  491. Although just a single page, the article examines the beginnings of precision guided munitions and projects their utility on the modern battlefield and the rationale for employing them.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Kays, Michael J. The Impact of Artillery Precision Munitions on Army Strategic Objectives. Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army Command and General Staff College, 2006.
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  495. Complete with a useful bibliography of recent articles on precision guided munitions, this short thesis, available through the Department of Defense’s Defense Technical Information Center, examines the tactical effects and future implications of precision guided munitions on the US Army’s field artillery. Like most studies on precision guided artillery munitions, it focuses on the munition’s ability to limit collateral damage and capability of destroying a target with one round.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Kinne, Gary S., John A. Tanzi, and Jeffrey W. Yaeger. “FA PGMs: Revolutionizing Fires for the Ground Force Commander.” Field Artillery Magazine, May–June 2006: 16–21.
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  499. The article examines the revolutionary impact of precision guided munitions on the field artillery, using Operation Iraq Freedom to provide the examples of precision. The article does not dismiss the need for mass fires, but it points out the ability that precision guided munitions give to eliminate a target with one round and to limit collateral damage.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Tanzi, John A., and Robert D. Harper. “Field Artillery Cannon Systems Update.” Field Artillery Magazine, January–February 2006: 14–17.
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  503. This article not only covers field artillery weapon systems but also furnishes insight into the Excalibur precision guided munition employed by the US Army during the first decade of the 21st century and its impact of field artillery tactics and operations.
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