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Female Monarchy in Europe ( Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Between 1362 and 1654, eighteen women claimed official sovereignty over thirteen different European kingdoms, and two more ruled its most important non-monarchical state, the Low Countries. Their collective political record has never been examined until quite recently. A handful of them are very well-known, but most remain obscure. This list includes a few fundamental works about Europe’s best-known women monarchs, three of whom (Mary Tudor, Elizabeth I, and Christina of Sweden) have or will soon receive individual treatment in separate Oxford Bibliographies articles (see Mary Tudor, Queen of England and Elizabeth I). At the opposite extreme, eight of them (40 percent) have never been studied in English. Few of these women governed alone. Fourteen (70 percent), including the first five, ruled jointly for part or all of their reigns with husbands who were expected to shoulder the kingdom’s military responsibilities and most of its administrative responsibilities—a medieval practice last followed in England’s so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688. Europe’s most successful joint monarchy was undoubtedly Castile under its “Catholic kings,” Isabel and Ferdinand (1474–1504). Overall, the political position of these early female monarchs evolved toward greater autonomy as two of the last three refused to marry. The political destinies of Europe’s female monarchs were often inglorious. By 1567 no fewer than six of them, including three of the first four, had been deposed. On the other hand, the fifth woman eventually became a saint, and in 1397 the sixth became the last ruler to unite all three Scandinavian kingdoms (Denmark, Norway, Sweden).
  3. Comparative Studies
  4. The divine-right female sovereigns of Renaissance and Reformation Europe have almost always been studied as isolated and exceptional individuals. In various ways, these studies constitute exceptions. Wolf 1993 examines female monarchs across Europe at the start of this period. Nassiet 2007 and Hunt and Whitelock 2010 compare two female rulers of Renaissance and Reformation Europe. Jansen 2008 and Wanegffelen 2008 combine female monarchs with queens lacking sovereign authority throughout early modern Europe. Beem 2006, Monter 2011, and Monter 2012 compare female monarchs over even longer periods.
  5. Beem, Charles. The Lioness Roared: The Problem of Female Rule in English History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
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  7. Pioneering diachronic study of female rule in England from Matilda to Victoria, sketching the rise of the prince-consort after 1700.
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  9. Hunt, Alice, and Anna Whitelock, eds. Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
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  11. Useful comparison of Europe’s first pair of adult unmarried female monarchs: Whitelock’s essay is especially valuable.
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  13. Jansen, Sharon L. Debating Women, Politics, and Power in Early Modern Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  14. DOI: 10.1057/9780230611238Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. Starting from Knox’s First Blast, it discusses Europe’s predominantly gynophobic “gynoecocracy” debate until the mid-1600s.
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  17. Monter, William. “Gendered Sovereignty: Numismatics and Female Rule, 1300–1800.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 41 (2011): 533–564.
  18. DOI: 10.1162/JINH_a_00155Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Investigates women’s claims to possess sovereign power through their high-value coinage. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  21. Monter, William. The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300–1800. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012.
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  23. The first comprehensive overview of officially sanctioned female rule in European kingdoms.
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  25. Nassiet, Michel. “Les reines héritières: D’Anne de Bretagne à Marie Stuart.” In Femmes et pouvoir politique: Les princesses d’Europe, Xve-XVIIIe siècle. Edited by Isabelle Poutrin and Marie-Karine Schaub, 134–143. Rosny-sous-Bois, France: Bréal, 2007.
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  27. Compares French efforts to absorb both Brittany and Scotland through royal marriages to legal heiresses.
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  29. Wanegffelen, Thierry. Le pouvoir contesté: Souveraines d’Europe à la Renaissance. Paris: Payot, 2008.
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  31. A pessimistic view of “phallocracy” in Renaissance Europe, surveying thirty-three queens and princesses who were politically active between 1470 and 1650 and concluding that “the effective exercise of power by a woman became harder and harder to envisage, to the point of seeming flatly impossible” (p. 433).
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  33. Wolf, Armin. “Reigning Queens in Medieval Europe: When, Where, and Why?” In Medieval Queenship. Edited by John Carmi Parsons, 169–188. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.
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  35. Investigates twelve female claimants among one hundred successions in eighteen European monarchies between 1350 and 1450.
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  37. Renaissance Europe’s First Major Heiress
  38. In 1343, at age nineteen, Joanna of Anjou inherited the kingdom of Naples and the county of Provence in southern France from her grandfather, Robert the Wise. Europe’s first female monarch “by the grace of God” immediately married a cousin, who was murdered in 1345, then in 1352 had a joint coronation with her second husband. Widowed in 1362, she governed her Italian and French possessions alone for almost twenty years. In 1381 she was deposed and then murdered by the first of her two adopted heirs. Two recent assessments of her reign (Goldstone 2009, Casteen 2011) supplement an unusually rich contemporary source (Boccaccio 2001).
  39. Boccaccio, Giovanni. Famous Women. Edited and translated by Virginia Brown. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.
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  41. Joanna is the final (106th) biographical sketch, composed during her personal reign. See pp. 466–473.
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  43. Casteen, Elizabeth. “Sex and Politics in Naples: The Regnant Queenship of Johanna I.” Journal of the Historical Society 11 (2011): 183–210.
  44. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2011.00329.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  45. Places her reign and posthumous reputation in longer perspective. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  47. Goldstone, Nancy. The Lady Queen: The Notorious Reign of Joanna I, Queen of Naples, Jerusalem, and Sicily. New York: Walker, 2009.
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  49. Solid biography, the only one in English; more recommendable than anything in Italian or French.
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  51. Young Heiresses and Husbands, 1377–1401
  52. Between 1377 and 1384, four adolescent women between the ages of ten and seventeen inherited widely scattered European kingdoms. Two were soon deposed, in Hungary (Sághy 1993) and Portugal (Oliviera Serrano 2005); all became minor political figures after joint coronations with foreign princes. By 1401 all had died without surviving children. In Sicily, the husband inherited and promptly remarried (Lo Forte Scipio 2003). Only Jadwiga of Poland has had book-length studies in English (Halecki 1991, Przybyszewski 1997) because she was declared a saint in 1997.
  53. Halecki, Oscar. Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East Central Europe. Edited by Thaddeus Gromada. New York: Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America, 1991.
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  55. Posthumously published laudatory manuscript by a famous Polish historian (died 1973).
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  57. Lo Forte Scipo, Maria Rita. C’era una volta una regina: Dur donne per un regno: Maria d’Aragona e Bianca de Navarra. Naples, Italy: Liguori, 2003.
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  59. Contrasts the nominal reign of Sicily’s heiress, Maria (1377–1401), with the effective regency of her husband’s widowed second wife (1410–1415).
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  61. Oliviera Serrano, César. Beatriz de Portugal: La pugna dinástica Avís-Trastámara. Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Xunta de Galicia, 2005.
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  63. Political study of a hapless ten-year-old heiress whose nominal joint reign (1383–1385) remains legally unrecognized in Portugal.
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  65. Przybyszewski, Boleslaw. Saint Jadwiga: Queen of Poland, 1374–1399. Rome: Postulate for the Canonisation of Blessed Queen Jadwiga, 1997.
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  67. Official documentation used for her 1997 canonization by the Polish pope John Paul II.
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  69. Sághy, Marianne. “Aspects of Female Rulership in Late Medieval Literature: The Queens’ Reign in Angevin Hungary.” East Central Europe/L’Europe du centre-est 20 (1993): 69–86.
  70. DOI: 10.1163/187633093X00055Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. Uses a long Venetian poem of 1387 about a rex femina without political authority to describe Mary of Anjou’s nominal reign in Hungary (1382–1387).
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  73. Older Women Ruling Alone, 1386–1435
  74. Unlike adolescent heiresses, both older women who acquired kingdoms in late medieval Europe enjoyed lengthy rules without sharing power with husbands. A thirty-three-year-old widow, Margaret of Denmark, who became the permanent regent of two kingdoms (Denmark and Norway) and later added the regency of Sweden, has a good recent biography (Etting 2004). However, the forty-five-year-old widow who became Joanna II of Naples (1415–1435), remarried, then removed her husband in 1419 and ruled alone until her death, lacks a recommendable biography; the one listed (Fraglia 1904) is antiquated and overly favorable, but nearly all records from her reign were destroyed during World War II.
  75. Etting, Vivian. Queen Margrete I, 1353–1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
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  77. Lone English-language biography of the second ruler ever to unite all three Scandinavian kingdoms.
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  79. Fraglia, Nunzio Federico. Storia della regina Giovanna II d’Angiø. Lanciano, Italy: R. Carabba, 1904.
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  81. Most extensive study of her reign, written when Neapolitan archives were still extant.
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  83. Joint Monarchy in Small Kingdoms, 1425–1512
  84. Three 15th-century women inherited minor kingdoms and governed jointly with their husbands. Two inherited Europe’s smallest autonomous kingdom, Navarre: thirty-year-old Blanca (1425–1441) had a joint coronation with her second husband in 1429; thirteen-year-old Catalina (1483–1512) had a joint coronation with her husband in 1494. The older woman has an adequate study (Ramirez Vaquero 2003) and the younger one has a very good political study (Adot Lerga 2005). However, despite a brief description (Hill 1948), the third woman lacks an adequate study. Fourteen-year-old Charlotte of Lusignan (1458–1463) inherited the crusader kingdom of Cyprus, then married an Italian prince in 1459, with a joint coronation, but they were soon deposed by her illegitimate half-brother with military assistance from Egypt.
  85. Adot Lerga, Alvaro. Juan de Albret y Catalina de Foix: O la defensa del estado Navarra, 1483–1517. Pamplona, Spain: Pamiela, 2005.
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  87. Excellent study of joint rule in a federated trans-Pyreneean state with dual capitals in Navarre (Pamplona) and Béárn (Pau).
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  89. Hill, George F. A History of Cyprus, Vol. 3: The Frankish Period, 1432–1571. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1948.
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  91. Classic survey sketches the brief reign of Charlotte and Louis of Savoy.
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  93. Ramirez Vaquero, Elena. Blanca y Juan II. Pamplona, Spain: Mintzoa, 2003.
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  95. Best study of the first joint reign (1425–1441) in which a much older wife managed most government duties.
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  97. Joint Rule in Major States, 1474–1504
  98. Two women acquired major European states in 1474 and 1477, and both governed in conjunction with slightly younger husbands whom they had chosen themselves—a successful formula. The first, twenty-three-year-old Isabel of Castile, claimed her brother’s kingdom, and after defeating her young niece Juana in a civil war, reigned jointly with her husband Ferdinand of Aragon until her death in 1504. In 1477, nineteen-year-old Mary of Burgundy unexpectedly inherited Europe’s most powerful non-royal state and quickly married the eighteen-year-old heir of the Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian of Austria had informal joint authority before becoming regent and guardian for their son after Mary died in a hunting accident. We possess good studies of Mary (Dumont 1982) and her reign (Blokmans and Prevenier 1999), and a small library on Isabel, including outstanding recent items in both English (Liss 2004, Weissberger 2004, Boruchoff 2003) and Spanish (de Azcona 2004, de Azcona 2007, Carrasco Manchada 2006).
  99. Blokmans, Wim, and Walter Prevenier. The Promised Lands: The Low Countries under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.
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  101. The outstanding account in English covering “Burgundy” after 1477.
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  103. Boruchoff, David A., ed. Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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  105. The richest collection of reassessments preceding the quincentenary of her death, with contributions from four countries.
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  107. Carrasco Machada, Ana Isabel. Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimdad: Propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482). Madrid: Sílex, 2006.
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  109. Revisionist account of her rise to power in the mid-1470s.
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  111. de Azcona, Tarsicio. Isabel de Castilla: Vida y reinado. 3d ed. Madrid: Esfera de los Libros, 2004.
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  113. The outstanding Spanish biographical study, written under a pseudonym by a Bendedictone monk, Jesus Morras, who disavowed his Franco-era edition of 1964 in a considerably longer second edition (Madrid: Biblioteca de autores cristianos, 1993). Unlike Liss, he privileges documentary sources as more reliable than Isabel’s chroniclers.
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  115. de Azcona, Tarsicio. Juana de Castilla, mal llamado La Beltraneja: Vida de la hija de Enrique IV de Castilla y su exilio en Portugal (1462–1530). Madrid: Esfera de los Libros, 2007.
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  117. A favorable biography of Isabel’s female rival for the Castilian throne.
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  119. Dumont, Georges-H. Marie de Bourgogne. Paris: Fayard, 1982.
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  121. Best biography of Charles the Bold’s daughter and successor.
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  123. Liss, Peggy K. Isabel the Queen: Life and Times. 2d ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
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  125. The best current English-language biography (first edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), privileging image-shaping cultural evidence, first and foremost her court chroniclers.
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  127. Weissberger, Barbara. Isabel Rules: Constructing Queenship, Wielding Power. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.
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  129. A savvy cultural-studies approach deploying literary sources ranging from anonymous pornography to an innovative treatise that increased the powers of chess queens.
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  131. Shadow Monarchs, 1474–1621
  132. Early modern Europe saw three nominal female monarchs, each for a peculiar reason. The first, Catherine Cornaro (1474–1489), the teenaged widow of a king of Cyprus, was a puppet of Venice, Europe’s most powerful republic, who proclaimed her monarch and later deposed her (Hunt and Hunt 1989). The second woman, Isabel la católica’s twenty-six-year-old daughter, Juana la loca (1504–1555), became Castile’s “proprietary monarch” together with her “legitimate husband.” Widowed in 1506, she refused to fulfill any political responsibilities, causing almost fifty years of constitutional confusion (Aram 1998, Aram 2005). The third woman, the thirty-two-year-old Spanish Infanta, Isabel Clara Eugenia (1598–1621), was named joint sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands on condition that she marry her cousin, Archduke Albert. Their autonomy was always limited, and because they were childless, she lost sovereign status after her husband’s death (van Wyhe 2011, Duerloo 2012).
  133. Aram, Bethany. “Juana ‘the Mad’s’ Signature: The Problem of Invoking Royal Authority, 1505–1507.” Sixteenth Century Journal 29 (1998): 333–361.
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  135. Useful study of her “paper trail” before her permanent seclusion.
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  137. Aram, Bethany. Juana the Mad: Sovereignty and Dynasty in Renaissance Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
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  139. An unconvincing attempt to affirm Juana’s “agency” in dynastic and religious, if not political, terms.
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  141. Duerloo, Luc. Dynasty and Piety: Archduke Albert (1598–1621) and Habsburg Political Culture in an Age of Religious Wars. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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  143. Excellent study of Isabel Clara Eugenia’s cousin, husband, and co-ruler, emphasizing the autonomy of their regime.
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  145. Hunt, David, and Iro Hunt, eds. Caterina Cornaro: Queen of Cyprus. London: Trigraph, 1989.
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  147. The contribution by Joachim G. Joachim provides by far the best introduction to her “reign” in English.
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  149. van Wyhe, Cordula, ed. Isabel Clara Eugenia: Female Sovereignty in the Courts of Madrid and Brussels. London: Holborton, 2011.
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  151. Lavishly illustrated and well-annotated collection by fifteen Belgian and Spanish experts.
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  153. Husbands Limited, 1553–1565
  154. All three women who inherited kingdoms in the 1550s found various ways to limit the political authority of their husbands (the fourth woman avoided marriage). In 1553, Mary Tudor acquired England at age thirty-six and soon married a younger cousin who already possessed both royal status and a son. As several recent studies such as Edwards 2011, Richards 2008, and Loades 1989 have noted, her husband became co-ruler, but without a coronation or defined political responsibilities, and lost all authority when she died. Jeanne III (1555–1572) inherited Navarre at age twenty-eight and had a dual coronation with her husband, but her biographers (Roelker 1968, Bertou d’Aas 2002) note that she repudiated his authority shortly before his death in 1562 and governed alone for ten years. In 1558, the sixteen-year-old Mary Stuart, who had been sovereign of Scotland since birth, married the French Dauphin and gave him Scotland’s “crown matrimonial.” After his death in 1560, she returned to govern Scotland alone and eventually remarried a younger man without ceding him the “crown matrimonial.” After his murder in 1567, she remarried a subject and was quickly forced to abdicate. Several notable recent appraisals of “Mary Queen of Scots” (Wormald 2001, Guy 2004, Warnicke 2006) have challenged her now-classic biography, Fraser 1969.
  155. Berdou d’Aas, Bernard. Jeanne III d’Albret: Chronique, 1528–1572. Anglet, France: Atlantica, 2002.
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  157. Provides a more detailed local political framework for her reign.
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  159. Edwards, John. Mary I: England’s Catholic Queen. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.
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  161. Provides rich Anglo-Spanish diplomatic documentation.
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  163. Fraser, Antonia. Mary Queen of Scots. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969.
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  165. The classic and basically favorable modern biography, gracefully written and reprinted thirty times.
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  167. Guy, John A. Queen of Scots: The True Life of Mary Stuart. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.
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  169. A noted Tudor expert offers the first comprehensive scholarly re-examination in a generation, with some fresh information; blames William Cecil for Mary’s troubles.
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  171. Loades, David. Mary Tudor: A Life. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.
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  173. The classic “Establishment” version, subsequently abridged and updated by the author as Mary Tudor: The Tragical History of the First Queen of England (Kew, UK: National Archives, 2006).
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  175. Richards, Judith M. Mary Tudor. London: Routledge, 2008.
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  177. Offers the most satisfactory gendered study of her reign.
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  179. Roelker, Nancy L. Queen of Navarre: Jeanne d’Albret (1528–1572). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
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  181. A highly readable classic biography of a Huguenot heroine.
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  183. Warnicke, Retha M. Mary Queen of Scots. London: Routledge, 2006.
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  185. The most satisfactory recent biography, less dismissive than Wormald 2001 and half as long as Guy 2004; incorporates feminist analysis.
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  187. Wormald, Jenny. Mary, Queen of Scots: Politics, Passion and a Kingdom Lost. London: Tauris Parke, 2001.
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  189. Acidly negative political assessment by historian of Scotland, a slightly revised version of her Mary Queen of Scots: A Study in Failure (London: G. Phillip, 1988).
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  191. Avoiding Marriage, 1558–1654
  192. For the first time in European history, two never-married heiresses governed major kingdoms for long periods. In 1558, twenty-five-year-old Elizabeth Tudor succeeded her half-sister as monarch of England; she reigned forty-five years and neither married nor named a successor. In 1632, six-year-old Christina of Sweden inherited her father’s kingdom and presided over her Council of State at eighteen. Refusing to marry, she arranged her succession before abdicating in 1654 and becoming Catholic.
  193. Elizabeth I
  194. “Good Queen Bess” seems an inexhaustible subject and already possesses a separate entry elsewhere in this series. This selection offers a few benchmarks useful for studying her in the context of female monarchy: the classical biography (Neale 1934); the first book-length feminist perspective (Levin 1994); the best annotated selection of her writings (Marcus, et al 2000); the richest recent cultural study (Montrose 2006); and the best Continental study of her reign (Cottret 2009).
  195. Cottret, Bernard. La royauté au féminin: Elisabeth Ire d’Angleterre. Paris: Fayard, 2009.
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  197. A much-needed Continental perspective on a sophisticated yet insular monarch.
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  199. Levin, Carole. The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994.
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  201. Pioneering work at the intersection of gender and monarchical power.
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  203. Marcus, Leah, Janel Mueller, and Mary Beth Rose, eds. Elizabeth I: Collected Works. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
  204. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226504711.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  205. Outstanding critical edition of her major speeches, letters, poems, and prayers.
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  207. Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
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  209. Interdisciplinary exploration of the cultural manifestations of power in female hands.
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  211. Neale, John E. Elizabeth I. London: Cape, 1934.
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  213. Remains the classical biography, without footnotes.
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  215. Christina of Sweden
  216. The only significant female monarch of 17th-century Europe (for whom a separate entry in this series has been announced) was seldom honored in her native kingdom, which she abandoned at age twenty-eight, until a belated celebration (von Platen 1966). All biographers of this extremely cosmopolitan woman build from a five-volume collection of her works by an 18th-century German; the most successful recent biographer of this “European eccentric” is a New Zealander (Buckley 2004) and the most useful edition of her writings is French (de Reymond 1994).
  217. Buckley, Veronica. Christina, Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric. New York: HarperCollins, 2004.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. The best recent biography, already translated into several languages, including Swedish.
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  221. de Reymond, Jean-François, ed. Apologies de Christine: Reine de Suède. Paris: Cerf, 1994.
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  223. Most accessible edition of her principal writings after her abdication.
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  225. von Platen, Magnus, ed. Queen Christina of Sweden: Documents and Studies. Stockholm: Nationalmuseum, 1966.
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  227. Essays from a multinational exhibition that began a reassessment of her European importance.
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