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The Crusades (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The history of the Crusades is a long and complex story. At the Council of Clermont in November 1095, Pope Urban II called the knights of Europe to a holy war to free Jerusalem from the Muslims in return for unprecedented spiritual rewards. The response was far beyond his expectations. Tens of thousands of people, motivated by spiritual zeal and also a blend of honor, obligation, adventure, the search for profit, and, for the few hundred who stayed on, land, set out for the Levant. Their journey heralded a new age in which Christianity and warfare were more closely linked than ever before, a situation that required some theoretical justification but, in a period of such intense religiosity, gave conflict with those labeled as the enemies of Christ a far harsher edge. Crusading brought numerous military issues to the fore: diverse groups of westerners—often rivals at home—had to learn (or not) to work together. They also had to deal with new tactics and to cope with the physical hardships of Asia Minor and the Levant. Once in the Holy Land, the Franks (as they became known) had to govern as a minority population, and this also affected their military structures and strategies coexisting with the various indigenous peoples of the Levant, both Christian and Muslim. Eventually, the leadership of Nur ad-Din and his illustrious successor, Saladin, revived the Muslim holy war (jihad). In 1187 the Franks lost Jerusalem but managed to hold on to their coastal territories; a series of large expeditions attempted to regain the holy city during the 13th century, but the fall of Acre in 1291 meant the end of Frankish rule. In the meantime, crusading had evolved to include campaigns in Iberia, the Baltic, and southern France (against the Cathar heretics), and involved conflicts with political enemies of the papacy and against the Mongols. The loss of the Holy Land did not mean the end of crusading, because campaigns in Spain and northern Europe continued, while the Ottoman threat to Europe was a further stimulus to holy war. Warfare in the eastern Mediterranean also continued, with the Italian trading cities and the Knights Hospitaller prominent. By the time of the Reformation, however, crusading was in steep decline. The focus here is on military matters, but the bibliography includes overviews and introductory material to present the subject in a theoretical and historical context. There is also a need to see the Crusades from all sides, so where possible there is coverage of (particularly) the Muslim perspective.
  3. General Overviews
  4. There have been a number of fine histories of the Crusades over recent years, and each has its own slant or points of interest. Jotischky 2004 is of particular use for the history of the Levant; Madden 2005 and Jaspert 2006 are concise, clear overviews of the subject; and Riley-Smith 1991 is an excellent visual tool for the history of the Crusades. Tyerman 2006 is the most detailed of those works cited here. Riley-Smith 1995 (in the form of an edited essay collection) and Phillips 2009 (often using biographies to move the narrative along) take a broader view of the subject, bringing the story into to modern times. To these should be added the excellent Murray 2006, which is a genuinely invaluable reference resource for all matters connected with the subject. Two widely available but, in terms of approach and coverage, more dated works are Runciman 1951–1954 and Setton 1969–1989.
  5. Jaspert, Nikolas. The Crusades. Translated by Phyllis Jestice. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2006.
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  7. A concise and accessible book that covers crusading, settlement, and the military orders in western Europe and the Middle East from the late 11th to the late 15th centuries.
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  9. Jotischky, Andrew. Crusading and the Crusader States. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2004.
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  11. This confident and authoritative book is largely concerned with the origins and evolution of crusading ideology and practice, as well as the Frankish rule in the Levant. It is also good on Crusader society and the gathering pace of the Muslim response to the Frankish presence. Brief looks at crusading’s other theaters of war and the attempts to recover the Latin East after the fall of Acre in 1291 are also useful.
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  13. Madden, Thomas F. The New, Concise History of the Crusades. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.
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  15. A lucid analysis of the motives that impelled so many Europeans to take up arms against the enemies of the church. The discussion also includes the impact of the Crusades on the worlds of Islam and Byzantium, as well as in western Europe.
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  17. Murray, Alan V., ed. The Crusades: An Encyclopedia. 4 vols. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
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  19. This massive work maintains a high standard across the vast range of entries and includes very useful bibliographies as well. It is tremendously useful as a research tool and as a way of checking information quickly and confidently.
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  21. Phillips, Jonathan P. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades. London: Bodley Head, 2009.
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  23. This is a lively, wide-ranging work covering the Crusades from the medieval period to the modern day. Although the majority of the book looks at the struggle between Christianity and Islam in the Middle East (considering both perspectives), it also examines holy war in Iberia, the Baltic, and southern France, as it follows the evolution and mutation of the crusading idea and experience.
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  25. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C., ed. Atlas of the Crusades. London: Times Books, 1991.
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  27. An excellent volume that presents maps and brief descriptions of all the major crusading expeditions in Europe and the Middle East during the medieval period, as well as covering important issues such as pilgrimage, settlement, castles, and the military orders. A vital visual foundation for the understanding of crusading warfare.
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  29. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C., ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  31. An accessible multiauthored work that covers the historiography and the origins of the Crusades through the expeditions to, and settlement of, the Holy Land, as well as their impact on the Muslim Near East. Taking a “pluralist” perspective, further essays discuss crusading in the late medieval period and the continued use of crusading imagery in the modern period in politics and culture.
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  33. Runciman, Stephen. A History of the Crusades. 3 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1951–1954.
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  35. A beautifully written narrative work responsible for inspiring generations of historians, students, and general readers. The author’s fierce admiration of the Byzantine Empire meant that the Crusaders were coarse, greedy, and barbaric; holy war was characterized as an act of intolerance in the name of God, with the sack of Constantinople in 1204 being the worst of these deeds. It has limited consideration of the religiosity of western Christendom and little serious analysis.
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  37. Setton, Kenneth M. A History of the Crusades. 6 vols. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969–1989.
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  39. An enormous endeavor that was conceived before World War II. It suffered from its slow rate of production, often struggling to keep abreast of historiographical trends. It contains some sound narrative chapters, and the later volumes extend into art, architecture, and more cultural issues. Available online through the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections.
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  41. Tyerman, Christopher. God’s War: A New History of the Crusades. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006.
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  43. A massive work with a fine contextualization of the First Crusade. Tyerman is particularly strong on the practical preparations for the major crusading expeditions to the Holy Land.
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  45. Historiography
  46. The historiography of the Crusades is a flourishing subgenre of its own, with interest in perceptions of crusading throughout the centuries proving a fertile ground for research and a modern-day understanding of the subject. Constable 2001 gives the most concise overview of this, and Housley 2006 offers greater detail and engages in the thorny question of the definition of crusading, while Tyerman 2011 also follows the story through the Reformation and the Enlightenment to the present day and challenges some of Housley’s arguments.
  47. Constable, Giles. “The Historiography of the Crusades.” In The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World. Edited by Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy P. Mottahedeh, 1–22. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001.
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  49. A fine, fluent analysis of the developments in crusading historiography covering three periods: 1095 to the end of the 16th century, the 17th and 18th centuries, and the early 19th century to the present day.
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  51. Housley, Norman. Contesting the Crusades. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
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  53. A masterly overview of crusading historiography, taking the reader through the major historical debates, including the definition of crusading, the origins of the First Crusade, and the evolution and mutation of crusading over later centuries.
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  55. Tyerman, Christopher. The Debate on the Crusades. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2011.
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  57. A vigorous and insightful coverage of perceptions of the Crusades throughout the centuries, with the views of famous writers such as Gibbon and Voltaire coupled with a discussion of academic trends and debates over the last century.
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  59. Primary Sources
  60. With the obvious qualification that one has to be aware of the author’s background and reasons for writing the piece, primary texts provide the lifeblood of research. It would be impossible to list them all here, so attention is drawn to several compendia of material, as well as a brief selection of individual writers. In recent years, Ashgate Publishing has developed its splendid series Crusader Texts in Translation, with more than twenty volumes available to date. For the Muslim side, see Gabrieli 1969 and Internet Medieval Sourcebook. It is difficult to pick out a selection of individual chroniclers, but the following sources have especially rich eyewitness material concerning a range of military events, covering sieges, marches, battles, and raids: Hill 2003, David 2001, Ambroise 2003, Clari 2005, and Joinville and Villehardouin 2008. Hallam 1989 is a large-format collection with brief explanatory passages framing the source extracts, while Allen and Amt 2003 is more obviously a student textbook with its layout of text and questions.
  61. Allen, Sarah J., and Emilie Amt, eds. The Crusades: A Reader. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2003.
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  63. An extensive collection of sources from a wide variety of Christian and Muslim writers. This volume covers many aspects of crusading and settlement across a broad geographical and chronological range and includes tutorial-style questions about each source.
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  65. Ambroise. The History of the Holy War: Ambroise’s Estoire de la guerre sainte. 2 vols. Edited and translated by Marianne Ailes and Malcolm Barber. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2003.
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  67. A vernacular, eyewitness account of the Third Crusade by a Norman poet, Ambroise. Richard the Lionheart is center stage, but this work tells us much about the suffering at the siege of Acre, and about warfare in the period as well.
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  69. Clari, Robert de. The Conquest of Constantinople. Translated by Edgar H. McNeal. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
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  71. A translation from Old French of one of the first vernacular chronicles of the Crusades, written by an obscure knight from Picardy who took part in the capture of Constantinople. His relatively humble perspective is a valuable point of comparison to other, more senior figures, as historians attempt to ascertain why this Crusade made its fatal turn toward the Byzantine Empire. Originally published in 1936.
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  73. Crusader Texts in Translation. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate
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  75. There are more than twenty volumes in this series, including several accounts of the First Crusade (such as Robert of Rheims and Ralph of Caen); the Third Crusade, including the Itinerarium Peregrinorum but also collected documents (letters, etc.); and, most significantly, the histories of several Muslim writers of the period (e.g., Beha ad-Din, Imad ad-Din). Individual books in the series available for purchase online.
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  77. David, Charles W., ed. and trans. The Conquest of Lisbon: De expugnatione Lyxbonensi. Foreword and bibliography by Jonathan P. Phillips. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
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  79. Written by an Anglo-French priest, this has excellent detail on the siege techniques used to capture Lisbon during the Second Crusade in 1147.
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  81. Gabrieli, Francesco, ed. Arab Historians of the Crusades. Translated by E. J. Costello. Islamic World Series. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969.
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  83. Until Ashgate’s translations of individual authors (see Crusader Texts in Translation), this was the principal English-language resource for the Muslim side of the Crusades. A fine series of extracts from numerous contemporary writers (some of whom are still not translated elsewhere) gives a vital alternative perspective to the more familiar western writers; military events figure prominently, too.
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  85. Hallam, Elizabeth, ed. Chronicles of the Crusades: Eye-Witness Accounts of the Wars between Christianity and Islam. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989.
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  87. A richly illustrated volume containing numerous translated extracts from contemporary writers across the eastern Mediterranean and western Europe. Later sections take the story to the early 16th century and the discovery of the New World. Brief commentaries provide a framework for the texts in this substantial collection.
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  89. Hill, Rosalind M. T., ed. Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum: The Deeds of the Franks and the Other Pilgrims to Jerusalem. Translated by Roger Mynors. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  91. The seminal account of life and death during the First Crusade. Originally published in 1962 by Thomas Nelson.
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  93. Internet Medieval Sourcebook: The Crusades.
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  95. A substantial collection of Crusade-related material is available online at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook, although for copyright reasons the translations are older texts and, if possible, should be supplemented by more recent versions. This remains a good starting point, however.
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  97. Joinville, Jean de, and Geffroy de Villehardouin. Joinville and Villehardouin: Chronicles of the Crusades. Translated by Caroline Smith. London: Penguin, 2008.
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  99. A stirring account of the Seventh Crusade (1248–1254), with Joinville frequently in the thick of the action. Chivalric ideals, blended with pilgrimage and admiration of King Louis IX of France, give a powerful insight into crusading ideas in the mid-13th century along with many vivid battle scenes and descriptions of the planning and execution of a crusading expedition.
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  101. Journals
  102. In 2001 the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (an international scholarly organization), in conjunction with Ashgate Publishing, set up Crusades, an academic journal on the subject. Many other academic journals, such as Journal of Medieval History, Medieval Encounters, War in History, and the Journal of Medieval Military History, include articles on the history of the Crusades and the Near East during the medieval period. All of these are excellent publications, producing peer-reviewed papers, with many concerned with wider aspects of military history as well.
  103. Crusades.
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  105. The journal of the Society of the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, the main organization of historians of the Crusades and associated subjects. Contains a blend of peer-reviewed articles that cover all aspects of the Crusades and the areas and people connected to, or associated with, them from the medieval period to the modern day. Includes new editions of texts, archaeological work, as well as a section of book reviews.
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  107. Journal of Medieval History.
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  109. A well-established journal of high standard with, among its many fine articles on all aspects of the medieval period (largely European-based), a steady number of Crusades-related papers.
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  111. Journal of Medieval Military History.
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  113. A journal devoted to the study of war, its conduct, and its impact in the medieval period.
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  115. Medieval Encounters.
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  117. A conceptually broad journal, concerned with interactions between Jewish, Christian, and Muslim cultures between the 4th and 16th centuries. Culture is taken to include history, literature, medicine, science, religion, and language.
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  119. War in History.
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  121. A journal with articles on all aspects of war, such as economic, social, and political aspects, as well as more closely defined military issues. Includes land, sea, and air, and covers all periods.
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  123. Crusading Warfare
  124. Two brief but very effective outlines of crusading warfare are France 2010 and Edbury 1999. The latter forms one chapter of a very useful introductory volume edited by Maurice Keen on many aspects of medieval warfare, such as arms and armor, mercenaries, fortifications, and naval warfare. Smail 1956 and Marshall 1992 provide the standard accounts of crusading warfare in the Levant, and both offer expert analysis of the subject, although some of Smail’s interpretation (naturally, given the age of the work) has been subject to close scrutiny. Harari 1997, for example, offers a revisionist view of the Turcopoles. Harari 2007 looks at so-called special operations, a previously neglected area, but one that helps round out our understanding of conflict in the Levant. France 2000 is another significant contribution to the field, showing how the Franks adapted their usual forms of warfare to the Levant, and White 1975 (cited under Technical and Practical Aspects of Warfare) gave the subject of the relative technological advancement of East and West a notable spur upon its publication. Probably the most accessible and original (in format, certainly) is Housley 2008, which takes the reader through the full crusading experience. Books or articles dedicated to individual crusading expeditions are listed separately in this section.
  125. Edbury, Peter. “Warfare in the Latin East.” In Medieval Warfare: A History. Edited by Maurice Keen, 89–112. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  127. A blend of concise narrative with discussion of thematic developments in warfare across the Levant.
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  129. France, John. “Crusading Warfare and Its Adaptation to Eastern Conditions in the Twelfth Century.” Mediterranean Historical Review 15.2 (2000): 49–66.
  130. DOI: 10.1080/09518960008569778Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. An important article that argues the Franks made significant adaptations to their familiar styles of war in the Levant.
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  133. France, John. “Warfare in the Mediterranean Region in the Age of the Crusades, 1095–1291: A Clash of Contrasts.” In The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories. Edited by Conor Kostick, 9–26. London: Routledge, 2010.
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  135. A succinct and effective contextualization of crusading military practice. Set against the backdrop of western European conflict, and with a judicious use of primary sources, France shows how the crusaders and then the settlers reacted to the very different military environment of the Near East, although as he neatly points out, each crusading expedition had to learn to work together and cope with unfamiliar tactics. He also demonstrates how the Muslims evolved ways to deal with the invaders.
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  137. Harari, Yuval. “The Military Role of the Frankish Turcopoles: A Reassessment.” Mediterranean Historical Review 12.1 (1997): 75–116.
  138. DOI: 10.1080/09518969708569720Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. An important discussion of the role of Turcopoles, although it is a controversial move to suggest that they were Franks rather than Eastern Christians or Bedouin.
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  141. Harari, Yuval. Special Operations in the Age of Chivalry, 1100–1550. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2007.
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  143. Away from military historians’ primary concerns, this work is concerned with “special operations,” namely assassinations, rescues, betrayals, etc., and it includes several episodes from the crusading period.
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  145. Housley, Norman. Fighting for the Cross: Crusading to the Holy Land. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
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  147. An original and highly readable book that follows crusaders through the process of taking the cross, preparing for a Crusade, the journey to the East, fighting the enemy, understanding (or not) the Muslims, and then commemorating their journey.
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  149. Marshall, Christopher. Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  151. The continuation of Smail 1956 and in thematic form covers battles, raids, sieges, and castles. Marshall shows that the greater scale of the Muslim threat and splits between the Franks required the latter to evolve new strategies. He is notably strong on the issue of manpower and the importance of maintaining key strategic sites.
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  153. Smail, R. C. Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1956.
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  155. Probably the seminal work on crusader warfare: a finely written blend of historiography, sharp political and social contextualization, plus a review of the resources of Christians and Muslims. Smail (now seriously challenged by Ellenblum 2007; see Frankish Castles and Castle Building) argued that the Franks existed separately from the indigenous population in their castles and towns, and he claimed that crusader fortresses had limited strategic functions. His study of contrasting military techniques and tactics and the Franks’ use of cavalry and foot soldiers on the march remain vital.
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  157. Technical and Practical Aspects of Warfare
  158. Developing more detailed themes than the works listed in Crusading Warfare, these books cover important issues such as technology on land (White 1975) and sea (Pryor 1988). The debate over the relative technological superiority (or not) of the Western warriors over the forces found in the eastern Mediterranean has evolved over the years, with White being challenged, in largely convincing terms, by several scholars, including Nicolle (Nicolle 1992, Nicolle 2007a, Nicolle 2007b). Maritime technology is the likely exception to this revision, as Pryor 1988 demonstrates. Mitchell 2004 is included here because battlefield injuries and treatment are important, if often neglected, aspects of medieval warfare. Likewise, Friedman 2002, a work on captives, fills an important gap in the historiography. Nicolle is a particularly prolific and important writer who is an authority on arms and armor in both the Christian and Muslim worlds. Pryor 2006 is an edited collection that offers up-to-date essays on many of these subjects. Books or articles dedicated to individual crusading expeditions are listed in separate sections.
  159. Friedman, Yvonne. Encounter between Enemies: Captivity and Ransom in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  161. Analysis of customs, legal codes, and motives for the capture and recovery (or not) of captives during the Christian-Muslim conflict in the Levant. Specific treatment of women, the military orders, and the image of captives in literature add to an interesting and important book.
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  163. Mitchell, Piers. Medicine in the Crusades: Warfare, Wounds and the Medieval Surgeon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  165. Mitchell has pioneered the study of crusader medicine, and this interesting book includes a section on battlefield injuries, field hospitals, and the treatment of wounds.
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  167. Nicolle, David. “Arms and Armour Illustrated in the Art of the Latin East.” In The Horns of Ḥaṭṭīn: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July 1987. Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar, 327–340. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1992.
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  169. A short article that argues against the idea that the crusaders were, in military-technological terms, superior to their foes in the eastern Mediterranean. He shows how several aspects of arms and armor were inspired by Byzantine and Islamic styles.
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  171. Nicolle, David. Crusader Warfare. Vol. 1, Byzantium, Western Europe and the Battle for the Holy Land. London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007a.
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  173. A substantial study of many aspects of warfare across the period. The author is a leading authority on arms and armor and brings his expertise to bear in a proper context of religious, cultural, political, and economic influences.
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  175. Nicolle, David. Crusader Warfare. Vol. 2, Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the Crusades. London: Hambledon, Continuum, 2007b.
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  177. Completes the work of Volume 1 (Nicolle 2007a), bringing the author’s considerable knowledge of Islamic military history to the fore, and covering contemporary Muslim warfare with the Mongols as well as the crusaders. Once again, a broadly contextualized study.
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  179. Pryor, John H. Geography, Technology and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  180. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511562501Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181. This is a groundbreaking study of the limitations on, and evolution of, medieval shipping in the Mediterranean, with obvious implications for the conduct of war as well as pilgrimage, trade, and diplomacy.
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  183. Pryor, John H., ed. Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Sydney, 30 September–4 October 2002. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  185. This is an important essay collection that considers the practical side of crusader warfare, especially transportation, supply, money and exchange, manpower, and horses. It also includes consideration of Muslim and Byzantine forces.
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  187. White, Lynn. “The Crusades and the Technological Thrust of the West.” In War, Technology and Society in the Middle East. Edited by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp, 97–112. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975.
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  189. A powerful paper that suggests the westerners were technologically superior to their opponents and that they were ultimately defeated because of a lack of numbers, rather than technological inferiority.
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  191. Frankish Castles and Castle Building
  192. Books on this subject range from detailed architectural studies, such as Deschamps 1934–1973, a magnificent study of Crac des Chevaliers, to more contextualized analyses of the role and importance of castles in the Levant. Some of the books noted in this bibliography, such as Smail 1956 and Marshall 1992 (both cited under Crusading Warfare), include sections on this latter subject and should also be consulted; Boase 1977 also engages with this debate. The debate about crusader castles’ influence on Western military architecture also rumbles on, and the most concise overview is in Kennedy 1994. Ellenblum 2007 is a compelling revisionist view of the evolution of crusader castles in the Levant. The emergence of modern archaeological studies is well demonstrated by Boas 2006, while Molin 2001 offers the greatest geographical range of the works cited here, with coverage of the wider eastern Mediterranean. Müller-Wiener 1966 and Piana 2008 present splendidly illustrated overviews (including plans of the sites) coupled with fine supporting text.
  193. Boas, Adrian J. Archaeology of the Military Orders: A Survey of the Urban Centres, Rural Settlement and Castles of the Military Orders in the Latin East (c. 1120–1291). Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2006.
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  195. Taking archaeological evidence as its starting point, this is a fine description and analysis of the numerous castles, as well as the urban and rural holdings of the military orders. Boas also shows the influence of the military orders on the form and construction of castles.
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  197. Boase, Thomas S. R. “Military Architecture in the Crusader States in Palestine and Syria.” In A History of the Crusades. Vol. 4, The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States. Edited by Harry W. Hazard, 140–164. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977.
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  199. A learned and concise overview; Boase argues that, taken as a whole, the distribution of castles did not reflect any strategic scheme and was influenced by preexisting structures. Saone, Kerak, and Krak des Chevaliers are given particular attention.
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  201. Deschamps, Paul. Les Châteaux des croisés en Terre-Sainte. 3 vols. Bibliothèque archéologique et historique. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1934–1973.
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  203. Deschamps visited Syria under the French Mandate in 1928 and 1929 and was responsible for the restoration of Crac des Chevaliers, the greatest of all crusader castles. Volume 1 of this trilogy is devoted to this fortress and is a splendid blend of photographs, plans, and descriptions. The later volumes cover several castles in the kingdom of Jerusalem (Volume 2) and Antioch and Tripoli (Volume 3, published after his death in 1974), although they lack the precision and depth of Volume 1.
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  205. Ellenblum, Ronnie. Crusader Castles and Modern Histories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  206. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497247Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. An important and persuasive study of the historiography of castle building in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and of the evolution of the castles. Ellenblum traces the influence of nationalist, colonialist, and Zionist discourses in castle studies, and then explains how and why castles developed in the form that they did. He also shows that as the Muslims evolved better artillery, the Franks were forced to construct stronger and better castles. This is a provocative and convincing book that is essential for our understanding of the period.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Kennedy, Hugh. Crusader Castles. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  211. An excellent overview of fortifications across the Levant (Christian and Muslim), including specific treatment of the castles of the military orders; it also contains a translation of the text The Construction of the Castle of Saphet (built c.1240), as well as many plans and illustrations and a good historiographical survey.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Molin, Kristian. Unknown Crusader Castles. London: Hambledon Continuum, 2001.
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  215. A useful and well-written book that covers warfare, military architecture, naval warfare, and the nonmilitary function of castles to very good effect; the geographical range is important, with (unusually) equal coverage given to the Holy Land, Cyprus, Cilician Armenia, and Frankish Greece.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang. Castles of the Crusaders. London: Thames and Hudson, 1966.
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  219. A brief history of the Crusades followed by a lengthy gazetteer of the castles of the Latin East and Armenia, Frankish Morea, Cyprus, and the Hospitallers in the Aegean. Most of the entries include plans of the castles, and the book is completed by a superb collection of photographs.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Piana, Matthias, ed. Burgen und Städte der Kreuzzugszeit. Petersberg, Germany: Michael Imhof Verlag, 2008.
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  223. This is comfortably the best and most comprehensive treatment of castles and urban fortifications across the Levant, beginning with a historical and an architectural context, including the transmission of Eastern ideas to western Europe. The book covers the buildings of the Franks, the Muslims, and, to a lesser extent, Frankish Greece and the Hospitallers in the Aegean. It consists of a series of expert essays on individual sites complemented by plans and a sumptuous collection of color photographs.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Muslim Fortifications
  226. Raphael 2011 is part of the important work emerging from Israel in recent years, and it works well alongside Ellenblum 2007 (cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building). Chevedden 1999 was a notable forerunner to these ideas, and the essay collection Kennedy 2006 is also particularly valuable.
  227. Chevedden, Paul E. “Fortifications and the Development of Defensive Planning in the Latin East.” In The Circle of War in the Middle Ages: Essays on Medieval Military and Naval History. Edited by Donald J. Kagay and L. J. Andrew Villalon, 33–44. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1999.
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  229. In spite of the title this is largely—and effectively—a discussion about the development of fortifications in Muslim-ruled territories; contra to Smail 1956 (cited under Crusading Warfare), Chevedden argues that developments in artillery led to real changes in castle building.
  230. Find this resource:
  231. Kennedy, Hugh. Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria: From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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  233. Contains twenty articles on numerous aspects of Muslim fortifications across the Near East, with many pertinent to the crusading period. An impressive collection with contributions from many leading scholars.
  234. Find this resource:
  235. Raphael, Kate. Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011.
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  237. An important examination of the strategic role of Muslim fortresses in the Levant and their development during the period of the Crusades and the Mongol invasions.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Armenian Fortifications
  240. This is a topic often neglected, not least because of the difficulty in reaching some of these sites. Molin 2001 (cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building) provides a useful discussion, but the major study is Edwards 1987.
  241. Edwards, Robert W. The Fortifications of Armenia Cilicia. Dumbarton Oaks Studies 23. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1987.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. A comprehensive and essential work, based on archaeological studies, of the spectacular fortifications of this region.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Fortifications in Frankish Greece
  246. The fortifications of Frankish Greece are another largely neglected topic. Molin 2001 (cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building) gives some guidance, with the interesting, if flawed, Andrews 2006 being valuable as well. Lock 1986 is much less detailed but more authoritative, while Nicolle 2007 is a useful guide, too.
  247. Andrews, K. Castles of the Morea. Rev. ed. Foreword by Glen R. Bugh. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2006.
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249. A unique work, based on a combination of the author’s personal journey and early 18th-century Venetian plans of the fortifications of the region. Much of what was detailed has since been destroyed and the scholarship is at times limited, but there is much of interest here, including facsimiles of the plans and a valuable new introduction by Bugh.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Lock, Peter. “The Frankish Towers of Central Greece.” Annual of the British School of Archaeology 81 (1986): 101–123.
  252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253. A survey of the numerous towers constructed by the Franks in their efforts to control this region.
  254. Find this resource:
  255. Nicolle, David. Crusader Castles in Cyprus, Greece and the Aegean, 1191–1517. London: Osprey, 2007.
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  257. A fairly brief, but well-illustrated and thoughtful overview of the many Frankish castles constructed in these regions. The Knights Hospitaller looms particularly large; good plans of the castles, too.
  258. Find this resource:
  259. Siege Warfare
  260. Closely linked to work on castles, and often featuring prominently in the texts cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building, Muslim Fortifications, Armenian Fortifications, and Fortifications in Frankish Greece with regard to the development of castle architecture, is the subject of siege warfare. Bradbury 1992, Pringle 1995, and Rogers 1992, however, are more directly concerned with the issue of sieges and feature the Crusades heavily.
  261. Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Siege. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1992.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. A wide-ranging analysis of siege strategy across Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, showing the influence of changing technologies and social and political change on the conduct of sieges.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Pringle, R. Denys. “Town Defences in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.” In The Medieval City under Siege. Edited by Ivy A. Corfis and Michael Wolfe, 69–121. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1995.
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  267. A useful study working from the premise that most research is concerned with crusader castles to the neglect of urban fortifications. Pringle expertly traces the evolution of urban defenses and shows how they became an increasing priority during the 13th century.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Rogers, Randall. Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  271. A fine, closely argued book that covers sieges across the Mediterranean region. Rogers examines the logistical problems of sieges, the organization of sieges, the use of siege engines, and the experience of siege warfare.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. The First Crusade
  274. This section covers the Origins, Motives, and Ideology of the First Crusade, as well as its military history (under Planning, Progress, and Success).
  275. Origins, Motives, and Ideology
  276. The origins and ideology of the First Crusade have been subject to much work in recent years, and Riley-Smith 1986, Riley-Smith 1999, and Bull 1995 are the most important and accessible. These writers lay proper emphasis on the religiosity of the crusaders, although France 1997 offers a significant extra dimension to the issue of motivation. The technical and theological aspects of holy war are explored in an erudite fashion by Russell 1975.
  277. Bull, Marcus G. “Origins.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Edited by Jonathan S. C. Riley-Smith, 13–33. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  279. A succinct but erudite summary of the religious and cultural context of the First Crusade.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. France, John. “Patronage and the Appeal of the First Crusade.” In The First Crusade: Origins and Impact. Edited by Jonathan Phillips, 5–20. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.
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  283. An important paper that acknowledges the importance of religious motives for the crusaders but shows the influence of patronage in encouraging and requiring people to take the cross.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C. The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. London: Athlone Press, 1986.
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  287. A hugely important analysis of the motives of the crusaders and the development of crusading ideology during the expedition, and also in the aftermath of the campaign as the story of its success was written by chroniclers across western Europe.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C. The First Crusaders, 1095–1131. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  291. The result of years of painstaking research in the cartularies of (especially) medieval France, this monograph shows the complex family relationships between many groups of crusaders. Riley-Smith reveals in remarkable detail the financial and spiritual preparations of the crusaders, and also considers the experience of those who returned from the expedition.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Russell, Frederick H. The Just War in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
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  295. A groundbreaking work that draws together medieval ideas of just war, holy war, and the Crusades to show how theologians were able to justify warfare in a context of Christian ethics.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Planning, Progress, and Success
  298. With regard to military history, the best analysis by far is France 1994, with France 1997 as a succinct coda to France’s explanation for the crusaders’ success. Various articles, such as Zajac 1997 (with regard to booty and rewards), Bachrach 2007 (why, in strategic terms, the crusaders had to engage with the Byzantine Empire), Murray 2006 (the ongoing financial needs of a crusader army), and Riley-Smith 2002 (the losses suffered by the crusaders), are also significant and interesting. Accessible overviews of the First Crusade are provided by Asbridge 2004 and Kostick 2009.
  299. Asbridge, Thomas S. The First Crusade: A New History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  301. A fast-moving account of the crusader armies’ struggle across Asia Minor and their journey into northern Syria and the Holy Land.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. Bachrach, Bernard S. “Papal War Aims in 1096: The Option Not Chosen.” In Laudem Hierosolymitani: Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar. Edited by Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum, and Jonathan Riley-Smith, 319–343. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
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  305. A closely argued discussion that considers the divergence between Pope Urban II’s aim to recapture Jerusalem and the strategic (land journey) option that he chose for the army; Bachrach thus explains the importance of engaging with Alexius and the Byzantine Empire.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  308. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511562426Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. Certainly the best and most detailed analysis of the crusaders’ march, their tactics and strategies, and the reasons why they managed to triumph at Jerusalem in 1099. France lays convincing emphasis on the growing cohesion between the diverse crusader armies as a reason for their astonishing success and endurance.
  310. Find this resource:
  311. France, John. “Technology and the Success of the First Crusade.” In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th–15th Centuries. Edited by Yaacov Lev, 163–176. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
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  313. A convincing rebuttal of the assertion in White 1975 (cited under Technical and Practical Aspects of Warfare) that the crusaders succeeded because of superior military technology. France concludes that the forces that faced one another during the First Crusade were at a similar level of technological advancement, and that the crusaders’ adaptability and determination were crucial in their victory.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Kostick, Conor. The Siege of Jerusalem: Crusade and Conquest in 1099. London: Continuum, 2009.
  316. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  317. A lively and accessible retelling of the First Crusade, with the focus on the siege and capture of Jerusalem. A neat emphasis on the divisions and rivalries in the Western armies, as well as the participants’ beliefs and attitudes.
  318. Find this resource:
  319. Murray, Alan V. “Money and Logistics in the Forces of the First Crusade: Coinage, Bullion, Service, and Supply, 1096–99.” Paper presented at a Workshop Held at the Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Sydney, 30 September–4 October 2002. In Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades. Edited by John H. Pryor, 229–250. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  321. Murray astutely highlights one of the major practical problems of a crusading expedition: it is a venture that requires huge expenditures in many different regions over a long period of time.
  322. Find this resource:
  323. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C. “Casualties and the Number of Knights on the First Crusade.” Crusades 1 (2002): 13–28.
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  325. Mortality rates from the medieval period are notoriously difficult to assess, but Riley-Smith’s immense research allows him to make a serious attempt to produce accurate figures with divisions according to time and place and cause of death, whether by battle or disease.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Zajac, William G. “Captured Property on the First Crusade.” In The First Crusade: Origins and Impact. Edited by Jonathan P. Phillips, 153–180. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329. A sharp insight into one of the key logistical measures required to keep the crusader army on the move.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. The Second Crusade, 1145–1149
  332. The main overview is Phillips 2007, which includes lengthy analyses of the sieges of Lisbon, Almeria, Tortosa, and Damascus, as well as discussion of the motivation, recruitment, organization, and movement of the crusader armies. Roche 2006 and France 2006 provide details on practical aspects of the journeys of the crusader armies, while Forey 1984 and Hoch 1996 contribute important articles on the decision making and strategy of the army in the Holy Land in 1148.
  333. Forey, Alan. “The Failure of the Siege of Damascus in 1148.” Journal of Medieval History 10 (1984): 13–23.
  334. DOI: 10.1016/0304-4181(84)90022-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A close examination of the different accounts (Christian and Muslim) of this controversial episode.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. France, John. “Logistics and the Second Crusade.” Paper presented at a Workshop Held at the Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Sydney, 30 September–4 October 2002. In Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades. Edited by John H. Pryor, 77–94. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  339. Good article on provisioning and discipline in the crusader armies marching to the Levant and in Iberia.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Hoch, Martin. “The Choice of Damascus as the Objective of the Second Crusade: A Re-evaluation.” In Autour de la prèmiere croisade: Actes du Colloque de la Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (Clermond-Ferrand, 22–25 juin 1995). Byzantina Sorboniensia 14. Edited by Michel Balard, 359–369. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. An astute strategic analysis that overturned previous historians’ criticism of the decision to attack Damascus in 1148.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Phillips, Jonathan. The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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  347. The first English-language monograph on the Second Crusade. It includes lengthy analyses of the sieges of Lisbon, Almeria, Tortosa, and Damascus, as well as comprehensive discussion of the motivation, recruitment, organization, and movement of the crusader armies.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Roche, Jason T. “Conrad III and the Second Crusade: Retreat from Dorylaion?” Crusades 5 (2006): 85–94.
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  351. A detailed reexamination of the route taken by Conrad III as he traveled across Asia Minor. Roche carefully evaluates the source material and brings out the serious problems created by the local terrain.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Muslim Warfare and the Achievement of Saladin
  354. Hillenbrand 1999 offers by far the best overview of Muslim military practice. For greater detail, see the works of Hamblin (Hamblin 1992), Lev (Lev 1997, Lev 2006), and Nicolle (cited under Technical and Practical Aspects of Warfare). There is much consideration of Muslim forces, tactics, castles, and other factors in the more general works noted in this article. See especially France 2010 and Smail 1956 (both cited under Crusading Warfare), as well as Kennedy 1994 and Piana 2008 (cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building) and Chevedden 1999 and Raphael 2011 (both cited under Muslim Fortifications), on castles and fortifications. Saladin’s role in military matters is discussed (in a fairly judgmental manner) by Ehrenkreutz 1972, while the same author’s study of naval issues (Ehrenkreutz 1955) is also noteworthy. By far the best and most detailed biography of Saladin is Lyons and Jackson 1982.
  355. Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. “The Place of Saladin in the Naval History of the Mediterranean Sea in the Middle Ages.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 75.2 (1955): 100–116.
  356. DOI: 10.2307/595012Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. Ehrenkreutz demonstrates that Saladin inherited a weak navy from the Fatimids and notes that his attempts to revive it were of only limited success.
  358. Find this resource:
  359. Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Saladin. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1972.
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  361. A significant if controversial book that emphasizes Saladin’s military errors, especially his failure to capture Tyre, and takes issue with those who see him as the selfless hero of the jihad.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Hamblin, William J. “Saladin and Muslim Military Theory.” In The Horns of Ḥaṭṭīn: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July 1987. Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar, 228–238. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1992.
  364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365. A useful paper putting Saladin’s tactics into the context of contemporary military manuals, works that have an interesting emphasis on psychological matters.
  366. Find this resource:
  367. Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
  368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369. This groundbreaking work is the essential study of the impact of the Crusades on the Muslim Near East. Hillenbrand employs substantial levels of primary texts, many of which have not been translated into English before. Aside from showing how the Muslims responded to the arrival of the westerners, Hillenbrand has lengthy, copiously illustrated chapters on “Armies,” “Arms and Fortifications,” and the “Conduct of War.”
  370. Find this resource:
  371. Lev, Yaacov. “Regime, Army and Society in Medieval Egypt, 9th–12th Centuries.” In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th–15th Centuries. Edited by Yaacov Lev, 115–152. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
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  373. Lev shows that the Fatimid armies were largely infantry forces made up of slave soldiers, and that they required substantial resources to procure and maintain.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Lev, Yaacov. “Infantry in Muslim Armies during the Crusades.” In Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Sydney, 30 September–4 October 2002. Edited by John H. Pryor, 185–207. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  377. Argues against the suggestion in Harari 1997 (cited under Crusading Warfare) that the Franks wholeheartedly adopted Turcopoles to counterbalance Muslim mounted archery, and shows that the Frankish and Muslim armies of the period were different in construction and fighting techniques, with the Ayyubid and Mamluk forces (contrasting to the Fatimids who had a majority of infantry) using relatively few foot soldiers.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Lyons, Malcolm C., and D. E. P. Jackson. Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
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  381. A superb, if very dense, account of Saladin’s life, based on a close analysis of largely underused documents from the Ayyubid court. A successful attempt to place Saladin’s career in the context of the religious, military, and cultural framework of his age.
  382. Find this resource:
  383. Byzantium
  384. The best overviews of the Byzantine Empire are Angold 1997 and Harris 2003. The other works in this section are concerned primarily with warfare, with Haldon 2002 being a succinct but important overview, and Birkenmeier 2002 and Bartusis 1992 covering almost the entire period between them in considerable detail. These works are usefully supplemented by the material cited under The Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204.
  385. Angold, Michael. The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History. 2d ed. London: Longman, 1997.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. A thorough and learned overview of the events, institutions, and policies of the Byzantine world.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Bartusis, Mark C. The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204–1453. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.
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  391. A substantial and comprehensive treatment of Byzantine military organization (including the structure of the army, financing, etc.) over this broad period, with good comparisons to contemporary Ottoman and western European forces.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Birkenmeier, John W. The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An effective blend of chronological studies with a thematic treatment of logistics, sieges, and battles enables the author to show how the efforts of Manuel I restored the Byzantine army from the decline experienced prior to Alexios I in 1081. The Byzantine use of mercenaries (including the Varangian Guard) and Byzantine citizens enabled the Greeks to recover parts of their former empire and to engage in campaigns across the eastern Mediterranean and in southern Europe.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Haldon, John F. Byzantium at War, AD 600-1453. Essential histories , 33. Oxford: Osprey, 2002.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A brief, thematic introduction to the various aspects of Byzantine warfare, including recruitment, organization, and motives. A useful outline to this author’s numerous more detailed studies of this subject.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. London: Hambledon and London, 2003.
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  403. A splendid and readable overview of the relationship between these two powers, with important emphasis on the Byzantine emperor’s self-conception and the crucial role of Constantinople in the cultural, religious, and strategic context of the age.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Battle of Hattin 1187
  406. This most crucial of crusader defeats has, unsurprisingly, attracted much attention. Kedar 1992 gives the most detailed coverage, while Lyons and Jackson 1982 provide a closely argued Muslim perspective. Smail 1956 (cited under Crusading Warfare) provides a splendid political context, and Housley 1987 gives an accessible overview.
  407. Housley, Norman. “Saladin’s Triumph over the Crusader States: The Battle of Hattin, 1187.” History Today 37.7 (1987): 17–23.
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409. A concise summary of the battle for the general reader.
  410. Find this resource:
  411. Kedar, Benjamin Z. “The Battle of Hattin Revisited.” In The Horns of Ḥaṭṭīn: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July 1987. Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar, 190–207. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1992.
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  413. A highly original study produced from a close examination of the landscape in conjunction with the written reports of the battle.
  414. Find this resource:
  415. Lyons, Malcolm, and D. E. P. Jackson. “The Horns of Ḥaṭṭīn.” In Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. By Malcolm Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson, 255–266. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
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  417. The authoritative and detailed treatment of the battle from Muslim sources. This magisterial book shows the efforts required by Saladin to gather his troops and bring the Franks to battle.
  418. Find this resource:
  419. The Third Crusade, 1188–1192
  420. Strangely, there is not yet a modern, comprehensive overview of the Third Crusade. Events at the siege of Acre and the battles of Arsuf and Jaffa have been extensively discussed in the context of military histories (see especially Smail 1956, cited under Crusading Warfare). Likewise, for the Muslim side, see particularly Lyons and Jackson 1982, cited under Battle of Hattin 1187. The English historian John Gillingham has devoted much attention to the career of Richard the Lionheart and has produced a superb study of him (Gillingham 1999), including a detailed consideration of all aspects of Richard as a war leader (see also Gillingham 1984). Frederick Barbarossa’s campaign—so successful until his untimely demise—is brought to life in the detailed study Eickhoff 1977, and given a more narrative treatment in Johnson 1969. Murray 2007 is another important contribution to our understanding of Frederick’s Crusade, as well as making broader points about finance and logistics.
  421. Eickhoff, Ekkehard. Friedrich Barbarossa im Orient: Kreuzzug und Tod Friedrichs 1. Tübingen, Germany: Ernst Wasmuth, 1977.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. By far the most detailed study of Frederick’s Crusade, with the author’s topographical studies allowing the first proper reconstruction of Frederick’s march across Asia Minor.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Gillingham, John B. “Richard I and the Science of War.” In War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwich. Edited by J. C. Holt and John Gillingham, 211–226. Cambridge, UK: Boydell, 1984.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. This article brilliantly illuminates Richard as a master strategist, revealing him as a far more cautious figure than he is generally depicted.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Gillingham, John B. Richard I. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
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  431. The best of Gillingham’s splendid works on Richard, providing a compelling insight into his personality, his preparations for the Third Crusade, and the events during the campaign.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Johnson, Edgar N. “The Crusades of Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI.” In A History of the Crusades. Vol. 2, The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. Edited by R. L. Wolff and Harry W. Hazard, 86–122. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
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  435. A sound narrative of the main events on both of these campaigns, although the detail of Eickhoff 1977 should supplement this outline. Available online.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Murray, Alan V. “Finance and Logistics of the Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa.” In In Laudem Hierosolymitani: Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar. Edited by Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum, and Jonathan Riley-Smith, 357–367. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. An astute examination of the finance, income, and expenditure of this campaign, informed in part by analysis of coin hoards.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. The Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204
  442. The Sack of Constantinople by the armies of the Fourth Crusade stands as one of the most controversial episodes in the history of the Crusades. Narratives in Queller and Madden 1997 and Phillips 2004 include substantial treatment of military matters, with Pryor 2003 providing an important and original insight into the crusaders’ original plans. Angold 2003 gives a Byzantine perspective.
  443. Angold, Michael. The Fourth Crusade: Event and Context. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2003.
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  445. As the title suggests, this work ranges more widely than the events of 1204 to provide a good context of Western views of Byzantium, plus useful source criticism and a thorough consideration of the consequences of the Crusade for Constantinople and the former imperial territories.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. New York: Viking, 2004.
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  449. A dramatic and accessible narrative that combines analysis of the crusaders’ motives with consideration of the reasons why they were able to capture Constantinople. The author emphasizes the importance of the knights’ training in tournaments and their ability to work closely together, as well as providing insights into the maritime skills and military capabilities of the Venetian crusaders.
  450. Find this resource:
  451. Pryor, John H. “The Venetian Fleet for the Fourth Crusade and the Diversion of the Crusade to Constantinople.” In The Experience of Crusading. Vol. 1, Western Approaches. Edited by Marcus G. Bull and Norman Housley, 103–123. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  453. Pryor examines the construction and composition of the Venetian fleet to show that the Italians’ original focus was certainly an invasion of Egypt.
  454. Find this resource:
  455. Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. 2d ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997.
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457. An impressive, thorough, and readable volume that gives strong consideration to the Venetian viewpoint of the Crusade; it also contains an excellent and readable analysis of the siege and conquest of the city.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. The Fifth Crusade, 1217–1221, the Crusade of Frederick II, and the Barons’ Crusade
  460. This abortive attempt to recover Jerusalem via Egypt is best covered by Powell 1986; Abulafia 1988 and Van Cleve 1969 deal with Frederick II’s Crusade, with Pryor 1992 (an excellent article on naval matters) an important addition to these and to Powell’s earlier work. Lower 2005 is the most authoritative work on the Barons’ Crusade, with Painter 1969 providing more narrative. See also the relevant section of Marshall 1992, cited under Crusading Warfare.
  461. Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. London: Allen Lane, 1988.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A fine and highly readable biography of Frederick, including coverage of his long involvement with crusading and the papacy.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Lower, Michael. The Barons’ Crusade: A Call to Arms and its Consequences. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Although much of Lower’s book concerns the appeals and recruitment for the Crusade, this helps, in part, to illuminate his interpretation of why these campaigns took the form they did, and to set the scene for his account of their progress and outcome in the Levant.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Painter, Sidney. “The Crusade of Theobald of Champagne and Richard of Cornwall, 1239–1241.” In A History of the Crusades. Vol. 2, The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. Edited by R. L. Wolff and Harry W. Hazard, 463–485. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Somewhat dated compared to the more sophisticated analysis of Lower 2005, but includes useful narrative sections. Available online.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.
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  475. Although this fine book is primarily concerned with the broader setting and impact of the Crusade, Powell’s rigorous scholarship covers recruitment, finance, and leadership of the expedition. He also offers a detailed account of the campaign in Egypt, including work on mortality rates and the reasons the Crusade failed.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Pryor, John H. “The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II, 1220–1229: The Implications of the Maritime Evidence.” The American Neptune 52.2 (1992): 113–132.
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  479. A significant contribution to our understanding of Frederick’s interest in the Crusades; Pryor shows that the emperor’s commissioning of vessels suited to the conditions of the Nile delta demonstrates his genuine interest in campaigning in the region, and how his naval forces brought the Egyptian sultan to negotiate peace in the Levant.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Van Cleve, Thomas C. “The Crusade of Frederick II.” In A History of the Crusades. Vol. 2, The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. Edited by R. L. Wolff and Harry W. Hazard, 429–462. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
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  483. The complicated buildup to the Crusade, as well as its main events, is well covered in this narrative account. Available online.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. The Seventh Crusade, 1248–1254, to the Fall of Acre, 1291
  486. The relevant entries in Marshall 1992 (cited under Crusading Warfare) should be consulted, along with Kennedy 1994 (cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building), the narratives in Tyerman 2006 and Phillips 2009 (both cited under General Overviews), the eyewitness accounts of Joinville and Villehardouin 2008 (cited under Primary Sources), and Jackson 2007. Jordan 1979 is the major study on the Seventh Crusade (especially its preparations in France); Marshall 1989 offers a notable coda to the Crusades of Louis IX. Lloyd 1988 is a fine study of English crusading efforts in the latter half of the 13th century, while Little 1986 closes out the period with a close analysis of the 1291 siege of Acre.
  487. Jackson, Peter. The Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
  488. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  489. A fascinating and comprehensive collection of material, from Muslim and Christian sources, covering the progress, failure, and consequences of the Crusade. The ideal foil to Joinville and Villehardouin 2008 (cited under Primary Sources).
  490. Find this resource:
  491. Jordan, William C. Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade: A Study in Rulership. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979.
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493. This rigorous study of the preparations for the Crusade includes a substantial chapter on war finance, covering troops, equipment, and money.
  494. Find this resource:
  495. Little, Donald P. “The Fall of ʿAkkâ in 690/1291: The Muslim Version.” In Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Edited by M. Sharon, 159–181. Jerusalem: Cana, 1986.
  496. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  497. A fine article that gives a detailed version of the siege and capture of Acre, using Muslim sources unavailable to non-Arabic readers.
  498. Find this resource:
  499. Lloyd, Simon D. English Society and the Crusade, 1216–1307. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  501. An innovative and highly effective study of the financial and institutional effect of the Crusades on England, with much of use concerning military planning, recruitment, and funding.
  502. Find this resource:
  503. Marshall, Christopher. “The French Regiment in the Latin East, 1254–1291.”Journal of Medieval History 15.4 (1989): 301–317.
  504. DOI: 10.1016/0304-4181(89)90002-XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505. A brief survey of Louis IX’s belated attempt to provide the permanent, Western-funded force of knights needed to preserve the Latin East in Christian hands.
  506. Find this resource:
  507. The Albigensian Crusade
  508. The Crusade against the Cathars (known as the Albigensian Crusade) was another example of the flexibility of crusading ideology, on this occasion bringing the weapons of holy war against the heretics (and their supporters) in southern France, although within a couple of decades the project had also assumed the character of a Capetian campaign of expansion. The best overview of this subject with a military slant is Costen 1997. Marvin 2008 is easily the best book concerned solely with military matters.
  509. Costen, Michael. The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.
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  511. A readable and detailed account of the Crusade, with good context on southern France, the church, and the heretics’ beliefs; Costen also includes a good chapter on the war in the Languedoc.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Marvin, Lawrence W. The Occitan War: A Military and Political History of the Albigensian Crusade, 1209–1218. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  514. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496561Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Easily the best military history of these campaigns. Well-written, highly persuasive, and with an excellent combination of detail and analysis, Marvin covers logistics, sieges, and battles to splendid effect.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. The Military Orders
  518. The history of the military orders has become a major subject in its own right, with their involvement in the eastern Mediterranean after the fall of Acre in 1291, the Teutonic Knights’ power in northern Europe, and their prominent role in Iberia now receiving considerable attention from historians. The focus here, however, is largely on their involvement in the Crusades to the Holy Land. The essay series The Military Orders (published by Ashgate), now running to five volumes, is an important gathering point for ongoing research. Two good introductions to the subject are by Forey, one an essay (Forey 1995), the other a detailed book (Forey 1991).
  519. Forey, Alan. The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1991.
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  521. A broad-ranging volume including the evolution and development of the many military orders that emerged across Latin Christendom during this period; good treatment of their military functions, as well as finance and hierarchy.
  522. Find this resource:
  523. Forey, Alan. “The Military Orders, 1120–1312.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Edited by Jonathan S. C. Riley-Smith, 176–210. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  525. A succinct but effective overview of the subject, covering the orders’ origins, military roles, resources, recruitment, and organization.
  526. Find this resource:
  527. The Knights Templar
  528. The Templars, naturally enough, feature prominently in several of the broader works in this bibliography, including Smail 1956 and Marshall 1992 on warfare (cited under Crusading Warfare), and Boas 2006, Kennedy 1994, and Piana 2008 on castles (all cited under Frankish Castles and Castle Building). Specialist works are also important—see Barber 1994. Note also Barber and Bate 2002, an excellent collection of primary texts. For the Templars’ regulations and military practices, see Upton-Ward 1992 and Bennett 1989. For important essays on aspects of the Templars’ military activities, see Barber 1992, Pringle 1994, and Pringle 1998.
  529. Barber, Malcolm. “Supplying the Crusader States: The Role of the Templars.” In The Horns of Ḥaṭṭīn: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July 1987. Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar, 314–326. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1992.
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  531. Barber shows one of the many important facets of the Templar contribution to the survival of the Frankish East.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Barber, Malcolm. The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  535. Comfortably the best overview of the order, covering its origins, rise, landholdings, castles, and military engagement in the Levant, as well as its structure and demise.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Barber, Malcolm, and Keith Bate, eds. The Templars: Selected Sources Translated and Annotated. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002.
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  539. An excellent selection of primary sources on the Templars that includes a significant section on warfare and politics.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Bennett, Malcolm. “La Règle du Temple as a Military Manual, or: How to Deliver a Cavalry Charge.” In Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill, Christopher Holdsworth, and Janet Nelson, 7–19. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1989.
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  543. A thoughtful analysis of the practical and theoretical aspects of Templar military practice. Can also be found in Upton-Ward 1992 (pp. 175–188).
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Pringle, Denys. “Templar Castles on the Road to the Jordan.” In The Military Orders: Fighting for the Faith, Caring for the Sick. Edited by Malcolm Barber, 148–166. Aldershot, UK: Variourm, 1994.
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  547. An outline of the castles constructed and used by the Templars as part of their vital role in protecting pilgrims to the Jordan.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Pringle, Denys. “Templar Castles between Jaffa and Jerusalem.” In The Military Orders. Vol. 2, Welfare and Warfare. Edited by Helen Nicholson, 89–109. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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  551. A continuation of the theme in Pringle 1994, this time dealing with the safety of pilgrims traveling between Jaffa and Jerusalem.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Upton-Ward, Judith, trans. The Rule of the Templars: The French Text of the Rule of the Order of the Knights Templar. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1992.
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  555. A complete translation of this text, giving real insight into the structure, discipline, and way of life—and warfare—of the Templars.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. The Knights Hospitaller
  558. In addition to the sections in the castles books of Boas 2006 and Kennedy 1994 (cited under Frankish Castle and Castle Building), see also the relevant sections in Smail 1956 and Marshall 1992 (both cited under Crusading Warfare). Broader coverage of all aspects of Hospitaller life are found in Nicholson 2001, and in a far more complex form in Riley-Smith 1967 and (with the Templars, too) Burgtorf 2008.
  559. Burgtorf, Jochen. The Central Convent of the Hospitallers and Templars: History, Organization and Personnel (1099/1120–1310). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
  560. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004166608.i-761Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  561. A monumental study of these key aspects of the central convents of the two leading military orders, ranging in chronological sequence across the kingdom of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and then Rhodes.
  562. Find this resource:
  563. Nicholson, Helen. The Knights Hospitaller. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2001.
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  565. A good, single-volume account of the order from its origins, through the Hospitallers’ involvement in holy war in the Latin East and the frontiers of Europe, to their rule of Rhodes and Malta.
  566. Find this resource:
  567. Riley-Smith, Jonathan S. C. The Knights of St. John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, c.1050–1310. London: Macmillan, 1967.
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  569. The leading historian of the order provides a comprehensive analysis of the Hospitallers’ evolution and institutional structure, as well as the main events involving them in the war in the Holy Land.
  570. Find this resource:
  571. The Teutonic Knights
  572. In addition to the works listed here, see general works such as Forey 1991 and Forey 1995 (cited under The Military Orders), as well as Boas 2006 and Kennedy 1994 (see Frankish Castles and Castle Building). Molin 2008 is an article on the castles in Cilician Armenia, supplementing these other works. Morton 2009 concentrates on the Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, while Urban 2003 gives a broader view of their activities, including in the Baltic.
  573. Molin, Kristian. “Teutonic Castles in Cilician Armenia: A Reappraisal.” In Military Orders. Vol. 3, History and Heritage. Edited by Victor Malia-Milanes, 131–138. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
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  575. Molin reaffirms the order’s importance in the region, but counters previous views that their castles formed a network of intervisual fortifications.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Morton, Nicholas Edward. The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, 1190–1291. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2009.
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  579. A comprehensive overview of the origins and development of the Teutonic Knights in the Levant, including sections on their military organization and involvement, as well as their strongholds.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Urban, William. The Teutonic Knights: A Military History. London: Greenhill, 2003.
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  583. An important book that covers the Teutonic Knights’ combat in the Holy Land and their substantial military engagement in northern Europe, including campaigns in Poland, Lithuania, and Russia.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. The Later Crusades
  586. As noted in the Introduction, historians now recognize that crusading continued long after the loss of the Holy Land in 1291, and certainly stretched to the 16th century. An important early contribution was Setton’s four-volume project, The Papacy and the Levant (Setton 1976–1984). By far the most authoritative survey of this period is Housley 1992, but see also Phillips 2009, Riley-Smith 1995, and Tyerman 2006 (all cited under General Overviews). Within this period there were so many developments in society and warfare across the Latin West that it would be an enormous task to detail them; likewise, one could also note numerous changes in the identity and capability of crusaders’ opponents (e.g., the emergence of the Mongols and the Ottomans) and many particular campaigns and battles. Broader works on military history, such as Maurice Keen’s Medieval Warfare: A History (see Edbury 1999 under Crusading Warfare) will provide vital context. In the case of specific campaigns, readers are also advised to look at the entries on Tannenberg, Varna, and Constantinople in Murray 2006 (cited under General Overviews) as an alternative entry point.
  587. Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589. A comprehensive and masterly overview of the evolution and breadth of crusading—in both theory and practice—across this period, covering Iberia, North Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, western Europe, and the Baltic.
  590. Find this resource:
  591. Setton, Kenneth M. The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571). 4 vols. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976–1984.
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  593. An impressive, durable, and substantial study that showed the richness of material and subject matter available to historians of the later Crusades.
  594. Find this resource:
  595. Crusading Warfare in the Baltic and Iberia
  596. These are two areas of growing interest to military historians, and they have substantial bibliographies in their own right, although both contain much material closed to the non-English reader. The best way to access these subjects is to consult the thoughtful and detailed entries on warfare in Ekdahl 2006 (for the Baltic) and Nicolle 2006 (for Iberia). The sources noted here are put forward as a sample of the available material. Barton and Fletcher 2000 and Smith and Buffery 2003 deal with Iberia; Fischer 2011 and Brundage 2003 are concerned with the Baltic.
  597. Barton, Simon, and Richard A. Fletcher, trans. The World of El Cid: Chronicles of the Spanish Reconquest. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000.
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  599. Contains the four main narrative sources for the struggle to recover Iberia from the Muslims during the late 11th and the 12th centuries. The collection includes a biography of El Cid.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Brundage, James A., ed. and trans. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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  603. Henry was a priest who wrote an account of the crusader conquest of Livonia between c. 1180–1227, and who had a particular interest in the tactical and technological aspects of warfare.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Ekdahl, Sven. “Warfare: The Baltic Crusades.” In The Crusades: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. Edited by Alan V. Murray, 1241–1249. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
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  607. A lengthy entry offering good summaries of Christian and pagan approaches to warfare in the region as well as covering issues of military service and mutual influence.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Fischer, Mary, trans. The Chronicle of Prussia by Nicolaus von Jeroschin: A History of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, 1190–1331. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
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  611. A lively account of the ethos and the military activities of the Teutonic Knights as they fought and colonized Christendom’s northeastern frontier.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Nicolle, David. “Warfare: Iberia.” In The Crusades: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. Edited by Alan V. Murray, 1251–1254. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. A good comparison of Christian and Muslim strategy and tactics.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Smith, Damian, and Helena Buffery, trans. The Book of Deeds of James I of Aragon: A Translation of the Medieval Catalan Llibre dels Fets. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003.
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  619. The first known autobiography by a Christian medieval king, this covers the capture of Minorca and the conquest of the kingdom of Valencia. Alongside his descriptions of royal power and prestige, James has a keen interest in military tactics.
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