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Hundred Years War (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. “The Hundred Years War” is a term invented in the 18th century and popularized by Chrysanthe-Ovide Des Michels’s 1823 tableau chronologique describing the period of conflict between 1337, when Philip VI of France formally confiscated the French possessions of his vassal, Edward III of England, and 1453, when the English attempt to recover Gascony (which had been overrun in 1451) was crushed at the battle of Castillon, leaving the English with no land in France except Calais. The principal immediate causes of the war were conflicts over the degree of sovereignty the English crown would exercise in Scotland and Aquitaine, but by 1340 these issues had become irreversibly intertwined with Edward’s claim that he, rather than Philip, was the rightful heir of Charles IV of France. By the late 19th century, the idea that this prolonged struggle had a basic unity that entitled it to a proper name was solidly entrenched. There has now been well over a century’s worth of scholarly output on the war itself eo nomine, its origins and diplomacy, its battles and campaigns, its devastating effects on France, and so on. Nineteenth-century French historians in particular made many distinguished contributions to the study of the war, many of which are still useful. Throughout the 20th century, numerous prominent historians added important studies to the literature. Because of the bulk of the scholarly work in the field, a large number of older but still important articles and books have had to be omitted from this entry; the bibliographies and notes found in the more recent works cited, however, can guide the reader to them. Societies at war for extended periods cannot but be strongly affected by that fact, and the Hundred Years War both influenced and was influenced by almost every aspect of human life in France, England, and Scotland during its long course. Some of the changes brought on or molded by the war were of the greatest significance for the general development of European history and, ultimately, of world history: The extended struggle was a chief engine of the early development of nationalism and the proto–nation-state, and of the rise of Parliament in England and a strong centralized monarchy in France. Moreover, the war’s developments in military technology (particularly artillery) and military organization provided key foundations for Europe’s rise to global hegemony in the centuries after its conclusion.
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  5. Introductory Works
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  7. Two of the best introductions to this topic—works combining narrative summaries and thematic studies—are the work of Kenneth Fowler. Fowler 1967, though heavily illustrated in a coffee-table-book format, reflects impressive scholarship, and is especially good on military matters. Fowler 1973 is a “unit” within the Open University textbook on war and society. Though obscure and hard to come by, it can be an excellent starting point for the study of this conflict. Allmand 1988, a short textbook designed for undergraduate history courses, is also very good. See Narratives for introductions to the war in that genre.
  8.  
  9. Allmand, Christopher Thomas. The Hundred Years War: England and France at War, c. 1300– c. 1450. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
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  11. Follows a thirty-one-page summary narrative with sections on intellectual approaches to war; the conduct of war; institutions of war; social change; national sentiment; and literature. A concise introduction to the subject by one of its top scholars, a 15th-century specialist.
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  13. Fowler, Kenneth Alan. The Age of Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Supremacy, 1328–1498. New York: Putnam, 1967.
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  15. Could have been subtitled “The Hundred Years War.” Divided into four sections: a narrative, a discussion of the military structures and leaders on both sides, a section on “chivalry, war and society,” and another on “court patronage and the arts.” Richly illustrated. Although the text unfortunately lacks endnote numbers, the notes themselves are given at the back of the book.
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  17. Fowler, Kenneth Alan. “The Hundred Years War.” In The Study of War and Society: Thucydides to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by Arthur Marwick and Open University, War and Society Course Team, 171–210. Bletchley, UK: Open University Press, 1973.
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  19. A gem of concision, covering much of the same ground as Fowler 1967 (with many source quotations) in just forty pages. Intended for self-study, with comprehension questions and sample answers.
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  21. Encyclopedias and Biographical Reference Works
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  23. Due to the breadth of their coverage, the standard encyclopedias on medieval history and on military history tend not to be very helpful regarding the Hundred Years War. Fortunately, Wagner 2006 fills this niche admirably. The Britons who played major, and even not-so-major, roles in the war mostly have well-researched entries in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. For all its reach, the latter does not extend much below the level of men who in another era might be called “general officers.” Details on the service of the workaday captains and even individual soldiers, toward whom scholarly attention is increasingly turning, can be found in the freely accessible database The Soldier in Later Medieval England.
  24.  
  25. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. Edited by Lawrence Goldman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  27. Includes entries on literally thousands of medieval Britons. Each entry is written by an expert and includes references. The entries can be quite substantial; for example, the one for Edward III is more than 13,000 words; his lieutenant Sir Thomas Dagworth gets over 1,100 words.
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  29. The Soldier in Later Medieval England.
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  31. Co-directed by Anne Curry and Adrian Bell. Arts and Humanities Research Council–funded database derived from extensive muster, protection, and garrison rolls produced by the English crown from 1369 to 1453. Makes it possible to trace the outlines of the military careers of common soldiers who are individually invisible in narrative sources.
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  33. Wagner, John A., ed. Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006.
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  35. A single-authored reference work, which includes generally up-to-date references for further reading for each of 256 entries.
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  37. Bibliographies
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  39. DeVries 2002 is a prize-winning bibliography that is the place to start. The CD version is searchable, as is the exhaustive listing of articles in the International Medieval Bibliography and the comparably broad Iter bibliography, which also includes books and dissertations. Those three resources are invaluable for finding out what studies relating to a particular topic exist, but they offer little guidance (beyond the titles) as to the content of the works. The bibliographies of Guth 1976 and Rosenthal 1994 are somewhat more informative, but less comprehensive—they do not cover the first phase of the war, or works dealing with the conflict from the French perspective. Margolis 1990 has fuller annotations on a much narrower topic—Joan of Arc. Of course, most of the works listed in this entry have their own bibliographies, which can be used to guide the reader to the literature of particular topics within or periods of the war.
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  41. DeVries, Kelly. A Cumulative Bibliography of Medieval Military History and Technology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  43. Provides more than 170 pages of entries under its various Hundred Years War subheadings (e.g., Origins, Agincourt, Joan of Arc, Brittany, Navies, etc.), totaling around 1,700 items—though this includes some outside the usual chronological and geographic boundaries (and only tangential to war). Not annotated. The updates, published in 2004 and 2006, include older works omitted from previous volumes.
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  45. Guth, DeLloyd. Late Medieval England (1377–1485). Conference on British Studies Bibliographical Handbooks 5. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press for the Conference on British Studies, 1976.
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  47. Has the advantage of (brief) annotations for most entries, and cross-referencing to other related works.
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  49. International Medieval Bibliography. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
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  51. Comprehensive database of journal articles and chapters in conference proceedings, essay collections, and Festschriften dealing with Europe, North Africa, and the Near East from 400 to 1500, across the scholarly disciplines. Covers works written since 1967.
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  53. Iter.
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  55. An extensive searchable bibliography of books, book chapters, journal articles, reviews, and dissertations dealing with all aspects of the period 400–1700. Strongest on material published since 1980. Interface functionality is somewhat limited. Requires subscription.
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  57. Margolis, Nadia. Joan of Arc in History, Literature, and Film: A Select, Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1990.
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  59. Although this work is as much about the image of Joan of Arc as the historical figure, Margolis’s useful annotations can help the reader sift through the bulky literature on Joan, which is quite variable in approach and in quality.
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  61. Rosenthal, Joel T. Late Medieval England (1377–1485): A Bibliography of Historical Scholarship, 1975–1989. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute, 1994.
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  63. Updates Guth 1976 in the same format, with more entries than Guth has despite the restricted time frame.
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  65. Sources: Studies and Reference Works
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  67. The published sources for the Hundred Years War, particularly the chronicle sources, are plentiful, but also tricky to use properly. There are detailed studies of only a few of the main chroniclers, notably Froissart (Palmer 1981), but Kingsford 1913, Gransden 1982, and Grente, et al. 1992 between them offer convenient introductions to the main 14th- and 15th-century historical writers. Given-Wilson 2004, which focuses on the period of the Hundred Years War, guides the reader in understanding the chronicle genre. For British record sources, Tout 1920–1933 remains invaluable.
  68.  
  69. Given-Wilson, Chris. Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England. London and New York: Hambledon and London, 2004.
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  71. A synthetic discussion of, mainly, English chroniclers writing from 1270 to 1430, aiming to explore the mindset that created the chronicles which to a great extent provide the framework for our understanding of the war.
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  73. Gransden, Antonia. Historical Writing in England. Vol. 2, c. 1307 to the Early Sixteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982.
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  75. The basic guide to the English chroniclers of the war: their biases, their sources of information, and the topics on which each is particularly valuable.
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  77. Grente, Georges, Robert Bossuat, Louis Pichard, Guy Raynaud de Lage, Michel Zink, and Geneviève Hasenohr. Dictionnaire des Lettres Françaises. Le Moyen Age. Rev. ed. Paris: Fayard/LGF-Livre de Poche, 1992.
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  79. Includes virtually every significant French or Francophone author of the period. Entries include information on editions of the authors’ texts and also references to scholarship on the writer and his or her works. Anonymous works are included, listed under their titles.
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  81. Kingsford, Charles Lethbridge. English Historical Literature in the Fifteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913.
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  83. Still valuable despite its Whiggish cast, which stresses “the beginnings and growth of the great ideas which were to make the next age so memorable.” Treats poetry, ballads, and letter collections as well as chroniclers and the significant set of biographers of Henry V, examining them both as works of literature and as sources for historians. Includes some previously unpublished short chronicle texts. Available online
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  85. Palmer, John Joseph Norman, ed. Froissart, Historian. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1981.
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  87. Jean Froissart’s chronicle is probably the richest contemporary narrative of the Hundred Years War, from its outbreak through 1400. However, for a variety of reasons the reliability of his work is erratic, making this collection of topical essays by well-chosen authors a very valuable guide to his work.
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  89. Tout, Thomas F. Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England. 6 vols. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1920–1933.
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  91. For a long time now historians have relied as much as possible on record documents, rather than narrative texts, in writing the history of the war. In order to properly understand the voluminous documents produced by the late medieval English government, one must understand the administrative machinery that produced them, and for this Tout remains fundamental.
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  93. Primary Source Collections
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  95. The contemporary narrative sources for the war are rich: There are literally dozens of important chronicles, far too many to list even the most significant ones here. Most of these texts were published in the 19th or early 20th century. The archival materials relevant to the war are truly vast; even the published documentary collections and “calendars” (documents in summary transcript form) extend to hundreds of printed volumes. Many of these printed narrative and documentary sources can now be found online as downloadable PDFs in various places, notably the Internet Archive and Gallica, the online branch of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Some improved editions and translations have appeared more recently, for example, in the Oxford Medieval Texts series. This entry focuses on scholarly work rather than source material, but the collection of sources in this section incorporate translated samples of a wide variety of the most useful ones. Allmand 1998 covers the whole war; Rogers 1999 the period through 1377. Barber 2002 focuses on the Crécy campaign of 1346, the Black Prince’s expedition of 1355–1356 (including the Battle of Poitiers), and the initial English intervention in Iberia in 1364. Instead of a few sources on each of many topics, Curry 2000 provides a nearly exhaustive collection of primary source materials for a single campaign, Henry V’s invasion of 1415, with its culmination in the battle of Agincourt.
  96.  
  97. Allmand, Christopher Thomas. Society at War: The Experience of England and France during the Hundred Years War. 2d ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1998.
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  99. Covers the whole chronological range of the war with excerpts from chronicle sources, treaties and treatises, financial accounts, administrative documents, etc. Particularly strong on how contemporaries thought about how and why war should be fought. This edition differs from the 1973 edition mainly with new bibliographical material and historiographical comments.
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  101. Barber, Richard, ed. and trans. Life and Campaigns of the Black Prince. 2d ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2002.
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  103. Page for page, perhaps the best introduction to the narrative primary sources for the military conduct of the first phases of the war. Includes campaign dispatches, selections from Le Baker’s chronicle, and all of the Acta Bellicosa (a fragmentary narrative of the 1346 campaign) and Chandos Herald’s Life of the Black Prince.
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  105. Curry, Anne, ed. The Battle of Agincourt: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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  107. Translates the relevant portions of twenty-six 15th-century chronicles, several 16th-century historians, contemporary and later literary works such as the Agincout Carol and Alain Chartier’s Livre des quatre dames, and sample administrative records. The latter group includes, for example, an indenture, a pass for soldiers to return home from the army, and soldiers’ petitions regarding wages and prisoners.
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  109. Gallica. Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
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  111. The online branch of the French national library, Gallica makes available many books, scholarly journals, etc., that are now in the public domain. They can be downloaded at no cost. The collection strongly emphasizes works in French and/or about France.
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  113. Internet Archive.
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  115. The Internet Archive is a nonprofit website dedicated to preserving and providing permanent access to materials of all sorts posted to the World Wide Web. This includes very many pre-1923 books, posted mainly in PDF and DjVu formats, which can be downloaded for free. Some are formatted to be searchable after download.
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  117. Rogers, Clifford J., ed. The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1999.
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  119. A selection of texts assembled to provide a primary-source narrative of the military operations for the first phases of the war. In addition to excerpts from twenty-nine different published and manuscript chronicles, includes campaign bulletins, diplomatic documents, and administrative records.
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  121. Taylor, Craig, ed. and trans. Joan of Arc, la Pucelle. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2006.
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  123. Although the topic is relatively narrow, its perennial interest makes it worth noting here. Taylor’s collection of more than one hundred texts draws from much more than the usual transcripts from Joan’s trial and its nullification.
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  125. Journals
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  127. The study of the Hundred Years War falls at the intersection of military history and medieval history, and the scholarly journals in both those areas have published relevant studies, as have more general historical journals. Most of the relevant English-language journals, and some of the French ones, are available online. The searchable online journal collections, including JSTOR (for English-language journals) and Persée (for French journals), make it easy to find articles relevant to any topic of research. The Journal of Medieval Military History is now the main journal outlet for research on the war, with its seventh volume thus focused, although, as of the most recent updating of this bibliography, that volume has not been uploaded to the website.
  128.  
  129. Journal of Medieval Military History. (2002–).
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  131. The annual journal of De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History.Its first six volumes include six articles dealing with the Hundred Years War and several others of tangential relevance; Volume 7 (2009) is a special volume devoted to the subject. Only the first six volumes are available online online at the time of this writing.
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  133. JSTOR.
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  135. A nonprofit organization providing a mammoth electronic archive of various materials, principally scholarly journals, with full text search capabilities. Full backlists of all included journals are available, except for the most recent years. Among the most useful journals available are the English Historical Review, the Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, the Medieval Academy’s journal Speculum, and the Journal of Military History.
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  137. Persée.
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  139. Website for the electronic publication of select French scientific journals. Includes searchable full or near-full runs of the Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes, Médiévales, Mélanges de l’Ecole Française de Rome, and the journal Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales. Articles can be downloaded as PDFs. Free access.
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  141. Narratives
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  143. The lead-up to the war and its course from 1337 to 1399 are now described in great detail in the first three volumes of Jonathan Sumption’s monumental narrative history of the war (Sumption 1990–2009). The only really good single-volume general narratives of the war are by French historians. The fullest is Favier 1980; Contamine 1972 is written on a more digestible scale; both are more reliable than the old standby, Perroy 1965, which, however, is the only one of the three to have been translated into English. Those seeking a focus on the military conduct of the war can turn (with some caution) to Burne 1991b and Burne 1991a or, for the period to 1360, to Rogers 2000. From that chronological point, one can pick up with Palmer 1972 for the reign of Richard II. For the resumption of the war under Henry V, Jacob 1947, though dated in some respects, remains a solid and concise overview. The same period (and up through 1424) is treated in more detail in Newhall 1924, which has held up extremely well. To supplement these works—especially for the reign of Henry VI—one can draw on the Biographies and Regional Histories section. Narratives of individual campaigns are covered in a separate section (see Battles and Campaigns).
  144.  
  145. Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. London: Greenhill, 1991a.
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  147. Shares the virtues and weaknesses of Burne 1991b. What the author calls “The Duguesclin War” (1369–1396) and the truce of 1396–1415 are covered briefly. Especially useful for the relatively minor combats of the war, such as Valmont 1416 and Patay 1429.
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  149. Burne, Alfred H. The Crecy War. London: Greenhill, 1991b.
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  151. The work of an artillery officer turned military historian, not quite scholarly, but based on research in primary sources. Very much written from a British perspective. The conclusions the author reaches based on “inherent military probability” should be neither relied upon nor dismissed out of hand. An enjoyable read; focuses on battles and the greater sieges. Covers the period to 1360.
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  153. Contamine, Philippe. La guerre de Cent ans. 2d ed. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1972.
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  155. A focused and very concise narrative in 126 (small) pages, by the leading scholar of the war. Intended for a general audience; not documented.
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  157. Favier, Jean. La guerre de Cent ans. Paris: Fayard, 1980.
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  159. Fuller than Contamine 1972 or Perroy 1965; a lighter read than the former and more reliable than the latter. The author, a distinguished medievalist, was for many years the director of the French national archives.
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  161. Jacob, Ernest Fraser. Henry V and the Invasion of France. London: English Universities Press, 1947.
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  163. Intended for the general reader interested in self-education, this short book is old-fashioned in its basic method, which is to use a (partial) biography of a “great man” to illuminate a historical period. Although it lacks scholarly documentation, it is the work of a historian with deep expertise in the period and its sources.
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  165. Newhall, Richard Ager. The English Conquest of Normandy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1924.
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  167. A thoroughly researched military narrative of the period 1416–1424, supplemented by thematic chapters on finance, organization, and logistics.
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  169. Palmer, John Joseph Norman. England, France, and Christendom, 1377–1399. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972.
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  171. An analysis of the Hundred Years War during the reign of Richard II, with emphasis on diplomacy—the difficulties, success, and implications of negotiations for a long truce or “half-peace,” which Richard desired. Also provides good coverage of the conduct of the war, stressing the intensity with which it was waged between 1375 and 1388.
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  173. Perroy, Édouard. The Hundred Years War. Translated by Warre Bradley Wells. New York: Capricorn, 1965.
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  175. Although mostly composed over one winter while the author was in hiding from the Nazis, without access to a scholarly library, this book was for years widely considered the best on the subject. Perroy’s strong opinions about individuals help make sense of the era, but are often debatable. Much stronger on politics than on warfare.
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  177. Rogers, Clifford J. War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy under Edward III, 1327–1360. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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  179. Most modern narratives of Edward III’s campaigns have assumed that the English strategy of the period aimed to avoid pitched battles, and that Crécy and Poitiers were therefore strategic failures rescued by tactical excellence. This study argues that the English consistently sought battle, as long as they could fight on the tactical defensive. This perspective leads to substantial reinterpretations of the campaign and diplomatic narrative.
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  181. Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. 3 vols. London: Faber and Faber, 1990–2009.
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  183. Exceptionally detailed, based on exhaustive research including work in many archives. Guides the reader through a maze of politics, finance, and warfare with a sure hand. Using a bottom-up perspective and well-chosen vignettes, Sumption emphasizes the horrors of war.
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  185. Biographies and Regional Histories
  186.  
  187. The top-down approach to the history of war of works in this category is somewhat unfashionable among scholars today, though the major figures of the war continue to attract top scholars as biographers. These are very useful for the subject of this bibliography, because the monarchs and governments of the belligerent powers were deeply invested in the war effort, left rich documentation of their efforts, and to a great extent determined the course of the war. Although no one seems to be writing multivolume, archivally based regnal histories anymore, that by no means indicates the approach lacks value. Rather, one reason contemporary scholars have tended to write more focused or thematically driven monographs is because historians like Roland Delachenal did their work so well that there was no need to continue cutting from the same patterns.
  188.  
  189. France
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  191. The distinguished French medievalist Jules Viard intended to write a full-scale biography of Philip VI but did not live to do so. A number of detailed biographies by major scholars do, however, cover the lives of the remaining French monarchs of the war, and of the king-like Valois dukes of Burgundy. Gaston du Fresne Beaucourt’s history of Charles VII (Beaucourt 1881–1891) and Roland Delachenal’s of Charles V (Delachenal 1909–1931) are typical of the best French historical work of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting exhaustive research and providing masses of detailed information backed by thorough footnotes. Despite being so much more recent, Vaughan 2008 is comparable in approach. Autrand 1986 and Vale 1974 are more synthetic. A good biography of Constable Bertrand du Guesclin remains a desideratum. For Joan of Arc see the separate section Joan of Arc.
  192.  
  193. Autrand, Françoise. Charles VI: La Folie du Roi. Paris: Fayard, 1986.
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  195. The work of a distinguished political historian. Like her biography of Charles V, it is vigorously written and insightful, but unfortunately it lacks scholarly documentation. In this case, that is particularly a shame because the student does not have a Delachenal or Beaucourt to turn to for footnotes.
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  197. Beaucourt, Gaston du Fresne. Historie de Charles VII. Paris: Picard, 1881–1891.
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  199. The fruit of decades of research in the archives of France, England, Rome, and the Low Countries, this massive work presents to the reader almost everything that can be found in the sources to cast light on its subject. Dozens of documents are appended as pièces justificatives.
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  201. Delachenal, Roland. Histoire de Charles V. 5 vols. Paris: Alphonse Picard and Fils, 1909–1931.
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  203. Impressive scholarship, great detail, and sound judgment make this classic work still indispensable for the French perspective.
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  205. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. Charles VII. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
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  207. A much more digested biography than Beaucourt’s. Sets Charles in the context of the government he headed and tries to get at his character from his actions. Recognizes Charles’s mutability and distrustfulness but sees him as an important actor in history nonetheless.
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  209. Vaughan, Richard. The Dukes of Valois Burgundy. 4 vols. Philip the Bold; John the Fearless; Philip the Good; Charles the Bold. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2008.
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  211. New edition of a series of biographies originally published between 1962 and 1973. Treats the development of Burgundy as a state and its role in the war, as well as the characters of his protagonists. An easy read, with extended quotations from the sources.
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  213. England
  214.  
  215. Edward III, his son the Black Prince, his cousin Henry of Lancaster, and his great-grandson Henry V were prime movers in shaping the course of the war, and their biographies are very helpful in following and understanding its events and their causes. Although opinionated and perhaps sometimes overreaching its evidence, Mortimer 2007 is the best available biography of Edward III, and gives all due attention to his military endeavors. The Black Prince has attracted numerous biographers, but the best overall treatment remains Barber 1978. Fowler 1969 covers the career of probably the most important nonroyal soldier of the first phase of the war. As one might expect from an author who has written extensively in the war and society genre, Allmand devotes large sections of his biography of Henry V (Allmand 1992) to the war and related matters. For the final phases of the war, since Henry VI was not a martial king, the biographies of his regent John of Bedford (Williams 1963) and arguably his top general John Talbot (Pollard 1983) are more useful.
  216.  
  217. Allmand, Christopher Thomas. Henry V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
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  219. A traditional narrative biography (particularly useful for Prince Henry’s military education) composes almost half the book, but the rest is thematically organized, including chapters focusing on the army and navy, on the royal family (figures important in the war far beyond Henry’s reign), and on Parliament and finance.
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  221. Barber, Richard. Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. London: Allen Lane, 1978.
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  223. Enjoyable, reliable, and overall the best biography of the victor of Crécy, Poitiers, and Nájera. More sympathetic to the prince than, for example, Perroy or Sumption (see Narratives). Like Prince Edward’s, Barber’s focus in on military matters.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Fowler, Kenneth Alan. The King’s Lieutenant: Henry of Grosmont, First Duke of Lancaster, 1310–1361. London: Elek, 1969.
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  227. Henry of Grosmont was the greatest magnate of England in his day, a genuinely outstanding military commander, and an important figure in diplomacy. Fowler’s biography makes his importance to the war clear.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Mortimer, Ian. The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation. London: Pimlico, 2007.
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  231. Easily the best biography of the warrior-king who shaped the course of the first phase of the Hundred Years War. Presents a rounded but very favorable view of Edward.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Pollard, Anthony James. John Talbot and the War in France, 1427–1453. London: Royal Historical Society, 1983.
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  235. Particularly valuable for the understudied military history of the period 1435–1453, when Talbot was the most important English general. Pollard takes a balanced view of his subject.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Williams, Ethel Carleton. My Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longman, 1963.
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  239. Emphasizes military and diplomatic aspects of the life of Henry V’s brother, who was regent of France from 1422 to 1435.
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  241. Wylie, James Hamilton, and William Templeton Waugh. The Reign of Henry the Fifth. 3 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1914–1929.
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  243. Very detailed and thoroughly researched. The extensive footnotes can be a blessing in guiding the researcher through the sources, published and unpublished, but one should consult more recent work before accepting the authors’ judgments. Available online.
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  245. Collections of Essays: Multiple Authors
  246.  
  247. Fowler 1971, a collection of commissioned pieces, is an exceptionally good composite overview of the war; Curry and Hughes 1994, though not as comprehensive, is more up to date and contains some outstanding essays. Rogers 1999 includes reprints of a selection of key articles providing broad coverage of the 14th-century phase of the war; Bothwell 2001 is more focused on politics. Villalon and Kagay 2005, Villalon and Kagay 2008, Allmand 1976, Contamine, et al. 1991, and Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes 1988 offer diverse samplings of recent research on topics tangential as well as directly relevant to the Hundred Years War. For essays on the relationships between literature and the war, see Literature.
  248.  
  249. Allmand, Christopher Thomas, ed. War, Literature, and Politics in the Late Middle Ages. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1976.
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  251. Nearly all the contributions in this Festschrift for G. W. Coopland deal with Hundred Years War topics: chivalry and the laws of war, artillery, spying, Breton identity, and the interface between ecclesiastical reform and the politics of the war.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Bothwell, James, ed. The Age of Edward III. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2001.
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  255. Deals with rewards for service to Edward III and the Black Prince; Thomas Ughtred and “Military Revolution”; Edward and the French throne; propaganda; and diplomacy, 1354–1360.
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  257. Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes. La “France Anglaise” au Moyen Age. Paris: Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, 1988.
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  259. Deals mainly, though not entirely, with the Hundred Years War. Examines divided loyalties, treasons, collaboration with and resistance to occupation, transfers of sovereignty, arms-bearing, royal ideology, the war’s impact on 15th-century Compiègne, Normandy, Caux and the Vexin, and more. Mostly in French.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Contamine, Philippe, Charles Giry-Deloison, and Maurice H. Keen, eds. Guerre et société en France, en Angleterre et en Bourgogne: XIVe–XVe siècle. Histoire et littératures régionales 8. Lille, France: Centre d’Histoire de la Region du Nord et de l’Europe du Nord-ouest, 1991.
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  263. Topics include campaign dispatches; contemporary French opinion regarding the war, soldiers, and Poitiers; ransom brokerage; the court of chivalry; the Burgundian military; chains as urban defenses. Essays in French and English.
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  265. Curry, Anne, and Michael Hughes, eds. Arms, Armies, and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1994.
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  267. Particularly good are the essays dealing with the English army’s organization in the 14th and 15th centuries, the two dealing with the impact of the war on English and French society, and one focusing on the Gascon theater.
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  269. Fowler, Kenneth Alan, ed. The Hundred Years War. London: Macmillan, 1971.
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  271. A set of commissioned essays that collectively provide an outstanding thematic overview of the war: origins; war aims, truces, and peace negotiations; the English and French aristocracies; noncombatants; naval aspects.
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  273. Rogers, Clifford J., ed. The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations. Warfare in History 9. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1999.
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  275. Along with a selection of source materials (drawn from twenty-four chroniclers and a variety of records), this volume reprints articles dealing with the origins of the war, the organization of English armies and the English war effort, Edward III’s war aims and strategy, and the impact of the war on France and on the development of Parliament.
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  277. Villalon, L. J. Andrew, and Donald J. Kagay, eds. The Hundred Years War (Part I): A Wider Focus. History of Warfare 25. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  279. The focus is even wider than the title implies; some contributions are about contemporary military topics only tangentially connected to the Hundred Years War. Includes (among others) articles on Spanish and Brabantine involvement in the war, military activity by London and Toulouse, English strategy in 1415, Joan of Arc, and gunpowder artillery’s effectiveness.
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  281. Villalon, L. J. Andrew, and Donald J. Kagay, eds. The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. History of Warfare 51. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
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  283. Like its predecessor, this volume includes material not strictly on topic—for example, two studies of the War of the Two Pedros and one dealing with John Hawkwood in Italy. Also covers Agincourt; the longbow; historical memory (Agincourt, du Guesclin); war finance; Robert of Artois; chivalry and the Combat of the Thirty; and Chastellain.
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  285. Collections of Essays: Single Author
  286.  
  287. Philippe Contamine is the most important military historian of late-medieval France, and most of the studies in Contamine 1981 and Contamine 1994 deal with the Hundred Years War. The collections DeVries 2002, Keen 1996, and Sherborne 1994 are most important for, respectively, technology, chivalry, and naval matters.
  288.  
  289. Contamine, Philippe. La France au XIVe et XVe siècles: Hommes, mentalités, guerre et paix. London: Variorum, 1981.
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  291. Reprints essays on the financial and economic aspects of the war, the French nobility in the war, ideas about war and peace, and particularly valuable articles on the Free Companies and on ransoms and booty in English Normandy.
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  293. Contamine, Philippe. De Jeanne d’Arc aux guerres d’Italie. Orléans, France: Paradigme, 1994.
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  295. Includes among other essays reflections on the nature of the war (feudal, dynastic, or national; just or unjust by contemporary standards) and studies addressing Joan of Arc as prophetess, myth, military figure, and in memory.
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  297. DeVries, Kelly. Guns and Men in Medieval Europe, 1200–1500. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 2002.
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  299. Collects previously published essays dealing with (among other topics) the naval battle of Sluys in 1340, the sieges of Tournai in 1340 and Calais in 1346–1347; Joan of Arc as a military leader; and, especially, the use and effectiveness of gunpowder weapons.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Keen, Maurice. Nobles, Knights, and Men-at-Arms in the Middle Ages. London: Hambledon, 1996.
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  303. Keen is probably the best writer on knightly martial culture. Here, looking mainly at the period of the Hundred Years War, he treats brotherhood in arms, heralds and heraldic disputes, tournaments, crusades, constables’ courts and treason trials (and also Henry V’s diplomacy). Valuable for understanding the worldview of the leaders and middling soldiers of the war.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Sherborne, James W. War, Politics, and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England. Edited by James W. Sherborne and Anthony Tuck. London: Hambledon Press, 1994.
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  307. Important for military organization, war finance, and naval matters, 1369–1399.
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  309. Origins and War Aims
  310.  
  311. Historians now generally see Edward III’s claim to the French throne as a principal reason why the war lasted so long, but not as a major cause for its outbreak. Déprez 1902 provided the foundation for later work, and has not been superseded. Several of the key articles of the next generations of interpreters (by George Templeman, John Le Patourel, and James Campbell) on the subject are reprinted in Rogers 1999 and can be supplemented by Cuttino’s historiographical survey (Cuttino 1956). Some scholars, such as Vale, now emphasize conflicts over the degree of autonomous control the English would have over Aquitaine (Vale 1996); others—notably Campbell (in Rogers 1999) and Rogers 2000—argue that the Aquitanian issues could have been solved politically, but French interference in Edward III’s effort to assert English suzerainty over Scotland pushed the two larger realms into war. Since interpretations of origins and war aims depend to a substantial degree on records of later peace negotiations, see also Diplomacy.
  312.  
  313. Cuttino, George Peddy. “Historical Revision: The Causes of the Hundred Years’ War.” Speculum 31 (1956).
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  315. Historiographical survey, summarizing the debate prior to its publication and ultimately emphasizing issues arising from the French shift from accepting suzerainty over Aquitaine to demanding sovereignty.
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  317. Déprez, Eugene. Les préliminaires de la guerre de cent ans: La papauté, la France et l’Angleterre (1328–1342). Paris: A. Fontemoing, 1902.
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  319. Despite its age, this work remains essential for the outbreak of the war, particularly for the role of papal peace envoys. Includes numerous quotations from and summaries of still unpublished documents.
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  321. Rogers, Clifford J., ed. The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1999.
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  323. Includes reprints of three key articles dealing with (among other subjects) the outbreak of the war. Campbell argues that Scotland was the “immediate cause” of the Hundred Years War; Templeman does not disagree, but emphasizes Anglo-French tensions over Guienne as the deeper cause of the war. Le Patourel gives more credence to the importance of the dynastic issue (Edward III’s claim to the French throne). The book also includes translations of some of the key documents related to the issue.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Rogers, Clifford J. War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy under Edward III, 1327–1360. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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  327. In a long chapter on the developments of 1334–1337, builds on the work of Campbell and of Jonathan Sumption to argue that Scottish issues were the fundamental cause of the breakdown of otherwise promising peace negotiations between Edward III and Philip VI. Redates a key Anglo-French diplomatic break from early to late 1334, and stresses the failure of a draft Anglo-Scottish treaty in 1336.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. The Origins of the Hundred Years War: The Angevin Legacy, 1250–1340, 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
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  331. The center of gravity of this book, which argues for long-standing tension over Gascony as the fundamental cause of the Hundred Years War, is firmly in the 13th century, but the final chapter focuses on the period after 1324.
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  333. Diplomacy
  334.  
  335. A good starting place for this subject is Palmer 1972. Curry 1993, which could have been subtitled “A Diplomatic History,” though still concise, is fuller and benefits from the intervening two decades of scholarship. Both Curry and Palmer accept at least some of the interpretations of Le Patourel 1960 concerning Edward III’s diplomacy. These, however, have been challenged in Bothwell 2001 in ways that call for major reinterpretation of the diplomatic history of the first phase of the war (to 1360). Palmer 1972, a monograph (along with Palmer’s earlier articles, cited therein), is key for the late-14th-century Anglo-French negotiations. Ferguson 1972 remains the basic work for the diplomacy of Henry VI’s reign, though Russell 1955 is more detailed on the most important diplomatic event of the 15th century and useful for understanding the processes as well as the content of diplomacy. MacDougall 2001 deals with the England-France-Scotland triangle across the whole period and beyond. See also Origins and War Aims.
  336.  
  337. Bothwell, James, ed. The Age of Edward III. Rochester, NY: York Medieval Press, 2001.
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  339. Includes three articles contributing to our understanding of the 14th-century diplomacy of the war. Craig Taylor analyzes English arguments in support of Edward III’s right to the French throne. Michael Bennett examines Isabella of France’s role as peacemaker in 1357–1358. Clifford Rogers disputes Le Patourel 1960, arguing that the First Treaty of London was not a mere “ransom treaty” and that the Treaty of Brétigny was a triumph, not a defeat, for Edward III.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Curry, Anne. The Hundred Years War. New York: Palgrave, 1993.
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  343. An introductory study of the diplomatic relations between England and France, dealing with the outbreak of the war, the war aims of the protagonists (seen as changing over time), and especially the efforts to settle the conflict with a peace treaty. Begins with a valuable introduction to the historiography of the war over the centuries.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Ferguson, John. English Diplomacy, 1422–61. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
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  347. Rather than focusing on France, gives broad coverage to England’s diplomatic relations with Spanish kings, German emperors and princes, Italian and Hanseatic cities, and the popes. Still, much of this was conditioned by the war. Multi-archival research devoted more to establishing what happened than why. Emphasizes the significance of foreign policy divergences between Bedford and Gloucester.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Fowler, Kenneth Alan. “The Hundred Years War.” In The Study of War and Society: Thucydides to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by Arthur Marwick and Open University, War and Society Course Team. Bletchley, UK: Open University Press, 1973.
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  351. A short introduction written to be accessible to undergraduates. Some of the analysis of Edward III’s diplomacy has now been challenged (see Bothwell 2001). Strong on the late-14th- and 15th-century negotiations.
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  353. Le Patourel, John. “The Treaty of Bretigny, 1360.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th ser. 10 (1960): 19–39.
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  355. A reinterpretation of the evidence about the peace negotiations of the 1350s. Argues that the draft 1358 First Treaty of London was a mere ransom agreement rather than a peace treaty; that Edward III’s renunciation of the French throne in the unratified 1359 treaty was insincere and its terms preposterous; and that Brétigny in 1360 was a serious defeat for Edward, forced by the failure of his 1359–1360 Reims campaign. These conclusions are disputed by Rogers in Bothwell 2001.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. MacDougall, Norman. An Antidote to the English: The Auld Alliance, 1295–1560. East Linton, UK: Tuckwell, 2001.
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  359. A short introduction to the diplomatic triangle among the three principal belligerents of the Hundred Years War: England, France, and Scotland. Aimed at an undergraduate audience.
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  361. Palmer, John Joseph Norman. England, France, and Christendom, 1377–1399. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972.
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  363. Emphasizes, though not limited to, the diplomacy of Richard II’s reign. Shows how the desire of the Gascons to remain directly attached to the English crown posed problems for potential innovative solutions to the basic diplomatic impasse that prolonged the war in a period when both English and French monarchs inclined toward peace.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Russell, Joycelyne Gledhill. The Congress of Arras, 1435: A Study in Medieval Diplomacy. New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1955.
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  367. The consequence of this extended diplomatic conference, the “medieval Congress of Vienna,” was the transfer of Burgundy from Lancastrian to Valois allegiance—pointing the war toward eventual French victory. Russell probes its rich documentary legacy deeply, setting the Congress and its processes in the contexts of diplomatic and cultural history, as well as the context of the war. (Russell also published under the surname Dickinson; Oxford: Clarendon, 1955.)
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Military Structures and Organization
  370.  
  371. Military operations cannot be studied intelligently without understanding how the armed forces that conduct them have been recruited, equipped, organized, motivated, supplied, and (by the time of the Hundred Years War) paid. These same topics are of the greatest importance for understanding the impact of war on societies and governments. For English armies, Herbert James Hewitt’s work on the 14th century was again seminal here (Hewitt 1966), though in some ways it was anticipated by Richard Ager Newhall’s still unsurpassed studies of the English armies of Lancastrian Normandy (Newhall 1940). Ayton 1994 stays with this tradition. For French armies and soldiers, the Contamine 1972 monograph is incomparable. Prestwich 1996 benefits from and synthesizes the earlier works, and puts the military developments of the Hundred Years War in the context of the preceding period.
  372.  
  373. Ayton, Andrew. Knights and Warhorses: Military Service and the English Aristocracy under Edward III. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1994.
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  375. Uses “horse inventories,” created so that soldiers could be reimbursed for mounts dying on service, as an entrée to an analysis of the military community of 14th-century England, that is, the thousands of common men-at-arms who manned Edward III’s garrisons and field armies. Looks, for example, at how family and tenurial ties related to retinue composition and patterns of service.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Contamine, Philippe. Guerre, état et société à la fin du moyen âge: Études sur les armées des rois de France, 1337–1494. Civilisations et sociétés 24. Paris: Mouton, 1972.
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  379. Extremely impressive work of scholarship about the structure and soldiers of the French armies of (mostly) the Hundred Years War. Covers soldiers’ social origins, wages, equipment, standard of living, rations, mounts, discipline, war-cries, conceptions of duty, recruitment, and more. Exhaustively researched.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Hewitt, Herbert James. The Organization of War under Edward III 1338–62. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1966.
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  383. Important survey of the nation-at-war: the “home front” as well as the soldiers, but principally the former. Covers coastal defense, recruitment, and mobilization; acquisition and transport of supplies; operational troop movements; devastation; the transfer of territory after the Treaty of Brétigny; and popular attitudes toward the war.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Newhall, Richard Ager. Muster and Review: A Problem of English Military Administration, 1420–1440. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1940.
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  387. A classic, archivally based institutional history of the military administration of Lancastrian Normandy (from 1415 to 1441) with emphasis on finances, discipline, and civil-military relations.
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  389. Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages. The English Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996.
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  391. Excellent introduction to military organization and to a variety of debated topics in military history (particularly the relation of the late Middle Ages to the “Military Revolution”). Despite the broader time span covered, does devote substantial attention to the Hundred Years War.
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  393. The Conduct of War
  394.  
  395. Until the second half of the 20th century, studies of the military history of the Hundred Years War tended to focus on the great battles, and the campaigns leading up to them. Tactics were emphasized over strategy; indeed, the very concept of strategy was deemed almost inapplicable to the period. As the Vietnam War reminded the world that success in battle did not necessarily mean success in war, scholars turned attention away from battles (see Introductory Works), to sieges and especially to English chevauchées, destructive mounted “raids,” seen as ways to harm and pressure the enemy without risking battle against superior French armies. This was consonant with developments in medieval military history more generally, and gave medieval commanders more of the credit for sensible strategy that they deserved. Recent work (see Narratives and Biographies and Regional Histories) has taken this even further, asserting the importance of battle (now in balance with siege warfare and devastation) as a tool for medieval strategists.
  396.  
  397. Strategy
  398.  
  399. The military strategies employed during such a long war of course varied greatly and can be traced in the works listed elsewhere (see Narratives and Biographies and Regional Histories); surprisingly little has been written focusing directly on this topic. In the first stage of the war, the English employed a strategy based on chevauchées, devastating mounted raids. For a long time these were seen as signs of a lack of strategy. Historians such as Herbert James Hewitt (see Battles and Campaigns) argued instead that these campaigns were part of a sensible strategy that allowed the English to pressure the French economically and politically without the need to risk battle against superior forces. In contrast to this interpretation, Rogers 2000 argues that the chevauchées were battle-seeking, and that even Edward III’s sieges were likewise intended to provoke the French into attacking his army. Harari 2000 considers how strategic options were influenced by logistical considerations. In 1435, a senior English commander, Sir John Fastolf, wrote an unusual strategic document, advocating a fundamental change in the English approach to the war. This has been analyzed in Brill 1970 and (more accurately) in Vale 1973. Jusselin 1912 includes a rare look at naval-economic strategic thinking.
  400.  
  401. Brill, Reginald. “The English Preparations before the Treaty of Arras: A New Interpretation of Sir John Fastolf’s ‘Report,’ September 1435.” Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 7 (1970): 213–247.
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  403. Sees Fastolf’s plan as a precursor to modern total war. Argues that Fastolf advocated a more defensive strategy based on a well-defined fortified perimeter, eschewing major offensives and siege operations, and also that he called for a “new and highly efficient, long-service professional army.”
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Harari, Yuval Noah. “Strategy and Supply in Fourteenth-Century Western European Invasion Campaigns.” Journal of Military History 64.2 (April 2000): 297–333.
  406. DOI: 10.2307/120242Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Using a Sachkritik approach, explores how 14th-century offensive operations (primarily chevauchées) were shaped by the interplay of logistical and strategic calculations. Argues that invading armies did not simply live off the land, but made use of wagon trains to provide a buffer against hunger.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Jusselin, Maurice. “Comment la France se préparait à la guerre de cent ans.” Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes 73 (1912): 1–28.
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  411. Mostly a collection of documents rather than an analysis of them. The documents are more about strategic preparations (fiscal and logistic) than strategy per se, but one piece describes a plan to strike at England’s economy by the destruction of its merchant shipping and fishing fleet.
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  413. Rogers, Clifford J. War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy under Edward III, 1327–1360. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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  415. A revisionist work that sees Edward III as a great strategist, not just an excellent tactician, and argues (contrary to earlier orthodoxy) that he consistently sought open battle with his enemies, despite the smaller size of his armies.
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  417. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. “Sir John Fastolf’s ‘Report’ of 1435: A New Interpretation Reconsidered.” Nottingham Medieval Studies 17 (1973): 78–84.
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  419. A reply to Brill 1970. Treats Fastolf’s report in the context of the medieval laws of war, emphasizing that those laws sanctioned harsher treatment toward rebels (as the English in this period perceived many Frenchmen to be) than toward other enemies, and stressing its link to the defection of Burgundy from English alliance.
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  421. Battles and Campaigns
  422.  
  423. Hewitt 1958, a book-length focused analysis of a single pair of campaigns, demonstrated how much understanding of the war in general could be furthered by detailed studies of particular operations, tracing them from mobilization and logistical preparation through demobilization and treatment of prisoners. Although respectable work on the Agincourt campaign followed, it was arguably not until very recently that Hewitt’s standard was surpassed, with Ayton, et al. 2005 on the Crécy campaign and Barker 2006 and Curry 2005 on Agincourt. Tactical history has long been out of fashion but is now enjoying a resurgence. Nearly all the battles of the Hundred Years War are covered well and concisely in Strickland and Hardy 2005. Rogers 2008 is the fullest tactical-level analysis of Agincourt, or of any battle of the war. Numerous article-length studies of various battles and campaigns also exist; Jones 2002 is an example of one of the more interesting ones.
  424.  
  425. Ayton, Andrew, Philip Preston, Françoise Autrand, Michael Prestwich, and Bertrand Schnerb. The Battle of Crécy, 1346. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2005.
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  427. Includes chapters on the context, consequences, and significance of the battle; the English and French armies; the chronicle sources; the campaign leading up to the battle; and the battle itself. Preston’s emphasis on the steep ridge along one end of the battlefield is new and important. Together they make Crécy the most thoroughly studied battle of the war except for Agincourt.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Barker, Juliet. Agincourt: Henry V and the Battle That Made England. London: Little, Brown, 2006.
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  431. Well researched, but more accessible than Curry; benefits from a biographer’s appreciation of human relationships and their influence on politics. Despite the title, only about 25 pages of 364 cover the battle itself; more attention is given to the raising and financing of the English army. Largely from the English perspective.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Curry, Anne. The Battle of Agincourt: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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  435. An exhaustive compilation of all the chronicle sources, and a selection of documentary and other contemporary texts, for the campaign and the battle—all translated. Supplemented by a long section tracing how historians have understood and interpreted the battle, from Tudor through modern times.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Curry, Anne. Agincourt: A New History. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2005.
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  439. Not only an extremely thorough treatment of the 1415 campaign, but a revisionist one. Most significantly, Curry argues based on (incomplete) archival evidence that the size of the two armies was not nearly so disparate as usually thought (a conclusion disputed in Barker 2006 and Rogers 2008).
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Hewitt, Herbert James. The Black Prince’s Expedition of 1355–1357. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1958.
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  443. Groundbreaking in its approach, which gives due attention to preparations, shipping, devastation, communication, post-campaign rewards, and more. Arguably relies too much on Froissart in interpreting military events. Sees the Black Prince’s chevauchées as battle-avoiding, in contrast to Rogers 2000 (cited under Strategy).
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Jones, Michael K. “The Battle of Verneuil (17 August 1424): Towards a History of Courage.” War in History 9 (November 2002): 375–411.
  446. DOI: 10.1191/0968344502wh259oaSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. An important reassessment of the battle considered the “second Agincourt.” Rebuts Alfred H. Burne’s use of “inherent military probability”; sees victory deriving more from the role of chivalric ritual to inspire courage than from tactical decision making. Also argues that the French were determined on battle, and that the Lombard cavalry was effective against archers.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Rogers, Clifford J. “The Battle of Agincourt.” In The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. Edited by L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay, 37–132. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
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  451. A mix of “face of battle” and traditional tactical analysis. Treats questions such as the size and deployment of the opposing armies, the duration of the French cavalry charge, the effectiveness of English arrows against plate armor, and the effect of compression on the French men-at-arms. Argues that the principal reason for the French defeat was their flawed deployment.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Strickland, Matthew, and Robert Hardy. The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose. Thrupp, UK: Sutton, 2005.
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  455. The starting point for tactical narratives of the battles of the war. Up to date, thoroughly researched and documented.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Naval
  458.  
  459. Though certainly not ignored, the naval side of the Hundred Years War has received only a tiny fraction of the scholarly attention devoted to the struggle on land. A modern book-length overall treatment of the subject remains lacking, but the old histories Nicolas 1847 and La Roncière 1914 can provide a narrative overview. Deserving further study—and suggesting how much more could be done with the naval history of the era from a structural-institutional perspective—are the administrative documents published for the British navy early in Henry VI’s reign (Rose 1982), and for the French naval shipyard and base known as the clos des galées (Chazelas 1977–1978). Runyan 1993 and Runyan 1986 survey a broader range at an introductory level.
  460.  
  461. Chazelas, Anne, ed. Documents relatifs au Clos des Galées de Rouen et aux armées de mer du roi de France de 1293 à 1418. Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1977–1978.
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  463. A substantial introduction discusses what the appended documents tell us about the personnel of this early example of a purpose-built naval shipyard and base, including workers and the garrison, as well as their activities in the manufacture of arms and ships.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. La Roncière, Charles de. Histoire de la marine française: la guerre de cent ans, révolution maritime. Vol. 2. 3d ed. Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1914.
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  467. Although its analysis is sometimes thin and sometimes questionable, this book, part of a six-volume history of the French navy, presents to the reader a mass of detailed information on its subject—which includes Spanish and Italian ships and flotillas in French service.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Nicolas, Nicholas Harris. A History of the Royal Navy. Vol. 2. London: Richard Bentley, 1847.
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  471. The most detailed narrative in English of the naval actions, institutions, and developments of the Hundred Years War (covering the period 1327–1422), based on chronicle accounts and some documentary evidence. Includes discussion of crews, discipline, provisioning, development of naval artillery, ship types, rigging, and more.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Rose, Susan, ed. The Navy of the Lancastrian Kings: Accounts and Inventories of William Soper, Keeper of the King’s Ships, 1422–1427. Publications of the Navy Records Society 123. London, UK: Allen and Unwin for the Navy Records Society, 1982.
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  475. These records and Rose’s introductory material provide a very different view on 15th-century naval matters than more usual chronicle-based perspectives. Informative about ship construction and maintenance as well as types, capabilities, and actions of the Lancastrian ships.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Runyan, Timothy J. “Ships and Fleets in Anglo-French Warfare (1337–1360).” American Neptune 46 (1986): 92–93.
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  479. Provides initial results from a database of nearly 1,300 records of ships (mostly merchant vessels) from the period, with their name, home port, type, crew size, and the like. Comments on tensions between the crown’s need for ships and the desires of their owners.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Runyan, Timothy J. “Naval Logistics in the Late Middle Ages: The Example of the Hundred Years War.” In Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present. Edited by John Lynn, 79–102. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993.
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  483. A concise introduction to how ships were used to transport and support the English cross-Channel operations. Covers the assembly and manning of fleets, types of ships, use of merchantmen as troop- and horse-transports.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. War and Society
  486.  
  487. “War and society” is a catch-all (or catch-nearly-all) topic, and although it has been divided into subsections, there is substantial overlap among the subsections. The first set of works listed is particularly broad. See Barnie 1974 and Morgan 1987 for social history, Hewitt 1966 for the “home front” generally, and Rogers 1993 for linkages between military change and generalized sociopolitical developments.
  488.  
  489. Barnie, John. War in Medieval English Society: Social Values in the Hundred Years War, 1337–99. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974.
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  491. Explores popular responses of Englishmen to the war, and developing ideas about chivalry and nationalism, mainly through examination of chronicles and works of literature.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Hewitt, Herbert James. The Organization of War under Edward III, 1338–62. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1966.
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  495. A seminal work that aimed to explore the people-at-war rather more than the army-at-war, though it includes important comments on the latter topic as well. Deals with English coast defense systems; recruitment, equipment, provisioning, and transport of troops; transfer of territory after the Treaty of Brétigny (1360); and what Englishmen who did not fight thought about the war.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Morgan, Philip. War and Society in Medieval Cheshire, 1277–1403. Chetham Society Series 34. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press for the Chetham Society, 1987.
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  499. Not quite as broad as its title suggests, but nonetheless an important and influential work. War was very important to social structures, particularly among the upper classes; the “political community” and “military community” were almost the same men. Morgan explores military service as a career path and as an episodic social duty, the organization of war and of military retinues, and the political implications of military relationships.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Rogers, Clifford J. “The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years’ War.” Journal of Military History 57 (April 1993): 241–278.
  502. DOI: 10.2307/2944058Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Argues that a 14th-century Infantry Revolution contributed to the rise of the Commons in England and to English victories over France, while a 15th-century Artillery Revolution, which favored the offensive and helped France end the war, also strengthened the central state. Reprinted with revisions in Rogers, ed. The Military Revolution Debate (1995).
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Economy and Costs of War
  506.  
  507. Contemporary glorifications of the English victories in France suggest that (until its end) the Hundred Years War proceeded to the benefit of England, at the cost of France. After the experience of the world wars, however, many historians took it almost as a given that war was inherently disadvantageous to the victors as well as to the vanquished. This set the stage for a vigorous debate on whether England could have profited from the war, initially between Postan 1942 and Postan 1964 and McFarlane 1962, a debate never satisfactorily resolved because of the problems related to the evidence and scale of the question. Bridbury 1976, however, strikes a balance. There is no question that the war was to France’s detriment, though both Boutruche 1947 and Fourquin 1964 avoid overplaying the extent of the damage to the local economies they study. On this subject, see also Noncombatants and War and Society, as well as Biographies and Regional Histories.
  508.  
  509. Boutruche, Robert. La Crise d’une société: seigneurs et paysans du bordelais pendant la guerre de cent ans. Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Strasbourg 110. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1947.
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  511. A model social and economic analysis of the impact of the Hundred Years War on Gascony. Shows the problems caused by the war, but also the resiliency of the economy (at least until 1453). Offers much information on seigneurial rights, revenues, and relations.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Bridbury, Anthony Randolph. “The Hundred Years War: Costs and Profits.” In Trade, Government, and Economy in Pre-Industrial England. Edited by Frederick Jack Fisher, Donald Cuthbert Coleman, and Arthur H. John, 80–95. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976.
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  515. Taking account of McFarlane 1962 and Postan 1964, argues that the impact of the war on the English economy was limited, especially since even without the war there would have been other war(s).
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Fourquin, Guy. Les campagnes de la région parisiennne à la fin du moyen âge. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1964.
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  519. Examines the impact of the war on the economy of the capital region. Concludes that its economic malaise predates and therefore was not caused by the war, but shows that the war did prolong and worsen the area’s problems.
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  521. McFarlane, K. B. “War, the Economy, and Social Change. England and the Hundred Years War.” Past and Present 22 (1962): 3–17.
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  523. Attempts to draw up a preliminary balance sheet on the cost of the war to England. Disputes the earlier view that the war was very damaging to the English economy; rightly emphasizes the redistribution rather than expenditure of wealth. Contains little on other aspects of social change. A reply appears in Postan 1964.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Postan, Michael Moïssey. “Some Social Consequences of the Hundred Years War.” Economic Historical Review 12 (1942): 1–12.
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  527. Despite the title, more economic than social history. Looks at changes in economic structures resulting from the strain of war finance and taxation, war profits and wealth redistribution, and England’s ultimate loss of her territories in France. Considers relationships between the war and changes in the agricultural economy.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Postan, Michael Moïssey. “The Costs of the Hundred Years War.” Past and Present 27 (1964): 34–53.
  530. DOI: 10.1093/past/27.1.34Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Replies to McFarlane 1962, concluding that for England the costs of the war must have substantially exceeded the gains. Stresses diversion of potentially productive manpower to fighting and making war materiel; economic disruption caused by intermittent war efforts, wool taxes, and war credit; downplays profits (ransoms, revenues, and the like).
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Government, State, Nation: France
  534.  
  535. The relations among the war, state formation, and the construction of national identity are an important topic that has received much scholarly attention, as the historiographical survey Olland 1986 clearly shows. Although historians of nationalism tend to see that phenomenon as dating only to the 18th or 19th century, many Hundred Years War scholars such as Beaune see nationalism emerging during, and partly in consequence of, the war (Beaune 1991). This is related to, but not identical to, the question of the extent to which the war pushed or hindered the development of the stronger, more centralized “Renaissance states” of France and England, on which see particularly Henneman 1971–1976. Cazelles 1958 and Cazelles 1982 examine the royal court and its factions with a level of detail and attention to individual persons that helps the student guard against oversystematic interpretations. Little 1984 shares this virtue.
  536.  
  537. Beaune, Colette. The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Late-Medieval France. Translated by Susan Ross Huston. Edited by Fredric L. Cheyette. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  539. An interdisciplinary study, using evidence of art, numismatics, and literature as well as more traditional historical sources, to outline the development, as a cultural construct, of king-focused nationalistic ideology during (and to a substantial extent due to) the war. Treats religion and race, signs and symbols. Translation (with alterations) of Naissance de la nation France (1985).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Cazelles, Raymond. La Société politique et la crise de la royauté sous Philippe de Valois. Paris: Librarie d’Argences, 1958.
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  543. Along with Cazelles 1982, part of a two-volume study of the politics of the royal courts of the first three French kings of the Hundred Years War, emphasizing factional conflicts among senior officials. Traces the development of the institutions of state. Gives a more positive evaluation of Philip VI (1328–1350) than most historians.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Cazelles, Raymond. Société politique, noblesse et couronne sous Jean le Bon et Charles V. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1982.
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  547. Extends the themes of Cazelles 1958 to examine the “political society” of France in the reigns of Jean II (1350–1364) and Charles V (1364–80). Looks more favorably than most on Jean II, but is somewhat critical of Charles V.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth Century France. 2 vols. Princeton, NJ: American Philosophical Society, 1971–1976.
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  551. In these two volumes Henneman traces the development of taxation in the first phases of the Hundred Years War. This is a crucial topic for understanding French (and therefore European) state formation at the dawn of the modern era, but equally for understanding the war in an era when most taxes were raised for war, and success in war depended heavily on success in raising money.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Little, Roger G. The Parlement of Poitiers: War, Government, and Politics in France, 1418–1436. London: Royal Historical Society, 1984.
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  555. The Parlement (high court) of Poitiers is only an entry point for this valuable and broad-ranging study, which also surveys economic topics (downplaying the effects of devastation) and analyzes the resistance of Charles VII’s vassals and towns to his centralizing agenda. Concludes France was “made” in this period and by Charles VII.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Olland, Hélène. “La France à la fin du Moyen Âge: l’Etat et la Nation (Bilan de recherches récentes).” Médiévales 5.10 (1986): 81–102.
  558. DOI: 10.3406/medi.1986.1022Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Thorough discussion of recent work (in 1986) on national sentiment, monarchical propaganda and legitimization, state institutions (including prosopography of royal servants), and center-periphery and church-state relations.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Government, State, Nation: England
  562.  
  563. The effect of the war on England, which largely managed to fight on French soil and spare the devastation of the home country, was very different from its effect on France. From the perspective of the 21st century, the rise of the House of Commons was certainly one of the most important developments that took place during the war, and Harriss 1975 shows how much it was driven by the Hundred Years War. Kaeuper 1988, in partial contrast, stresses the ways in which the war impeded rather than propelled state formation in England. Also see Biographies and Regional Histories.
  564.  
  565. Harriss, Gerald L. King, Parliament, and Public Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Oxford: Clarendon, 1975.
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  567. Sees the period though the first stage of the war as one of great political and institutional creativity, marked by the rise of a Parliament with real political power and the development of a system of public finance, both driven by an effort “to organize the resources of the realm for war.”
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Kaeuper, Richard W. War, Justice, and Public Order: England and France in the Later Middle Ages. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.
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  571. An exceptionally valuable work, analyzing the tension (given limited royal resources) between pursuit of a developing “law state” and prosecution of war. Finds roots of English constitutionalism and French “absolutism” in the 14th century. Useful also for devastation, royal finances, private warfare, and the chivalry-violence nexus.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Tout, Thomas F. Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England. 6 vols. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1920–1933.
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  575. Tout’s classic work describes the functioning of the various offices that collectively made up the English government of the day and how their roles and responsibilities changed during the period.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Scotland
  578.  
  579. It is normal to think of the Hundred Years War as fought by England against France, but Scotland should be recognized as an independent belligerent, involved from the beginning of the struggle to the end. Surprisingly, there is no book-length monograph focused on Scotland’s role in the Hundred Years War, though the general histories of late medieval Scotland, such as Nicholson 1974, obviously give substantial attention to the topic. The best starting point to explore the subject is Campbell 1971, though it does not include the 15th-century phase of the war. MacDonald 2000 analyzes in more depth a crucial chronological slice of the Anglo-Scottish war, acknowledging the frequent connections between the border conflicts and the context of the Anglo-French struggle. Brown 1998, instead of a particular period, focuses on one family of the martial nobility.
  580.  
  581. Brown, Michael. The Black Douglases, War, and Lordship in Late Medieval Scotland, 1300–1455. East Linton, UK: Tuckwell, 1998.
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  583. A study of the principal Scottish magnate family of the Anglo-Scottish border during the Hundred Years War. The Douglases were a vigorously martial family, and war was at the center of their activities. Covers their service in France as well as on the border.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Campbell, James. “England, Scotland, and the Hundred Years War in the Fourteenth Century.” In Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Edited by John Rigby Hale, 184–215. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1971.
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  587. A deeply insightful survey of the Anglo-Scottish aspects of the Hundred Years War through the reign of Richard II. Stresses role of Scottish troubles in bringing on the Anglo-French war. Makes strong points about the costs of war both to kings and to societies. Reprinted in Rogers 1999 (see Primary Source Collections).
  588. Find this resource:
  589. MacDonald, Alastair J. Border Bloodshed: Scotland and England at War, 1369–1403. East Linton, UK: Tuckwell, 2000.
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  591. An in-depth scholarly study of the Scottish offensives against England during the most intense phase of Anglo-Scottish conflict during the war. Rejects the older view of these invasions as driven by magnates’ individual desires, seeing them instead as national efforts with strategic purposes. Also considers the effects of war on the peoples of the border regions.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Nicholson, Ranald. Scotland: The Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1974.
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  595. The author of this survey wrote an earlier book dealing with Edward III’s Scottish wars in the decade leading up to the Hundred Years War. The focus in Scotland: The Later Middle Ages, which covers the period 1286–1513, remains the royal concerns of politics, diplomacy, and warfare, with less attention paid to Highland, cultural, or ecclesiastical matters, so the Anglo-Scottish conflict frequently occupies Nicholson’s center stage.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Regional and Local Studies
  598.  
  599. There have been numerous in-depth studies of particular localities in France and Britain and how they were affected by the Hundred Years War, many of them written in the 19th century—far too many to list here. Since Gascony and Normandy were the two principal theaters of the war in the fifteenth century, and since they are written in English, Allmand 1983 and Vale 1970 deserve special mention. Favreau 1977–1978 is a good example of the numerous French studies of particular towns and regions. See also Economy and Costs of War.
  600.  
  601. Allmand, Christopher Thomas. Lancastrian Normandy, 1415–1450. The History of a Medieval Occupation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
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  603. Summarizes the conquest and defense of Normandy, then discusses the English political and military organization of the duchy, with emphasis on the Englishmen who settled in France, especially in Caen. Also treats diplomacy, French and English public opinion, and the state of the occupied areas after the French reconquest.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Favreau, Robert. La Ville de Poitiers à la fin du moyen age: Une capitale régionale. Poitiers, France: Société des antiquaires de l’Ouest, 1977–1978.
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  607. Poitiers was in some ways a very “average” city in the Late Middle Ages, and one relatively heavily affected by the Hundred Years War both in the 14th century and in the 15th (when, after the Treaty of Troyes, a substantial portion of the Dauphinist bureaucracy was based there.) Favreau’s study is definitive.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. English Gascony, 1399–1453: A Study of War, Government, and Politics during the Later Stages of the Hundred Years’ War. Oxford Historical Monographs 5. London: Oxford University Press, 1970.
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  611. The Hundred Years War looms large in this study. Useful for Henry IV’s French policy, for English war aims, and for Gascon family feuds and conflicting loyalties. Of the three elements listed in the subtitle, the stress is on politics.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Noncombatants
  614.  
  615. Modern work on the conduct of the war emphasizes the use of devastation and pillaging as tools of strategy and as means of rewarding and feeding soldiers. The same subject is also important for the development of national consciousness (foreign soldiers provided a key “them” against which to define “us”) and, in its own right, as an important part of social history (Wright 1998). Although there were earlier works (particularly in the 19th century) cataloging the devastation of the French countryside during the war, Allmand 1971 was the spark for renewed interest in this topic as an aspect of social history. In the 1970s, some scholars such as Anthony R. Bridbury were skeptical regarding the capacity of medieval armies to inflict major damage on society, but recent works including Wright 1998 and Rogers 2002 are much less so.
  616.  
  617. Allmand, Christopher Thomas. “The War and the Non-Combatant.” In The Hundred Years War. Edited by Kenneth Alan Fowler, 163–183. London: Macmillan, 1971.
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  619. Emphasizes defaults in soldiers’ pay, the difficulty of siege warfare, and the English preference for the chevauchée (viewed here as a battle-avoiding strategy) as reasons why noncombatants and their property, rather than soldiers and strongholds, became principal targets of military action in the war.
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  621. Rogers, Clifford J. “By Fire and Sword: Bellum Hostile and ‘Civilians’ in the Hundred Years War.” In Civilians in the Path of War. Edited by Mark Grimsley and Clifford J. Rogers, 33–78. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
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  623. Argues that chroniclers’ descriptions of severe devastation in France were not mere hyperbole; that there was no contradiction between devastation and “chivalric” warfare; and that the destruction was mostly driven by strategy rather than unintended collateral damage.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Wright, Nicholas. Knights and Peasants. The Hundred Years War in the Countryside. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1998.
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  627. Elaborates the impact of the war on the peasants of the countryside, from the perspective of class conflict. Draws on and cites Wright’s valuable earlier articles on the same subject. Much interesting material, though conclusions are sometimes debatable.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. The Church
  630.  
  631. Since both religion and warfare were intertwined with virtually every other aspect of life in the Middle Ages, they inevitably influenced each other. The split between England and France, for example, was one reason for the long duration of the Avignon papacy and the Great Schism. The churches and clergy of England and France made large contributions to the financing of military operations, and leading ecclesiastics served as royal councilors, constructing legal-religious arguments and propaganda legitimizing their sovereigns’ wars as “just” ones. Much information on these subjects is to be found in general studies of the religious history of the era, and so is too scattered to be listed here. A good book-length treatment of the subject, comparing and contrasting the French and English cases, would be a very valuable contribution to scholarship. Meanwhile, for Britain at least, McHardy 1983 gives an excellent introduction to the whole topic, while Jones 1979 and Haines 1983 give more detail on aspects of it.
  632.  
  633. Haines, Roy M. “An English Archbishop and the Cerberus of War.” In The Church and War. Edited by W. J. Sheils and the Ecclesiastical History Society, 153–170. Studies in Church History 20. London: Blackwell, 1983.
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  635. Students of the Hundred Years War will find in concise form here much of what they could otherwise distill from Haines’s bulky biography of John Stratford (d. 1354), archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor of England at the start of the conflict.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Jones, W. R. “The English Church and Royal Propaganda during the Hundred Years War.” Journal of British Studies 19 (1979): 18–30.
  638. DOI: 10.1086/385745Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Shows how English kings from the time of Edward I used writs and other tools to enlist the Church (and its grants of indulgences) in the process of building public support for war, which was recognized as a necessary activity. Views “economic cooperation” as the most important type to be evoked. Focuses on the 14th century.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. McHardy, Alison K. “The English Clergy and the Hundred Years War.” In The Church and War. Edited by W. J. Sheils and the Ecclesiastical History Society, 171–178. Studies in Church History 20. London: Blackwell, 1983.
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  643. Examines the contributions of English clergy to war finance (both as taxpayers and as tax collectors), the importance of clerks to the organization of military operations, the personal home-defense service owed by churchmen, and the use of the ecclesiastical chain-of-command to mobilize public support and prayer for the war.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Literature
  646.  
  647. Many of the most important English and French writers of the Middle Ages lived their lives against the backdrop of the Hundred Years War, and their works sometimes addressed the war directly or indirectly, as the essays in Baker 2000 and Couty, et al. 2002 emphasize. The literature of the era, in addition to being a worthy subject of inquiry in its own right, can also help historians of the period understand the cultural norms that influenced historical actions. However, as Porter 1983 shows, it is key not to presume that medieval attitudes which cause dissonance in the minds of modern readers were intended as ironic.
  648.  
  649. Baker, Denise N., ed. Inscribing the Hundred Years’ War in French and English Cultures. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000.
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  651. A collection of essays dealing with the connections between English and French vernacular literature and the war. The authors tend to subscribe to the ironic-pacifistic readings of 14th-century English texts, including Chaucer’s works and the Vows of the Heron. Another major theme is developing national identity.
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  653. Couty, Daniel, Jean Maurice, and Michèle Guéret-Laferté, eds. Images de la guerre de cent ans: actes du Colloque de Rouen 21–23 mai 2000. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2002.
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  655. Most of the essays in this collection deal with literary products—chronicles, political works, and poetry—that were both about and created during the war. Authors addressed include Alain Chartier, Charles d’Orléans, Jean Ragniér, and George Chastelain. Other essays deal with the war’s after-image in Shakespeare and Schiller, among other topics.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Porter, Elizabeth. “Chaucer’s Knight, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, and Medieval Laws of War: A Reconsideration.” Nottingham Medieval Studies 27 (1983): 56–78.
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  659. Summarizes and argues effectively against readings of these texts by William Matthews and Terry Jones that see pacifistic irony, born of dissatisfaction with the Hundred Years War, in Chaucer and the Morte Arthure. Available online.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Daily Life
  662.  
  663. A synthesis of the impact of the Hundred Years War on the daily life of the people of England, Wales, Scotland, and France has not yet been written. Contamine 1976 is an overview, but its topic is somewhat different: life during the war. Meanwhile, the subject can be approached through a variety of works in different ways. Sumption 1990–2009 (cited under Narratives) offers telling anecdotes. For the peasants of the French countryside, see Wright 1998. Townsmen experienced the war differently: For their views, see Noël 1977 and Wolfe 1995. The works listed in Regional and Local Studies are also relevant.
  664.  
  665. Contamine, Philippe. La Vie quotidienne pendant la guerre de cent ans: France et Angleterre (XIVe siècle). Paris: Hachette, 1976.
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  667. A comparative study of English and French daily life, written for a general audience but with some endnotes. Stresses the similarities rather than the differences between the experiences of people on the two sides of the Channel. Does not emphasize the impact of war, though soldiers’ lives are given some particular attention.
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  669. Noël, R. P. R. “Town Defence in the French Midi during the Hundred Years War.” PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1977.
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  671. Very useful but little known study of how townsmen organized themselves for war, paid for their walls, and stood watch—subjects that in this period are at least as important for social history as for military history. Available online with log-in registration.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. “Warfare and the Life of the French and Burgundian Nobility in the Late Middle Ages.” In Adelige Sachkultur des Spätmittelalters. Internationaler Kongress, Krems an der Donau, 22 bis 25 September 1980. Edited by Heinrich Appelt, 273–292. Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1982.
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  675. Analyzes how rising costs of military equipment (especially warhorses), in combination with a crisis in seigneurial revenues, posed serious problems for the martial nobility of the period; also addresses how technical innovations in warfare (especially the rise of gunpowder weapons) made nobles and their fortified homes less secure.
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  677. Wolfe, Michael. “Siege Warfare and the Bonnes Villes of France during the Hundred Years War.” In The Medieval City under Siege. Edited by Ivy A. Corfis and Michael Wolfe, 49–68. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1995.
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  679. Similar topic to Noël 1977, but different examples and research base. The two studies complement each other nicely. Argues that the demands of war gave the walled towns greater prominence and ultimately autonomy.
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  681. Wright, Nicholas. Knights and Peasants. The Hundred Years War in the Countryside. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1998.
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  683. A social history of the ways in which the depredations of soldiers affected the French peasantry, and of the peasants’ responses to warfare. Contains numerous interesting anecdotes, and leaves little doubt concerning the degree of hardship the war imposed on the mass of the population.
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  685. Chivalry and Mentalité
  686.  
  687. The rulers and magnates who guided strategy and led armies, as well as the knights and esquires who provided both lower-level leadership and a substantial fraction of the actual fighting manpower of both kingdoms, were shaped in their decisions and attitudes by the contemporary warrior-ethos of chivalry. An understanding of their aristocratic culture is necessary for a proper understanding of the war. The best introduction is Keen 1984. Keen 1965 is a more focused study of the laws of war. Vale 1982 is more concerned with pageantry and the courtly aspects of chivalry, though it does not make the mistake of divorcing the courtly from the martial. Vale 1981 addresses a later period and is especially good on the interplay between the practical and display aspects of chivalric values and behaviors.
  688.  
  689. Keen, Maurice H. The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
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  691. Although the title does not say so, this important work does focus on the Hundred Years War. Analyzes what medieval knights and esquires understood the rules of war to be: what made a war just, what rights soldiers had over booty and prisoners, and how much violence and destruction could licitly be visited upon whom.
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  693. Keen, Maurice H. Chivalry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984.
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  695. Keen’s special expertise is the 14th and 15th centuries, so although this book covers a broad geographical and chronological range, many of its examples come from the Hundred Years War.
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  697. Vale, Malcolm Graham Allan. War and Chivalry. Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France, and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages. London: Duckworth, 1981.
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  699. Cultural approach, drawing on chivalric literature, the rules of chivalric orders, accounts of late-medieval tournaments, and the connections between chivalric displays and ideas and the actual conduct of war. Particularly valuable discussions of the effectiveness of 15th-century artillery and heavy cavalry.
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  701. Vale, Juliet. Edward III and Chivalry. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1982.
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  703. King Edward was widely regarded as the paragon of chivalry, and this contributed to his effectiveness as a military leader. Vale discusses Edward’s tournaments, his foundation of the Order of the Garter (which Vale links closely to the Crécy campaign), and the general “chivalric culture” of his court.
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  705. Technology
  706.  
  707. Hall 1997 provides a good overview of the subject. Three developments in military technology were of particular import: the longbow, metallurgically improved plate armor, and gunpowder artillery. Our understanding of the longbow was transformed by the recovery of many bowstaves from the wreck of the Tudor Mary Rose; what we now know is well summarized in Strickland and Hardy 2005, though the authors’ insistence that the longbow of the late 13th century was not something essentially new is debatable. The same work offers an assessment of the efficacy of the longbow at its peak independent from the debate pieces of DeVries 1997 and Rogers 1998. A key reason for the ultimate decline of the longbow was the spread of hardened steel armor too tough for it to defeat; Williams 2003 is the basic source on the underlying technologies, but much work remains to be done. Gunpowder artillery has long been seen as having a revolutionary impact on war, favoring the offense over the defense and therefore the rising national monarchies over both small states and semi-autonomous principalities and appanages. (The timing of this “revolution” is a matter of dispute; Dubled 1976 emphasizes the developments of the 1450s–1460s, whereas Salamagne 1993 sees the most important changes coming earlier.) Recently the tendency has been more to downplay the cannons’ effectiveness, but one of the more recent discussions (Rogers 1998) reaffirms the older view. For details of the development and characteristics of the weapons themselves, Smith and DeVries 2005 is the book to consult.
  708.  
  709. DeVries, Kelly. “Catapults Are Not Atom Bombs: Towards a Redefinition of ‘Effectiveness’ in Premodern Military Technology.” War in History 4 (1997): 454–470.
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  711. Argues in general that premodern weapons developed by evolution and not revolution, and were rarely if ever “decisive.” This is applied briefly to gunpowder artillery, but more to analysis of the longbow; DeVries argues it was not very effective in killing or wounding armored soldiers, contrary to traditional belief.
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  713. Dubled, H. “L’artillerie royale française a l’époque de Charles VII et au début du règne de Louis XI (1437–69): les frères Bureau.” Mémorial de l’Artillerie Française 50 (1976).
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  715. Sees the major advance in the effectiveness of gunpowder weapons as linked to the design improvements of the very end of the Hundred Years War and thereafter, with emphasis on the replacement of large stone-throwing bombards with smaller, more mobile cast-bronze guns firing cast-iron balls.
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  717. Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
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  719. Devotes substantial attention to the war, though far from limited to it. Contains good analytical narratives of campaigns that illustrate how changing military technology affected operations, but the greatest strength of the book is the analysis of the chemistry of gunpowder and the physics of early guns.
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  721. Rogers, Clifford J. “The Efficacy of the Medieval Longbow: A Reply to Kelly DeVries.” War in History 5.2 (1998): 233–242.
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  723. Rebuts the argument of DeVries 1997, reaffirming the traditional view that the English longbowmen were lethally effective troops.
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  725. Salamagne, Alain. “L’attaque des places-fortes au XVe_siècle à travers l’exemple des guerres anglo- et franco-bourguignonnes.” Revue historique 289 (1993): 65–113.
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  727. Sees gunpowder as having limited effectiveness in the late 14th century, with a break point at the start of the 15th century, after which guns became increasingly powerful and significant. Also treats other methods of siege warfare.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Smith, Robert Douglas, and Kelly DeVries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2005.
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  731. Broader than the title suggests. Provides a well-documented general history of the development of early gunpowder weapons, based on records, chronicles, and surviving artifacts; a nice complement to Hall 1997. Also summarizes the military careers of the Valois dukes of Burgundy.
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  733. Strickland, Matthew, and Robert Hardy. The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose. Thrupp, UK: Sutton, 2005.
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  735. Principally by Strickland, a distinguished historian of medieval warfare. Discusses the longbow of the Hundred Years War in its broader chronological context. Provides test data and analysis to examine longbow arrows’ range, armor penetration, and more. Well researched and a work of fine scholarship despite its coffee-table appearance.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Williams, Alan R. The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. History of Warfare 12. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  739. Based on scientific analysis of surviving pieces, Williams demonstrates how much metallurgy, particularly for armor, improved in the late 14th through mid-15th centuries. Improved armor contributed to the continued effectiveness of heavy cavalry and (by the end of the war) to the decline of the longbow.
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  741. The Broader International Context
  742.  
  743. Though not a “world war,” the Hundred Years War did at one time or another involve the Low Countries, Germany, Bohemia, and various Italian and Iberian states. A monographic overview of the topic has not yet been written, but the pieces that such a book would have to assemble have mostly been provided in the narrower studies listed here: Daumet 1898 on Castile, Cordey 1911 on Savoy, Lucas 1929 on the Low Countries, Offler 1939 and Trautz 1961 on Germany, and Russell 1955 on 14th-century Iberia. An exception is the involvement of the Italian states other than Savoy; this remains a significant lacuna in the scholarship. See also Diplomacy.
  744.  
  745. Cordey, Jean. Les Comtes de Savoie et les rois de France pendant la guerre de cent ans (1329–1391). Paris: H. Champion, 1911.
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  747. In this period Savoy was among France’s more important allies. Cordey’s study is based heavily on archival material from Turin.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Daumet, Georges. Étude sur l’alliance de la France et de la Castille au XIVe et XVe siècles. Paris: E. Bouillon, 1898.
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  751. Once Henry of Trastamara seized the throne of Castile from his half-brother Pedro “the Cruel,” Castile became a significant ally of France. Should be read in conjunction with Russell 1955.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Lucas, Henry Stephen. The Low Countries and the Hundred Years’ War, 1326–1347. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1929.
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  755. Very detailed. Dated but not superseded.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Offler, Hilary Seton. “England and Germany at the Beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.” English Historical Review 54 (1939): 608–631.
  758. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/LIV.CCXVI.608Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. Deals mainly with two episodes: Edward III’s securing and use of the title of imperial vicar in 1338, and his refusal of the proffer of the imperial throne in 1348.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Russell, Edward. The English Intervention in Spain and Portugal in the Time of Edward III and Richard II. Oxford: Clarendon, 1955.
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  763. An impressive work based on Spanish documentary material, though the author notes that he did not fully exploit the archives of Aragon. Especially good on diplomacy.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Trautz, Fritz. Die Könige von England und das Reich, 1272–1377. Heidelberg, Germany: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1961.
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  767. Provides details on embassies, proposed marriages, and imperial subjects who fought for Edward III in the Hundred Years War. Emphasizes dynastic calculations over realpolitik. Includes much of relevance to the Low Countries, which were then mostly imperial territories.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Joan of Arc
  770.  
  771. There is a large literature on the Maid of Orléans (see Bibliographies). Much of it is problematic in one way or another; the works listed here can serve as starting points. Pernoud and Clin 1999 is a broad introduction to Joan herself; Wheeler and Wood 1996 provides an entrée to the varieties of scholarly work on the Maid. Taylor 2006 presents a broad selection of primary sources in translation. DeVries 2003 focuses on Joan’s role in the Hundred Years War.
  772.  
  773. DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military Leader. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 2003.
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  775. A narrative-based treatment of Joan’s sieges and combats. Rates highly Joan’s aptitude for war and personal contributions to the operations in which she was involved. Does not offer a clear-cut answer as to why she was able to lead and inspire 15th-century men as successfully as she was.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Pernoud, Régine, and Marie-Véronique Clin. Joan of Arc: Her Story. Translated by Jeremy duQuesnay Adams. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.
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  779. A sort of biography of Joan, incorporating a narrative of her life; a set of mini-biographies (up to one page) of the “cast of characters” with whom she interacted; and a set of seventeen short “sketches” dealing with issues and historiographical topics relating to Joan and her legacy (Joan’s armor; Joan imposters; Joan in theater and opera; and more). Probably the best introduction to Joan.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Taylor, Craig, ed. and trans. Joan of Arc: la Pucelle. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2006.
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  783. Taylor includes 105 texts of various sorts, in English translation, to give the student the opportunity to grapple directly with the raw materials that scholars use to analyze Joan’s career and contemporary significance.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Wheeler, Bonnie, and Charles T. Wood. Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. New York: Garland, 1996.
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  787. A cross-disciplinary collection of essays dealing with both Joan of Arc in her own time, and Joan’s reception in later eras. Includes contextualized discussions of Joan’s transvestitism, Christine de Pizan, and the reactions of Joan’s French contemporaries Bishop Elie de Bourdeilles, Martin le Franc, and Jean Gerson.
  788. Find this resource:
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