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Time Use and Time Diary Research (Sociology)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Our daily activities reflect important aspects of social and economic life. Because everything we experience is located in time, measuring daily experiences captures indicators of economic activity, individual health and well-being, and societal coherence. Economists in prerevolutionary Russia, influenced by Western anthropology, observed and recorded the daily lives of peasants. Stanislav Strumilin, utilizing their methods, collected time diary samples in the Soviet Union between 1921 and 1923 for economic planning purposes, though little material from these has survived. Parallel developments in western Europe and North America focused on relatively poor women. The English Fabian Society collected a small number of single-week diaries of working-class housewives in London to investigate the budgeting of time alongside money. The 1925 USA Purnell Act, mandating federal funding for a wide range of agricultural research, enabled the pioneering statistician Hildegarde Kneeland, head of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Department of Home Economics, to collect records of time use diaries from “farm,” town, and (in 1931) “college” women (the last constituting the first study of upper-class time use patterns). Television and radio stations developed a third independent line of diary studies to fit programming (and to sell advertisement space) relative to their audiences’ daily and weekly activity patterns. The BBC’s Audience Research Department conducted pioneering “viewer/listener availability studies” from 1937 onward. NHK in Japan engaged in a similar exercise from 1941 onward, and the Korean Broadcasting Service began collecting a time use survey every five years in 1981. The Columbia Broadcasting Corporation in the United States also collected occasional time diary surveys from the early 1950s onward, and its published reports, combined with those from the USDA, contributed to the first academic studies of historical change in time use derived from diaries. Other means of collecting time use data, including experience sampling, direct observation, and stylized estimates, have been developed. Technological advances in data collection techniques will facilitate the combination of some of these methods in the future. As computing power increases and costs of computers and software decline, a growing range of researchers study people’s use of time. This article provides an overview of the field, research techniques, and main topics of research. Users can find a more extensive range of time use references on the Centre for Time Use Research (CTUR) website. The CTUR website also offers harmonized time use data sets and other time use resources. Statistics Sweden Minnesota Population Center and Maryland Population Research Center offer other general resources on time diary data.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. The nonspecialist Anglophone academic world was first introduced to time use research in a general sociological context in Sorokin and Merton 1937. But, contrary to the claim in Andorka 1987 that empirical work in this area started in the Soviet Union in the mid-1920s and in the United States with Lundberg, et al. 1934, we can in fact identify much-earlier research using time diary methods, in turn-of-the-20th-century Russia and in pre–World War I London (e.g., Pember-Reeves 2008, cited under Time and Income Poverty, and Bevans 2008, cited under Leisure and Free Time), as well as extensive applications of time diary techniques in the United States in the 1920s. Szalai 1972 is the most appropriate entry point to the empirical literature, while Ås 1978 provides a still-current introduction to the conceptual issues that should be considered when conducting diary analysis. Parkes and Thrift 1980 provides a route into issues of visualization of time use patterns. The pioneering modeling of time use in Becker 1965 continues to influence economic time use research. Hamermesh and Pfann 2005 offers a useful starting point for the current economics of time. The author of Michelson 2005, himself an important innovator in this field, provides an appropriate starting point for students.
  8.  
  9. Andorka, Rudolf. 1987. Time budgets and their uses. Annual Review of Sociology 13:149–164.
  10. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.so.13.080187.001053Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Sets out a reasonably comprehensive range of academic and public policy applications of time diary research, notably identifying for the first time quality of life in general and subjective evaluations of activities in particular as important applications, but unsurprising for the period, missing health- and environment-related applications altogether. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  12. Find this resource:
  13.  
  14. Ås, Dagfinn. 1978. Studies of time-use: Problems and prospects. Acta Sociologica 21.2: 125–141.
  15. DOI: 10.1177/000169937802100203Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  16. General theoretical discussion of the nature and structure of time diary data, still strongly relevant. Widely cited for its articulation of the four category classifications of time allocation—“necessary” (sleeping and eating), “contracted” (paid work), “committed” (unpaid), and “free”—it should be more widely consulted for its description of the filtering process through which diffuse observations of social reality are reduced to numerical data. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  17. Find this resource:
  18.  
  19. Becker, Gary S. 1965. A theory of the allocation of time. Economic Journal 75.299: 493–517.
  20. DOI: 10.2307/2228949Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  21. Still a starting point for economists and others. His central insight—modes for meeting human wants require both inputs of commodities from the market (and hence, paid work time, dependent on wage rates, to pay for these) and also specific amounts of the time necessary for unpaid work or consumption—provides clues both about choices of mode of satisfaction and the distribution of time between leisure, unpaid work, and paid work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24. Hamermesh, Daniel S., and Gerard A. Pfann, eds. 2005. The economics of time use. Contributions to Economic Analysis 271. Boston: Elsevier.
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  26. Provides a helpful general introduction to a wide range of thinking on theoretical topics, with an unusual—for economists—commitment to relevant empirical issues.
  27. Find this resource:
  28.  
  29. Lundberg, George A., Mirra Komarovsky, and Mary Alice McInerny. 1934. Leisure: A suburban study. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
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  31. This is the earliest major academic book in this subject area, usually credited as the methodological pioneer (though the authors themselves identify the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) economist Hildegard Kneeland as the designer of their diary instrument, which was widely deployed by the USDA in the 1920s). Reprinted as recently as 1992 (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI).
  32. Find this resource:
  33.  
  34. Michelson, William. 2005. Time use: Expanding explanation in the social sciences. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
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  36. Clearly written and reasonably comprehensive introduction to the subject, from a leading academic practitioner, suitable for undergraduate as well as postgraduate readers.
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. Parkes, Don, and Nigel Thrift. 1980. Times, spaces and places: A chronogeographic perspective. New York: Wiley.
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  41. Highly innovative discussion of theoretical and empirical approaches to the analysis of time use. Now dated, but still a source for hardly used approaches to visualizing time use patterns, drawn from, but certainly advancing beyond, the earlier (1978) three-volume set of readings by the same authors plus Tommy Carlstein. Reprinted as recently as 1992 (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI).
  42. Find this resource:
  43.  
  44. Sorokin, Pitirim A., and Robert K. Merton. 1937. Social time: A methodological and functional analysis. American Journal of Sociology 42.5: 615–629.
  45. DOI: 10.1086/217540Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46. A claim by two sociological pioneers of the existence of a distinct conceptualization of time on the basis of the periodicity of social events (e.g., “when he comes out of the theatre,” “market day”) rather than astronomical or other mechanical phenomena. Not operationalizable in that historical era, but now potentially instructive for time use researchers. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  47. Find this resource:
  48.  
  49. Szalai, Alexander, ed. 1972. The use of time: Daily activities of urban and suburban populations in twelve countries. Publications of the European Coordination Centre for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences 5. The Hague: Mouton.
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  51. Volume containing description of the first-ever cross-national comparative time diary study, funded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, involving twelve national (single-city) studies, from both sides of what was then the “Iron Curtain.” Principles and procedures first codified here still have a major influence on the subject.
  52. Find this resource:
  53.  
  54. Time Diary Collection Methodology
  55.  
  56. Time diaries offer a structured form to capture daily activity reports from large samples of national populations. In contrast with the less expensive alternative method, asking stylized questions (how much time did you spend yesterday driving, cooking, asleep), diaries capture activities in context (what else happens at the same time, where people are, who they are with, how they feel during the activity)—Belli, et al. 2009 provides an introductory overview of developments in diary methodology. People find reporting daily activities easier when situated in the context of the day, though some authors have noted ways to calibrate time diary and have stylized questions to improve the quality of estimates produced by each approach for some aspects of time use (Kan and Pudney 2008; Kitterød and Lyngstad 2005; Juster, et al. 2003). A second alternative method for collecting time use information, experience sampling methods (ESM)—see Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter 2003, cited under Quality of Life and Well-Being, requires participants to carry a device or to download a smartphone app that beeps, texts, or otherwise prompts participants at random intervals to record what they are doing, where they are, who they are with, and how they feel at that moment in time. While ESM approaches may capture information more close to actual experiences, these approaches do not collect the total time in activities or the sequencing of events over the day. The time diary offers the unique package of the detail of activities in context and in sequence. Nevertheless, the diaries take a not-inconsequential amount of time to complete, and promoting response while understanding the implications of nonrandom nonresponse remains a challenge, as explored in Abraham, et al. 2006, by seminal authors on diary response rates. Technological advances will speed the process of data collection and processing and will open opportunities for collecting new dimensions of daily life, but maintaining continuity with estimates collected in older surveys, encouraging participation from people with different levels of engagement with new technologies, and collecting diaries from special populations (children and young people, nonliterate populations, and aging couples, among others) also raise methodological challenges. Kalfs and Saris 1998 provides a review of methods dominant through the 1990s, while Stafford 2009 reviews more-recent developments. See also Bonke and Fallesen 2010.
  57.  
  58. Abraham, Katharine G., Aaron Maitland, and Suzanne M. Bianchi. 2006. Non-response in the American Time Use Survey: Who is missing from the data and how much does it matter? NBER Technical Working Papers 328. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
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  60. One of the most comprehensive articles exploring who declines to participate in time use surveys. Since the American Time Use Survey sample is derived from the Current Population Survey in the United States, this paper uses the unique detail of information available about nonparticipants in this case.
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63. Belli, Robert F., Frank P. Stafford, and Duane F. Alwin, eds. 2009. Calendar and time diary: Methods in life course research. Los Angeles: SAGE.
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  65. Serves as a guide to the time use collection methodologies, aimed both at graduate students and national statistical office staff. This book offers a general overview of the methodology literature.
  66. Find this resource:
  67.  
  68. Bonke, Jens, and Peter Fallesen. 2010. The impact of incentives and interview methods on response quantity and quality in diary- and booklet-based surveys. Survey Research Methods 4.2: 91–101.
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  70. Compares data quality and participation rates from the 2008–2009 Danish national time use survey, one of the first national surveys to offer participants the choice of completing a time diary on paper, over the phone, or over the Internet. This paper also reports on experiments to boost participation.
  71. Find this resource:
  72.  
  73. Juster, F. Thomas, Hiromi Ono, and Frank P. Stafford. 2003. An assessment of alternative measures of time use. Sociological Methodology 33.1: 19–54.
  74. DOI: 10.1111/j.0081-1750.2003.t01-1-00126.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. This seminal paper compares time diary, stylized question, and experience sampling methods, looking both at strengths and weaknesses of each survey type but also at consistency of estimates produced by each method across time. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78. Kalfs, Nelly, and Willem Saris. 1998. Large differences in time use for three data collection systems. Social Indicators Research 44.3: 267–290.
  79. DOI: 10.1023/A:1006898222519Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80. Reports on an early survey collecting time diaries by face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, and paper diaries left behind with participants. The authors compare the quality of results and problems raised by each method. Similar work appears in Robinson and Godbey 1997 (cited under Overall Time Use and Change in Single Countries). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  81. Find this resource:
  82.  
  83. Kan, Man Yee, and Stephen Pudney. 2008. Measurement error in stylized and diary data on time use. Sociological Methodology 38.1: 101–132.
  84. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9531.2008.00197.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85. Uses a British survey that collected one-week diaries, then asked participants to estimate their time in some activities (using stylized questions from the British Household Panel Survey [BHPS]). The authors model differences between the diary and stylized accounts to adjust responses to stylized estimate questions in the BHPS. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  86. Find this resource:
  87.  
  88. Kitterød, Ragni Hege, and Torkild Hovde Lyngstad. 2005. Diary versus questionnaire information on time spent on housework—the case of Norway. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 2.1: 13–32.
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  90. Compares stylized estimates of housework time with the diary estimates of the same activities, collected in the Statistics Norway 2000–2001 national time use survey.
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93. Stafford, Frank P. 2009. Emerging modes of timeline data collection: Event history calendar time diary and methods. Social Indicators Research 93.1: 69–76.
  94. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-008-9406-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. Situates time diary collection methods in wider event history research, exploring how survey design and analysis methods should inform each other. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  96. Find this resource:
  97.  
  98. Diary Analysis Methods
  99.  
  100. Time diaries collect narrative accounts structured around sequences of activities, movement in space, cycles of time with others and time alone, and in some cases other dimensions of daily behaviors. Until recently, analysis of data collected by time diaries principally used time budget analysis—assessment of who spends what amount of time doing what over the day (the only analysis one can do with the alternative stylized estimate collection technique; see Gershuny 2000, cited under Cross-National Comparisons of Overall Time Use). From 2000 onward, time use analysis has shifted into analysis of the narrative elements of the diary, the sequences and patterns across the dimensions of the diary (Lesnard and de Saint Pol 2009 and Wilson 1998 introduce alternative sequence analysis techniques), and the mapping of movement in space (for instance, Vrotsou, et al. 2009). Other new developments in analysis include the use of in-depth interviews with small qualitative subsamples, collection of emotion data, and application of psychology to explain how people feel about different patterns of behavior. Time diaries sample activity on the diary day—which is different from sampling the range of regular behaviors in which the people sampled to complete the diaries engage, raising methodological challenges explored in Stewart 2006. Nevertheless, this long-term time use of individuals has academic and policy interest. New developments in this field (Gershuny 2012) use longer-term participation questions in conjunction with time diaries to inform analysis of individuals’ behaviors over weekly, monthly, and yearly cycles. Model selection also raises some controversy. Because time diaries collect patterns over a day, and people do not perform daily all activities in which they typically engage, Stewart 2009 demonstrates that 0 values represent a real report (this person did not do this activity on this day) rather than a censored report. Tobit models, which assume that the 0 values represent censored observations, can bias results except when applied to specific appropriate cases. Zhang, et al. 2012 offers an alternative method for modeling time use.
  101.  
  102. Gershuny, Jonathan. 2012. Too many zeros: A method for estimating long-term time-use from short diaries. Annales d’Économie et de Statistique 105–106:247–270.
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  104. This paper shows how surveys that both ask longer-term participation questions (e.g., over the last year, how often did you volunteer, go to the cinema . . . one to three times a year, once a month, two to three times a month, once a week) and time diaries inform understanding of time use in activities people do not tend to perform every day. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  105. Find this resource:
  106.  
  107. Lesnard, Laurent, and Thibaut de Saint Pol. 2009. Organisation du travail dans la semaine des individus et des couples actifs: Le poids des déterminants économiques et sociaux. Économie et Statistique 414:53–74.
  108. DOI: 10.3406/estat.2008.7030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109. This article illustrates optimal matching techniques to compare how couples sequence their paid work time. Uses a combination of time diaries and full-week work schedules collected in the French contribution to the Harmonised European Time Use Surveys.
  110. Find this resource:
  111.  
  112. Stewart, Jay. 2006. Assessing alternative dissimilarity indexes for comparing activity profiles. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 3.1: 49–59.
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  114. This paper compares methods for measuring the degree to which the activity patterns of different groups of people differ from each other.
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Stewart, Jay. 2009. Tobit or not Tobit? IZA Discussion Paper 4588. Bonn, Germany: Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit.
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  119. This is the most comprehensive comparison of models and the effect of bias introduced by Tobit models applied inappropriately to time diary analysis.
  120. Find this resource:
  121.  
  122. Vrotsou, Katerina, Kajsa Ellegård, and Matthew Cooper. 2009. Exploring time diaries using semi-automated activity pattern extraction. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 6.1: 1–25.
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  124. This article demonstrates how to map the location of activities in sequence from diaries. Ellegård is a key author in the application of time and space mapping in industrial contexts as well as in social research.
  125. Find this resource:
  126.  
  127. Wilson, W. Clarke. 1998. Activity pattern analysis by means of sequence-alignment methods. Environment and Planning A 30.6: 1017–1038.
  128. DOI: 10.1068/a301017Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. This paper details the development of the CLUSTAL software package, adapted from genetic sequence-modeling software for use in comparing sequences in time diaries. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  130. Find this resource:
  131.  
  132. Zhang, Junyi, Lili Xu, and Akimasa Fujiwara. 2012. Developing an integrated scobit-based activity participation and time allocation model to explore influence of childcare on women’s time use behaviour. Transportation 39.1: 125–149.
  133. DOI: 10.1007/s11116-011-9321-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  134. This article examines modeling challenges accounting for the various dimensions of information collected in time diaries. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  136.  
  137. Overall Time Use and Change in Single Countries
  138.  
  139. Transcending the value of the original single-urban-center-based studies such as Sorokin and Berger 1939, there are now around twenty countries with a multidecade record of national random sample surveys of time use (including Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the Republic of Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States). These sequences are as yet surprisingly poorly explored. Robinson and Godbey 1997 is perhaps the first book-length general discussion of change in overall time use patterns in a single country. Statistical agencies collecting time use data tend to publish monographs focusing on current surveys (Molén 2012 or Romano, et al. 2012), though there are exceptions, represented here in Rydenstam 2003 from Statistics Sweden and also including Statistics Finland and The Netherlands Social and Cultural Planning Bureau. Time diary studies are less well represented in less developed economies, despite their value in estimating unregistered production activity. There are major surveys available from China and India, among many others; Wittenberg 2009 is a relatively rare representative of published literature discussing these materials.
  140.  
  141. Molén, Mikael. 2012. Nu för tiden: En undersökning om svenska folkets tidsanvändning år 2010/11. Levnadsförhållanden Rapport 123. Stockholm: Statistics Sweden.
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  143. Molén charts the rise of time in television viewing, as well as a trend toward greater gender equality in time use in Sweden, though the gender trends arise more from women using services and technology to change the way they complete housework, reducing housework time and spending more time working for pay, while men’s patterns have changed to a much smaller degree.
  144. Find this resource:
  145.  
  146. Robinson, John P., and Geoffrey Godbey. 1997. Time for life: The surprising ways Americans use their time. University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press.
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  148. Robinson (the data manager in the mid-1960s Szalai study, now professor emeritus at the University of Michigan) and Godbey bring together the results of US national studies of time use from 1965 to 1995, in an easily accessible discussion of changing patterns of work and leisure.
  149. Find this resource:
  150.  
  151. Romano, Maria Clelia, Letizia Mencarini, and M. Letizia Tanturri. 2012. Uso del tempo e ruoli di genere: Tra lavoro e famiglia nel ciclo di vita. Argomenti 43. Rome: ISTAT.
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  153. These authors have worked from the Italian time use surveys from 1989 through 2010. They demonstrate that the unequal domestic work burden of women is associated with the low fertility rate in Italy, and they document different behavior patterns across a range of household types.
  154. Find this resource:
  155.  
  156. Rydenstam, Klas. 2003. Tid för vardagsliv: Kvinnors och mäns tidsanvändning 1990/91 och 2000/01. Levnadsförhållanden Rapport 99. Stockholm: Statistics Sweden.
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  158. The report compares changes in national time-use patterns captured in time use surveys carried out by Statistics Sweden in 1990 and 2000–2001. The report charts some modest increases in men’s participation in unpaid housework, and shifts both for women and men that differ by age group. This report includes a substantial number of tables breaking down time use by many demographic groups.
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Sorokin, Pitirim A., and Clarence Q. Berger. 1939. Time-budgets of human behaviors. Harvard Sociological Studies 2. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  163. Alongside Lundberg, et al. 1934, cited under General Overviews, the first general-purpose Anglophone discussion of time use based on diary materials, somewhat let down by the casual nature and lax reporting of the sample on which it is based.
  164. Find this resource:
  165.  
  166. Wittenberg, Martin. 2009. The intra-household allocation of work and leisure in South Africa. Social Indicators Research 93.1: 159–164.
  167. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-008-9386-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  168. South Africa is the only country in Africa to have collected two national-sample time use surveys. Wittenberg uses the first of these, the 2000 survey, to examine the persistence of the unequal domestic work burden of women across a range of household types. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  170.  
  171. Cross-National Comparisons of Overall Time Use
  172.  
  173. As with historical comparisons within countries, so it is with comparisons across countries: real scientific potential has, as of yet, only very partially been realized. There have been two substantial prefieldwork, harmonized cross-national comparative studies: the UN-funded study described in Szalai 1972 (cited under General Overviews)—influential from an instrument design perspective but not very widely used, and the Harmonised European Time Use Study coordinated by Eurostat (Winqvist 2004). Three of the participants in the original Szalai study (Robinson from the United States, Andreyenkov and Patrushev from the Soviet Union) arranged to repeat their 1965 studies in 1985, results reported in Robinson, et al. 1989. But even without any intentional prior cross-national coordination of design, it is possible to undertake comparative research on an ex post basis. One very widely used method (e.g., Minge-Klevana, et al. 1980) is the meta-study in which parallel but separately published statistics from different populations are compared in a single publication. This approach has obvious drawbacks associated with variations in the detailed specifications of the separately published statistics. An alternative approach is post hoc harmonization of the source microdata. The Multinational Time Use Study gains access to the original diary materials and produces harmonized time use and context variables that can be used across all the surveys in the data set; the current version has more than sixty surveys covering twenty-three countries. Gershuny 2000 uses an early version of this material; Fisher and Robinson 2011 uses a more recent tranche of data.
  174.  
  175. Fisher, Kimberly, and John P. Robinson. 2011. Daily life in 23 countries. Social Indicators Research 101.2: 295–304.
  176. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-010-9650-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177. The most comprehensive currently available summary of diary-derived cross-national comparative time use estimates. Tables summarizing seven-day (168 hour) averages of time devoted to thirty activities by men and (separately) women aged eighteen to sixty-four.
  178. Find this resource:
  179.  
  180. Gershuny, Jonathan I. 2000. Changing times: Work and leisure in postindustrial society. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  182. An attempt to provide a comprehensive view of changing patterns of time use, across a wide range of developed countries from the 1960s to the 1990s.
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  184.  
  185. Minge-Klevana, Wanda, Kwame Arhin, P. T. W. Baxter, et al. 1980. Does labor time decrease with industrialization? A survey of time-allocation studies. Current Anthropology 21.3: 279–298.
  186. DOI: 10.1086/202455Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Takes observer-diary-based studies from a number of anthropological studies of communities at various levels of economic development, from hunter-gatherers to market agriculturalists, and compares their published estimates of total work time contributed by men and women to establish a clear increase in work time associated with technological advance. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  188. Find this resource:
  189.  
  190. Robinson, John P., Vladimir G. Andreyenkov, and Vasily D. Patrushev. 1989. The rhythm of everyday life: How Soviet and American citizens use time. Boulder, CO: Westview.
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  192. A repeat of two of the 1965 studies from Szalai 1972 (cited under General Overviews) in Jackson, Michigan, and Pskov, Russia, undertaken by the original researchers. Results here reported in a rather flat descriptive manner, perhaps reflecting the unwillingness of the Soviet authorities to allow the release of the Russian data for analysis in the United States.
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Winqvist, Karin. 2004. How Europeans spend their time: Everyday life of women and men. Theme 3, Population and Social Conditions. Luxembourg: Eurostat.
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  197. An early comparative report drawing on the initial results of the Harmonised European Time Use Study.
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  199.  
  200. Extended National Economic Accounting
  201.  
  202. Plainly, not everything outside paid work is leisure. Margaret Reid (Reid 1934) was the first to articulate the “third-party criterion,” which identifies work as any activity that could be undertaken on behalf of one party by some other person without loss of the direct utility to the first. Washing clothes is work insofar as the wearer gets the benefit of clean clothes, irrespective of whether he washed them himself—contrasting with the case of the concert where the benefit of going to the concert is exclusive to the concert goer herself. One could pay to have the shirt washed or wash it oneself, but one could not sensibly pay someone else to attend the concert without loss of all the attendant utility. Conventional national accounts provide estimates of the value of production inside the “system of national accounts production boundary” (SNAPB), whereas the third-party criterion identifies a wider “general production boundary” (GPB) that includes all unpaid work. Time diary evidence for a population (first used in Harvey and Macdonald 1976), as this group of papers establishes, thus provides the basis for extended national accounts, in two distinct ways. They register unpaid work time, on which some market value can be placed. They also—since the diaries cover all the activities of a population’s days—register all consumption events, to which market prices may be attached. Goldschmidt-Clermont 1993, Goldschmidt-Clermont and Pagnossin-Aligisakis 1999, and Ironmonger 1996 describe the alternative methodologies that are needed for these two sorts of estimation. Holloway, et al. 2002 provides a first detailed description of a fully implemented version of these approaches.
  203.  
  204. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella. 1993. Monetary valuation of non-market productive time: Methodological considerations. Review of Income and Wealth 39.4: 419–433.
  205. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4991.1993.tb00471.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206. This is a discussion of “non-market productive time” (i.e., time that can be considered as work according to the “third-party criterion.”) The author distinguishes “wage based valuations” of productive time, in which the value of unpaid production is calculated on the basis of a valuation of the unpaid labor time, from “output-based” valuations based on the prices of market equivalents to household-produced services (i.e., number of meals multiplied by restaurant or other similar prices of equivalents).
  207. Find this resource:
  208.  
  209. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella, and Elisabetta Pagnossin-Aligisakis. 1999. Households’ non-SNA production: Labour time, value of labour and of product, and contribution to extended private consumption. Review of Income and Wealth 45.4: 519–529.
  210. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4991.1999.tb00363.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Provides sample implementations of wage-based and output-based extended national accounts for five countries, on the basis of time use data.
  212. Find this resource:
  213.  
  214. Harvey, Andrew S., and W. Stephen Macdonald. 1976. Time diaries and time data for extension of economic accounts. Social Indicators Research 3.1: 21–35.
  215. DOI: 10.1007/BF00286162Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  216. This article, which uses the first large-sample Canadian time use survey, is one of the earliest explorations to use time diaries to measure areas of the economy ignored in standard national accounts. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Holloway, Sue, Sandra Short, and Sarah Tamplin. 2002. Household satellite account: (Experimental) methodology. London: Office for National Statistics.
  220. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  221. Provides a detailed account of procedures for implementing the accounting systems discussed in Luisella Goldschmidt-Clermont’s and Duncan Ironmonger’s approaches for the UK economy, and articulates the principle that the two approaches should, according to national accounting conventions, produce identical results.
  222. Find this resource:
  223.  
  224. Ironmonger, Duncan. 1996. Counting outputs, capital inputs and caring labor: Estimating gross household product. Feminist Economics 2.3: 37–64.
  225. DOI: 10.1080/13545709610001707756Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226. Proposes a reform of the System of National Accounts (SNA) based on a clearer distinction between what is actually marketed and what is not (where the still-current UN SNA includes some unwaged output with gross national product). Introduces terminology for the components of the revised system, distinguishing gross market product (GMP) and gross household product (GHP), respectively, the sum of these being then described as gross economic product. Provides estimates of Australian GHP on the basis of time-diary-based estimates of labor input. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  227. Find this resource:
  228.  
  229. Reid, Margaret Gilpin. 1934. Economics of household production. London: Chapman & Hall.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. The original source of the now very widely used “third-person criterion” to identify the GPB.
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234. Time and Income Poverty
  235.  
  236. Early time use studies (of which Pember-Reeves 2008, first published in 1913, is one of the best-known examples) have been used to underpin advocacy for policy changes to address conditions faced by income-poor people. More recently, time use researchers, including the author of Holz 2004, have explored the concept of time poverty, which arises when people must complete so many obligations over the days that they lack time to enjoy leisure. While people can be income rich and time poor, those who are time poor and income poor can suffer the most-severe consequences of both conditions, as Abdourahman 2010 shows to be the case in Africa and Antonopoulos and Hirway 2010 demonstrates to appear in regions around the world. Disempowered women face this double bind disproportionately, which Zacharias, et al. 2012 shows needs to feature in development policy to promote gender justice.
  237.  
  238. Abdourahman, Omar Ismael. 2010. Time poverty: A contributor to women’s poverty? African Statistical Journal / Journal Statistique Africain 11:16–37.
  239. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  240. This article analyzes time use surveys collected in Africa to explore how gendered distributions of unpaid work, both work to sustain households and work to raise household income performed outside the paid economy, contribute to women’s poverty. This article explored how gender justice can contribute to development across Africa.
  241. Find this resource:
  242.  
  243. Antonopoulos, Rania, and Indira Hirway, eds. 2010. Unpaid work and the economy: Gender, time use and poverty in developing countries. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
  244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  245. This edited collection includes chapters from many of the key authors in this area of time use research. Chapters cover gender and time poverty in South Africa and in Asian and Latin American countries.
  246. Find this resource:
  247.  
  248. Holz, Erlend. 2004. Poverty risk, time use and social participation from a gender perspective: Research possibilities and the results of the German Time Use Survey 2001/02. Working Paper 37. Geneva, Switzerland: UN Economic Commission for Europe.
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250. This report uses German time use data to examine how time use fits into the concept of multidimensional poverty. The report offers an example of how time use data influence poverty alleviation policies in Europe.
  251. Find this resource:
  252.  
  253. Pember-Reeves, Maud. 2008. Round about a pound a week. New preface by Polly Toynbee. Persephone Book 79. London: Persephone.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Pember-Reeves used time diaries to document how working-class women in London coped with poverty, initially appearing as a pamphlet for the Fabian Society and then published as a book in 1913 (London: G. Bell). This text represents an early application of diaries to inform policies designed to promote gender justice.
  256. Find this resource:
  257.  
  258. Zacharias, Ajit, Rania Antonopoulos, and Thomas Masterson. 2012. Why time deficits matter: Implications for the measurement of poverty. Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: Levy Economics Institute of Bard College.
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260. This report details the development of the Levy Institute Measure of Time and Income Poverty (LIMTIP). Designed using time use data collected in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico, the LIMTIP measure offers one of the more significant examples of how time use data can inform policy promoting development.
  261. Find this resource:
  262.  
  263. Quality of Life and Well-Being
  264.  
  265. Time diaries have potentially a rather specific role to play in the study of well-being. The economic psychologist Daniel Kahneman distinguishes “happiness”—a general disposition to positive evaluations of current life situation—from the more limited and specific “utility.” He identifies the fundamental element of utility as “instantaneous enjoyment of the current activity.” It follows that the various concepts used by social scientists, often rather loosely, such as total, average, and marginal utility, must all be derivable from continuous records of individuals’ activities and the enjoyment (or other affectual measures) associated with those activities. The authors of Juster and Stafford 1985 are the originators of this insight and provided a first (though flawed because of lack of simultaneous affect measures) implementation of the principle, in the form of their “process benefits.” Other researchers in the mid-1980s, most notably Juster’s University of Michigan colleague John Robinson, and Bill Michelson in Toronto (Michelson 2011), proceeded to collect time diaries embodying affect measures—this method was resurrected by Kahneman and colleagues in the early 21st century as the widely known “day reconstruction method” (DRM). Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter 2003 demonstrates an alternative enjoyment measure using experience sampling methods (ESM, described in Time Diary Collection Methodology). Diener, et al. 2010 and Krueger 2009 provide comprehensive collections of readings on a subject given real impetus when the previous president of France, just in advance of the early-21st-century Great Depression, commissioned a high-profile enquiry into alternatives to gross national product (GNP) as a measure of well-being. Large-scale empirical work applying time diaries to national well-being accounts is now underway, as reported in Krueger 2009, Gershuny 2012, and other works, a discontinuous version of the DRM approach having been implemented as part of the American Time Use Study, and a version of the University of Michigan continuous-enjoyment diary measure collected on a subsample of the French Harmonised European Time Use Study 2010.
  266.  
  267. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, and Jeremy Hunter. 2003. Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies 4.2: 185–199.
  268. DOI: 10.1023/A:1024409732742Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  269. General introduction to applications of this most accurate (but unfortunately, as a direct result, very short-term) means of measurement of instantaneous utility, by the inventor of the “beeper” methodology and a distinguished junior colleague.
  270. Find this resource:
  271.  
  272. Diener, Edward, John F. Helliwell, and Daniel Kahneman, eds. 2010. International differences in well-being. Series in Positive Psychology. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  273. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732739.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274. Authoritative collection of economists’ theoretical and empirical studies of national happiness and well-being, representing the state of the art for this discipline. The absence of sociological input to this excellent volume suggests an important research opportunity.
  275. Find this resource:
  276.  
  277. Gershuny, Jonathan. 2012. National utility: Measuring the enjoyment of activities. European Sociological Review.
  278. DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcs077Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Uses 1980s diaries from the United States and the United Kingdom with “how much did you enjoy it?” fields and demonstrates similarity in the subjective evaluation of daily events across the two countries, estimating marginal utilities for a comprehensive set of ten daily activities and speculating about the implications of various countries’ time use trends for the relationship of aggregate utility to change in national product. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282. Juster, Thomas F., and Frank P. Stafford. 1985. Process benefits and the problem of joint production. In Time, goods, and well-being. Edited by Thomas F. Juster and Frank P. Stafford. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  283. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  284. The first exploration of links between utility and events located at specific points in individuals’ daily lives. The authors aggregate time enjoyment scores to measure “process benefits” that could be used in parallel to national product. Their evidence merely associated diary time with general enjoyment measures. John Robinson and Bill Michelson (Michelson 2011) build from this insight.
  285. Find this resource:
  286.  
  287. Krueger, Alan B., ed. 2009. Measuring the subjective well-being of nations: National accounts of time use and well-being. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  288. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226454573.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. Wide-ranging, insightful collection of leading economists’ and economic psychologists’ views of theoretical, practical, and methodological issues in the measurement of well-being.
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Michelson, William. 2011. What makes an activity most enjoyable? Alternative ways of measuring subjective aspects of time-use. Social Indicators Research 103.1: 77–91.
  293. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-010-9697-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  294. An up-to-date review by a leading time-use researcher who made pioneering contributions to well-being research in the 1980s. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297. Time Use by Older People, People with Disabilities, and Carers
  298.  
  299. As the average age of populations in many countries rises, and as medical advances enable people with disabilities to lead more-active lives (see Pentland, et al. 1999), the daily behaviors of older people, disabled people, and those providing care to these people will command increasing importance in the academic and policy literature. Older people and people with disabilities face more challenges using social space, and the measures of ability to get out of one’s home and around various spaces at different times of day reflects the degree of social (in)equality of these populations (Ujimoto 1991). For people with lower levels of engagement with the labor market, measuring the degree to which people have time structure and means of engaging with their communities indicates levels of overall quality of life. Altergott 1988 offers an early comprehensive review of this topic. More recently, the literature has sought to define and promote active aging and active living with disabilities. Interest in aging couples also features in Niemi 2009 and a supplement of the US Panel Study of Income Dynamic, reviewed in Freedman, et al. 2012. As governments turn to unpaid family and friends of people in need of support with daily living, Bittman, et al. 2005 shows that understanding the contribution carers (disproportionately women) make to the wider economy and the constraints providing care imposes on lifetime opportunities also gains more research importance.
  300.  
  301. Altergott, Karen, ed. 1988. Daily life in later life: Comparative perspectives. SAGE Focus Editions 99. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. This is one of the most significant early collections comparing time use by older people in seven countries in four regions: Canada, Hungary, Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
  304. Find this resource:
  305.  
  306. Bittman, Michael, Kimberly Fisher, Patricia Hill, and Cathy Thomson. 2005. The time cost of care. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 2.1: 54–66.
  307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308. This article uses the full range of information in time diaries to identify how people who look after people with disabilities modify what they do and where they go, and how they schedule activities to accommodate care needs. This article demonstrates that diary formats collect data on caring not available from other sources.
  309. Find this resource:
  310.  
  311. Freedman, Vicki A., Frank P. Stafford, Frederick G. Conrad, Norbert Schwarz, and Jennifer C. Cornman. 2012. Assessing time-diary quality for older couples: An analysis of the PSID disability and use-of-time supplement. Annales d’Économie et de Statistique 105–106:271–287.
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313. This article reports on the first time use survey of older couples attached to a longitudinal survey, which allows changing household characteristics to inform how couples allocate time.
  314. Find this resource:
  315.  
  316. Niemi, Iiris. 2009. Sharing of tasks and lifestyle among aged couples. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 6.2: 286–305.
  317. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  318. This author, who also is one of the key architects in the development of the Harmonised European Time Use Surveys, uses national surveys from Finland to show that women continue to do most domestic work after couples retire, though older couples tend to move into the same leisure pursuits.
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321. Pentland, Wendy E., Andrew S. Harvey, T. Smith, and Janet Walker. 1999. The impact of spinal cord injury on men’s time use. Spinal Cord 37.11: 786–792.
  322. DOI: 10.1038/sj.sc.3100908Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. This article uses time diaries to measure quality of daily life, in a specialized sample of people with disabilities, and is one of the first studies to use the time diary as a health outcome measure.
  324. Find this resource:
  325.  
  326. Ujimoto, K. Victor. 1991. Ethnic variations in the allocation of time to daily activities. Loisir et Société / Society and Leisure 14.2: 557–573.
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328. This article reports on studies using specialized older-age diaries, with wide gaps for people with limited dexterity to record activities and space for people to record taking medication. This is an early example of work comparing time use across ethnic communities. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  329. Find this resource:
  330.  
  331. Estimates and Impacts of Working Hours
  332.  
  333. Paid work hours are generally estimated on the basis of respondent-estimate questions (“stylized” in the time use literature, reflecting respondents’ lack of direct knowledge of their own hours of work) in general or specific labor force surveys. The lack of respondent awareness, combined with desirability effects, may lead to overestimation from this evidence, which nevertheless, because of its wide availability, provides a useful basis for analysis, as in Abendroth, et al. 2012 and Drago, et al. 2009. Diary materials, more specific, requiring respondents to mentally reconstruct the period in question, may provide more-accurate estimates than do stylized. And irrespective of those issues, diary materials unquestionably provide evidence not available from stylized materials; they give specific information on when work takes place. Thus, for example, Chenu and Robinson 2002, which uses in this case the extended seven-day work diary available as part of the Harmonised European Time Use Surveys project, is able to identify when spousal partners are working simultaneously. Garhammer 1995 similarly uses a seven-day diary to investigate “flexible” work. Diaries can be used as a source of lifestyle evidence to be used as controls for the effects of different types of employment (Giménez-Nadal and Ortega-Lapiedra 2010). Diaries also provide detailed parallel information about other activities that either may or may not be considered work-like, lying outside the sphere of employment, to be added to paid work time so as to provide estimates of (in the case of Pääkkönen 2009, the gendered distribution of) the total work burden. The evidence on activities outside employment (child care here) in time diary materials is also the basis of Sayer and Gornick 2012. The presumed (though this is still controversial) greater accuracy of sample-based work time estimates in the diary explains the use in Schor 1993 of diary evidence in the author’s doubly controversial thesis.
  334.  
  335. Abendroth, Anja-Kristin, Tanja van der Lippe, and Ineke Maas. 2012. Social support and the working hours of employed mothers in Europe: The relevance of the state, the workplace, and the family. Social Science Research 41.3: 581–597.
  336. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.12.008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337. Using European Social Survey materials to establish effects of workplace arrangements, family circumstances, and social policy on mothers’ working hours. Each of these factors seems to work together to enable longer hours, whereas “familist” state policy encouraging traditional patterns discourage them. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  338. Find this resource:
  339.  
  340. Chenu, Alain, and John P. Robinson. 2002. Synchronicity in the work schedules of working couples. Monthly Labor Review 125:55–63.
  341. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  342. Using seven-day work schedules to investigate the extent to which members of working couples work at the same times of the day and week. Finds that couples are around 30 percent more likely to work simultaneously than are randomly paired men and women.
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345. Drago, Robert, Mark Wooden, and David Black. 2009. Long work hours: Volunteers and conscripts. British Journal of Industrial Relations 47.3: 571–600.
  346. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8543.2009.00717.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Uses Australian household panel data to investigate whether those working long hours of employment or self-employment do so as a result of employer constraints, or voluntarily. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  348. Find this resource:
  349.  
  350. Garhammer, Manfred. 1995. Changes in working hours in Germany: The resulting impact on everyday life. Time & Society 4.2: 167–203.
  351. DOI: 10.1177/0961463X95004002002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352. Somewhat impressionistic interpretation of the results of a 1,545–respondent, whole–week, fixed-category diary study of full-time employed people in the western federal states of Germany, split between respondents with “flexible” and “normal” work hours. Used to discuss issues of time sovereignty, finding little difference in subjective orientation between flexible and normal workers. Author deduces need for active policy on public working hours. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  353. Find this resource:
  354.  
  355. Giménez-Nadal, José Ignacio, and Raquel Ortega-Lapiedra. 2010. Self-employment and time stress: The effect of leisure quality. Applied Economics Letters 17.17: 1735–1738.
  356. DOI: 10.1080/13504850903266791Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. This brief article uses diary evidence to control for differences in daily time allocation as between work and leisure, in an evaluation of the relationship between type of employment and measures of time stress. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  358. Find this resource:
  359.  
  360. Pääkkönen, Hannu. 2009. Total work allocation in four European countries. Social Indicators Research 93.1: 203–207.
  361. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-008-9378-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362. Exploration of total work time, using Harmonised European Time Use Study materials for Finland, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain. Finds little support for the “dual burden” proposition—that employed women work longer hours than equivalently placed men; in three of the four countries, men and women have closely similar hours—though the Spanish women work slightly longer. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  363. Find this resource:
  364.  
  365. Sayer, Liana C., and Janet C. Gornick. 2012. Cross-national variation in the influence of employment hours on child care time. European Sociological Review 28.4: 421–442.
  366. DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcr008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Uses diary data from Australia, Canada, France, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, and the United States to find unexpected variations in child-care time for particular employment statuses in different countries. In particular, finds that paid work time is not consistently related to primary child-care levels (e.g., high child-care time in the United Kingdom, which has long working hours). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  368. Find this resource:
  369.  
  370. Schor, Juliet B. 1993. The overworked American: The unexpected decline of leisure. New York: Basic Books.
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372. Controversial use of time diary data as basis of the controversial claim that paid work time has been increasing in the United States since the 1960s.
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375. The Gendered Division of Unpaid Domestic Labor
  376.  
  377. Unpaid work is entirely invisible in conventional economic statistics. Yet, plainly, it substitutes for activities that might otherwise be undertaken in the money economy, and thus it contributes to national product—an argument most clearly prefigured in the 1929 article by the pioneer time-use researcher Hildegarde Kneeland, who was centrally involved in US national accounting during the 1930s and who was among the first to understand the importance of time diary studies for this purpose. In Kneeland 1929, she saw her data collection unambiguously as a contribution to the promotion of gender equity, and this issue runs clearly throughout the articles cited here. Joann Vanek, then a graduate student supervised by the US contributors to the Szalai multinational project, produced her shocking, to many, Scientific American article (Vanek 1974) fully fifty years after Kneeland started collecting her first farm women’s diaries, showing very little overall change in women’s unpaid work over that period, despite the diffusion of domestic equipment. Bianchi, et al. 2006 (a compilation that includes work by John Robinson, who was with Philip Converse on Vanek’s doctoral committee and introduced her to the 1920s materials) shows some greater degree of change over the subsequent forty years—a result confirmed for several other countries in Hook 2010 and Anxo, et al. 2011. Cooke 2007, using differences between US states’ domestic work patterns, convincingly demonstrates the potential of public policy for enhancing gender equity in this sphere—a possibility widely canvassed in research such as Sullivan 1997, which seeks to explain the persistence of gender differences—while Craig 2007 uses Australian diary evidence to raise doubts over the degree of equality that has so far emerged. Nevertheless, while the sum of paid plus unpaid work time performed by women and by men has grown more similar in recent years, women still disproportionately perform the unpaid work, and this remaining imbalance has negative consequences both for women’s accumulation of human capital and independent economic power, as well as contributing to gender inequity.
  378.  
  379. Anxo, Dominique, Letizia Mencarini, Ariane Pailhé, Anne Solaz, M. Letizia Tanturri, and Lennart Flood. 2011. Gender differences in time use over the life course in France, Italy, Sweden, and the US. Feminist Economics 17.3: 159–195.
  380. DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2011.582822Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381. Uses time diary data, within a gender perspective, to examine time allocation to unpaid work, paid work, and leisure across the life cycle in the four countries. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384. Bianchi, Suzanne M., John P. Robinson, and Melissa A. Milkie. 2006. Changing rhythms of American family life. Rose Series in Sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  385. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  386. Compilation and extension of a sequence of influential articles by this group of leading US authorities on the household organization of unpaid work and caring activities, deploying American evidence from 1965 onward.
  387. Find this resource:
  388.  
  389. Cooke, Lynn Prince. 2007. Policy pathways to gender power: State-level effects on the US division of housework. Journal of Social Policy 36.2: 239–260.
  390. DOI: 10.1017/S0047279406000584Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Uses “stylized” time use evidence from the US National Survey of Families and Households, to show systematic associations between US states’ gender-related policies (e.g., toward maternal employment) and the division of domestic labor between men and women. The American Time Use Study has now accumulated a sufficient number of cases to allow a reanalysis of this issue, by using more-reliable diary-based evidence. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  392. Find this resource:
  393.  
  394. Craig, Lyn. 2007. Is there really a second shift, and if so, who does it? A time-diary investigation. Feminist Review 86.1: 149–170.
  395. DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400339Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396. Clearly explained analysis of Australian diary data comparing men’s and women’s work time, questioning claims of the disappearance of the “dual burden” in Anglophone countries. The author helpfully calculates paid plus unpaid work totals calculated from the “What were you doing” main activity diary field, plus unpaid work from the “were you doing anything else at that time?” secondary activity diary field—but does not question whether or not a minute of secondary activity is equivalent to a minute of primary time.
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399. Hook, Jennifer L. 2010. Gender inequality in the welfare state: Sex segregation in housework, 1965–2003. American Journal of Sociology 115.5: 1480–1523.
  400. DOI: 10.1086/651384Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  401. Carefully constructed analysis of evidence, drawn from the Multinational Time Use Study, of the continuing (though, according to this evidence, declining) segregation of responsibility for unpaid domestic work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  402. Find this resource:
  403.  
  404. Kneeland, Hildegarde. 1929. Woman’s economic contribution in the home. In Special issue: Women in the modern world. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 143:33–40.
  405. DOI: 10.1177/000271622914300105Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406. Pioneering discussion, by the designer of the first large-scale time diary studies in the United States, of the issues associated with women’s important but unmeasured contribution to the national economy. Contains the first publication of materials reused by Vanek nearly half a century later. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  407. Find this resource:
  408.  
  409. Sullivan, Oriel. 1997. Time waits for no (wo)man: An investigation of the gendered experience of domestic time. Sociology 31.2: 221–239.
  410. DOI: 10.1177/0038038597031002003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. This is one of the early articles not only to compare total time women and men spend on paid and unpaid work activities, but also to use gendered differences in sequencing and fragmentation of leisure to explain persistent gender inequality. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414. Vanek, Joann. 1974. Time spent in housework. Scientific American 231.5: 116–120.
  415. DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican1174-116Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416. Spectacularly successful, if still highly controversial, objection to the proposition that labor-saving devices in the home reduce domestic work. Relies on the combination of a meta-analysis of published evidence of women’s unpaid work time in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, with analysis of microdata from 1965. Would it not be interesting if the early microdata were now somehow to emerge? Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  417. Find this resource:
  418.  
  419. Children’s Time Use and Parents’ Time with Children
  420.  
  421. Societies must devote effort to raising the next generations to thrive. Time use research explores child care from a number of angles, looking at which families enjoy the most high-quality time together, at the constraints that caring roles place on activity choices of parents, at which styles of parenting are associated with the best health and educational outcomes for children (Bonke and Esping-Andersen 2011), and at which children lead the most and least healthful lifestyles. While families spend less time doing housework and have fewer children, the authors of Gauthier, et al. 2004 and Österbacka, et al. 2012 are among many researchers documenting that child care time has remained steady or increased. Folbre and Bittman 2004 documents the association between patterns of care and the social processes that both define care as women’s work and leave women disadvantaged on account of their contributions to care. A number of longitudinal child development surveys (Growing Up in Australia, the US Panel Study of Income Dynamics, Hofferth and Sandberg 2001, Sandberg and Hofferth 2001, among others) have attached time diaries to the battery of survey instruments. More recently, Kalenkoski, et al. 2011 measures how children’s activity patterns change in response to rapid changes in social media technology and patterns of learning and work.
  422.  
  423. Bonke, Jens, and Gøsta Esping-Andersen. 2011. Family investments in children—productivities, preferences, and parental child care. European Sociological Review 27.1: 43–55.
  424. DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcp054Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  425. This article, first published online in 2009, shows how education, occupation, and employment conditions influence parents’ choices of care services and parenting patterns. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  426. Find this resource:
  427.  
  428. Folbre, Nancy, and Michael Bittman, eds. 2004. Family time: The social organization of care. Routledge IAFFE Advances in Feminist Economics 2. New York: Routledge.
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430. This book draws on a range of social-science theories to explore the place of care activities in economic and social functions of societies. Many chapters explore measurement of care through diaries. Many key authors in this area have contributed chapters to this book.
  431. Find this resource:
  432.  
  433. Gauthier, Anne H., Timothy M. Smeeding, and Frank F. Furstenberg Jr. 2004. Are parents investing less time in children? Trends in selected industrialized countries. Population and Development Review 30.4: 647–672.
  434. DOI: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00036.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. This is one of the early articles comparing parenting activities across a range of countries on different continents. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  436. Find this resource:
  437.  
  438. Hofferth, Sandra L., and John F. Sandberg. 2001. How American children spend their time. Journal of Marriage and Family 63.2: 295–308.
  439. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00295.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440. This article reports on one of the early specialized time diary surveys collecting diaries from children that also is linked to longitudinal information on children’s longer-term participation in leisure activities, educational experiences and outcomes, and family conditions.
  441. Find this resource:
  442.  
  443. Kalenkoski, Charlene Marie, David C. Ribar, and Leslie S. Stratton. 2011. How do adolescents spell time use? An alternative methodological approach for analyzing time-diary data. In Research in labor economics. Edited by Solomon W. Polachek and Konstantinos Tatsiramos, 1–44. Research in Labor Economics 33. Bingley, UK: Emerald.
  444. DOI: 10.1108/S0147-9121(2011)0000033004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445. This paper reflects a growing trend to use the full range of diary elements to reveal how household disadvantage modifies the daily activities of teenagers.
  446. Find this resource:
  447.  
  448. Österbacka, Eva, Joachim Merz, and Cathleen D. Zick. 2012. Human capital investments in children—a comparative analysis of the role of parent-child shared time in selected countries. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 9.1: 120–143.
  449. DOI: 10.13085/eIJTUR.9.1.120-143Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450. This papers expands on previous literature measuring how parents invest in their children’s development of social capital, by making more use of the range of measurement options in time diaries. This paper also compares parental time in multiple countries.
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. Sandberg, John F., and Sandra L. Hofferth. 2001. Changes in children’s time with parents: United States, 1981–1997. Demography 38.3: 423–436.
  454. DOI: 10.1353/dem.2001.0031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. This article reports on specialized diaries collected from parents and their children in a household panel survey, and is one of the first articles matching parents and children’s accounts of events on the same days. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  456. Find this resource:
  457.  
  458. Leisure and Free Time
  459.  
  460. Leisure can represent the time when people rewind and recharge. Many leisure activities feature among the activities people most enjoy, and Yoshida, et al. 2006 links declines in leisure to patterns of overwork. This also can be a time when people engage with communities and families, building high-quality social relations and social capital, which Voorpostel, et al. 2010 explores. Alternatively, unstructured time may prove a negative experience during which people may lose a sense of purpose. The field of time use research sometimes uses leisure as a default “all other activities” category when all forms of work (paid and unpaid) and activities sustaining life have been accounted for, dating back to Bevans 2008. Zuzanek, et al. 1998 uses diaries to test for the presence of Veblen’s predictions of the development of a harried leisure class—a topic continuing to inspire research, including Glorieux, et al. 2010. Considerable debates remain about where to draw the line between leisure and work, with most debates centering on the classification of certain activities—some alternatives appear in Aguiar and Hurst 2007 and Veal 2011—though boundaries can be blurred. Producing clothes as a hobby can become an income and resource-generating skill in times of economic hardship. Goodin, et al. 2008 takes a further step by proposing that after a particular threshold (accounting for normal ranges of behavior for age, sex, and other demographic characteristics), time in the bath ceases to be washing and becomes leisure. The leisure literature includes concern for measuring the quality of free time—whether it occurs in long or short and fragmented episodes, how much is shared with other people and how much is alone, how much overlaps with nonleisure (such as watching TV while ironing clothes), or how much takes place while on-call for children or adults needing care or on-call for paid work.
  461.  
  462. Aguiar, Mark, and Erik Hurst. 2007. Measuring trends in leisure: The allocation of time over five decades. Quarterly Journal of Economics 122.3: 969–1006.
  463. DOI: 10.1162/qjec.122.3.969Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464. Offers an example of long-term-trend analysis (spanning the 1960s to 2007). The authors experiment with a range of ways to define leisure time. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  465. Find this resource:
  466.  
  467. Bevans, George E. 2008. How workingmen spend their spare time. Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar.
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469. Originally published in 1913 (New York: Columbia Univ. Press). Bevans is one of the earliest researchers to use diaries to measure free time. This book also documented the hardships faced by working-class families, with the aim of challenging stereotypes of the poor as idle.
  470. Find this resource:
  471.  
  472. Glorieux, Ignace, Ilse Laurijssen, Joeri Minnen, and Theun Pieter van Tienoven. 2010. In search of the harried leisure class in contemporary society: Time-use surveys and patterns of leisure time consumption. Journal of Consumer Policy 33.2: 163–181.
  473. DOI: 10.1007/s10603-010-9124-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474. These authors use optimal matching to compare leisure patterns and the timing of leisure in Belgium, to identify which groups experience which leisure patterns. They find people who engage in the widest range of leisure consumption are more time pressured, while those with relaxed schedules spend more time watching TV. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Goodin, Robert E., James Mahmud Rice, Antti Parpo, and Lina Eriksson. 2008. Discretionary time: A new measure of freedom. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  478. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511611452Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. These authors develop an alternative measure of leisure time. They argue that people need to perform a range of activities to sustain themselves and their household, but beyond that range, the extended time can be considered part of discretionary time.
  480. Find this resource:
  481.  
  482. Veal, Anthony James. 2011. Leisure participation patterns and gender: The survey evidence on Australian adults. Annals of Leisure Research 14.2–3: 120–142.
  483. DOI: 10.1080/11745398.2011.615711Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484. Explores ways of using time use data to contrast the leisure patterns of women and men in Australia. The paper demonstrates that time diaries give a different picture of gendered leisure because diaries collect more-comprehensive data than many other leisure survey designs. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  485. Find this resource:
  486.  
  487. Voorpostel, Marieke, Tanja van der Lippe, and Jonathan Gershuny. 2010. Spending time together—changes over four decades in leisure time spent with a spouse. Journal of Leisure Research 42.2: 243–265.
  488. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  489. Explores the total time that couples in the United States spend together, and the range of activities couples do together and apart. This paper also considers long-term change, looking at data collected between 1965 and 2005.
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492. Yoshida, Rie, Sachiko Nakano, and Yoko Watanabe. 2006. Japanese time use in 2005: No more increases in free time and a halt to the dwindling amounts of sleep. Tokyo: Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK).
  493. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  494. Uses seven decades of time use data collected by NHK, showing that interests of broadcasters overlap many of the interests in leisure time of policy planners and academic researchers.
  495. Find this resource:
  496.  
  497. Zuzanek, Jiri, Theo Beckers, and Pascale Peters. 1998. The “harried leisure class” revisited: Dutch and Canadian trends in the use of time from the 1970s to the 1990s. Leisure Studies 17.1: 1–19.
  498. DOI: 10.1080/026143698375222Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. This is an early article by prolific authors in leisure research, which uses cross-time diary surveys for cross-national assessment of which people juggle the most leisure activities in otherwise busy schedules. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  500. Find this resource:
  501.  
  502. Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Eating
  503.  
  504. As more countries experience health crises associated with obesity and inactivity, time diaries increasingly are used to monitor changes in levels of physical activities (Zick, et al. 2011), sedentary behaviors (van der Ploeg, et al. 2010), and eating behaviors (Cheng, et al. 2007). Cultural trends shape when, how long, and with whom we eat, as does access to different standards of food. Time diary and food diary surveys share methodological and analytical strategies, and a number of food-activity studies combine time diary with information on food purchase and cooking technique. You and Davis 2010 and Reifschneider, et al. 2011 use the eating and health module of the American Time Use Survey, which combines food shopping and food-related public assistance data with diary data. Physical activity represents a special case in behavior research because degrees of physical activity cut across a range of the behavior categories used in other time use research—and show similar trends around the world (Ng and Popkin 2012). While people primarily adopt sedentary posture for some activities, such as watching TV, they can ride an exercise bicycle while watching video content. Some forms of paid work involve intensive physical activity, while others require minimal movement. Tudor-Locke, et al. 2009 offers the most comprehensive mapping of evidence, from physiotherapy to diary measured. Assessing physical activity and sedentary behavior, as in Dunton, et al. 2009, requires assessment of the normal patterns of intensity required for different activities in context (where they take place, how long they last). This research, including van der Ploeg, et al. 2010, also generates innovation in the use of supplementary devices (such as accelerometers) alongside diaries, to measure the level of exertion employed.
  505.  
  506. Cheng, Shu-Li, Wendy Olsen, Dale Southerton, and Alan Warde. 2007. The changing practice of eating: Evidence from UK time diaries, 1975 and 2000. British Journal of Sociology 58.1: 39–61.
  507. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00138.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508. This paper explores patterns of eating and other food-related activities across a range of social categories and is useful both methodologically as well as for demonstrating the range of ways in which one can measure activities associated with food. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  509. Find this resource:
  510.  
  511. Dunton, Genevieve F., David Berrigan, Rachel Ballard-Barbash, Barry I. Graubard, and Audie A. Atienza. 2009. Environmental influences on exercise intensity and duration in a U.S. time use study. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 41.9: 1698–1705.
  512. DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a06c9bSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513. The paper examines relationships between natural and constructed social-space environments and the level and intensity of recreational physical activity.
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516. Ng, Shu Wen, and Barry M. Popkin. 2012. Time use and physical activity: A shift away from movement across the globe. Obesity Reviews 13.8: 659–680.
  517. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00982.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  518. This paper uses time use data from developed and developing countries (giving useful insight into comparative research) to compare trends in sedentary behaviors (measured through metabolic equivalents of task [MET] scores). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  519. Find this resource:
  520.  
  521. Reifschneider, Marianne J., Karen S. Hamrick, and Jill N. Lacey. 2011. Exercise, eating patterns, and obesity: Evidence from the ATUS and its eating & health module. Social Indicators Research 101.2: 215–219.
  522. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-010-9655-ySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. This paper demonstrates the relationship among public services, access to varieties of food, and food-related behaviors, showing how time use, spending, access, and items purchased interrelate in the explanation of health and obesity risk. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  524. Find this resource:
  525.  
  526. Tudor-Locke, Catrine, Tracy L. Washington, Barbara E. Ainsworth, and Richard P. Troiano. 2009. Linking the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) and the Compendium of Physical Activities: Methods and rationale. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 6.3: 347–353.
  527. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  528. The paper describes the use of a tool that matches physiotherapy assessments of the physical activity associated with behaviors to activity codes in the American Time Use Survey, enabling researchers to compare the level of physical activity in different populations.
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531. van der Ploeg, Hidde P., Dafna Merom, Josephine Y. Chau, Michael Bittman, Stewart G. Trost, and Adrian E. Bauman. 2010. Advances in population surveillance for physical activity and sedentary behavior: Reliability and validity of time use surveys. American Journal of Epidemiology 172.10: 1199–1206.
  532. DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwq265Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  533. This paper demonstrates how to combine time diary and accelerometer data to measure the degree both of physical activity and sedentary behaviors. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  534. Find this resource:
  535.  
  536. You, Wen, and George C. Davis. 2010. Household food expenditures, parental time allocation, and childhood overweight: An integrated two-stage collective model with an empirical application and test. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 92.3: 859–872.
  537. DOI: 10.1093/ajae/aap031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538. The paper models time use for food preparation and cleanup, food shopping, and eating and drinking, as well as obesity risk. In other articles associated the same research efforts, these authors explore the impact of welfare policies on nutrition and health in low-income families. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  539. Find this resource:
  540.  
  541. Zick, Cathleen D., Robert B. Stevens, and W. Keith Bryant. 2011. Time use choices and healthy body weight: A multivariate analysis of data from the American Time Use Survey. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8:84–97.
  542. DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-8-84Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. This paper examines relationships between 1) time spent eating, drinking, shopping, sleeping, and in food preparation and cleanup and 2) body mass index, as well as making use of food availability elements of the Eating and Health Module attached to the American Time Use Survey in 2006–2008.
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546. Health and Exposure
  547.  
  548. Time diaries also contribute to other areas of health research. People need sleep and rest, and these activities not only contribute to and reflect overall health but also compose a substantial dimension of both, over the day and over a person’s lifetime (Robinson and Michelson 2010). Activities in places also are associated with different levels of potential exposure to beneficial (e.g., sunlight creating Vitamin D) or harmful (e.g., pollution, infectious diseases, or risk of insect bites that may lead to disease transmission) conditions—see Zagheni, et al. 2008 and Isaacs, et al. 2013 for examples from developed countries, and Shimada and Matsuoka 2011 for an example from a developing country. The use of diaries to measure exposure risk also has a long history. Diaries also contribute to research into alcohol consumption and smoking (Song 2011 offers a recent example), as well as into monitoring how people reconstruct their lives to deal with disability or long-term illness. A number of time diary modules attached to longitudinal surveys (e.g., Stafford and Chiteji 2012) have been used to assess links between daily activities of individuals and their households and longer-term health outcomes. Strazdins, et al. 2011 demonstrates how time scarcity links to health outcomes.
  549.  
  550. Isaacs, Kristin, Thomas McCurdy, Graham Glen, et al. 2013. Statistical properties of longitudinal time-activity data for use in human exposure modeling. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 23.3: 328–336.
  551. DOI: 10.1038/jes.2012.94Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552. This article, published online in 2012, presents recent analytic innovations in the use of collections of time diary surveys to examine exposure to environmental risks. These authors use the most comprehensive collection of time use surveys collected in the United States, held in the Environmental Protection Agency’s Consolidated Human Activity Database (CHAD). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  553. Find this resource:
  554.  
  555. Robinson, John P., and William Michelson. 2010. Sleep as a victim of the “time crunch”—a multinational analysis. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research 7.1: 61–72.
  556. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  557. This internationally comparative article discusses issues for measuring sleep across time, to contrast perceptions of the impact of time pressure on sleep with actual changes in reported hours.
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. Shimada, Yoko, and Yuzuru Matsuoka. 2011. Analysis of indoor PM2.5 exposure in Asian countries using time use survey. Science of the Total Environment 409.24: 5243–5252.
  561. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.041Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562. This paper uses time diary and environmental monitoring to examine how fuel use and activity patterns relate to health risks of exposure to indoor air pollution. This paper pioneers applications of these methods in developing countries. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. Song, Younghwan. 2011. Time preference and time use: Do smokers exercise less? Labour 25.3: 350–369.
  566. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9914.2011.00523.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. This paper matches smoking data from the Current Population Study into the American Time Use Study and is a good example of how to augment a time diary survey with additional data for health research. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570. Stafford, Frank P., and Ngina Chiteji. 2012. Shaping health behavior across generations: Evidence from time use data in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and its supplements. Annales d’Économie et de Statistique 105–106:85–208.
  571. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  572. This paper uses a combined time diary and longitudinal survey to look at the relationship among a range of choices of family lifestyles and children’s health. The Panel Study of Income Dynamics supplements and Growing Up in Australia Survey offer the best examples of time use and longitudinal data for researching children’s health.
  573. Find this resource:
  574.  
  575. Strazdins, Lyndall, Amy L. Griffin, Dorothy H. Broom, et al. 2011. Time scarcity: Another health inequity? Environment and Planning A 43.3: 545–559.
  576. DOI: 10.1068/a4360Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577. This paper offers a general methodological discussion of how daily schedules measured through time diaries reveal the degree to which different patterns of living permit people opportunities to engage in healthy behaviors, as well outlining policy uses of measuring healthy inequalities. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  578. Find this resource:
  579.  
  580. Zagheni, Emilio, Francesco C. Billari, Piero Manfredi, Alessia Melegaro, Joel Mossong, and W. John Edmunds. 2008. Using time-use data to parameterize models for the spread of close-contact infectious diseases. American Journal of Epidemiology 168.9: 1082–1090.
  581. DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwn220Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  582. This reference is an example of use of a specialized diary capturing exposure events.
  583. Find this resource:
  584.  
  585. Transport and Environmental Research
  586.  
  587. Time diaries have a long history of applications in modeling transport policy, both to examine what transportation infrastructures and services are needed to most efficiently meet demand (Joh, et al. 2001) and to consider how access to transport in turn shapes or constrains people’s social and work opportunities (for instance, see Michelson 2005, cited under General Overviews and Michelson 2011, cited under Quality of Life and Well-Being). Millward and Spinney 2011 shows how transport options shape the days of Canadians in rural and urban areas, while Mont’Alvão and Aguiar 2009 shows the links between transport use and gender differences in daily activities in Brazil. The expansion into energy modeling was proposed in Schipper, et al. 1989 but only recently has attracted wide application (Aerts, et al. 2012 uses data from Flanders in Belgium, while Torriti 2012 uses data from across Europe). People’s daily activity patterns have an impact on the environment, and Fisher, et al. 2012 shows that understanding how uses of space and energy in daily behaviors at an individual level contributes one dimension to understanding human impacts on the environment, and that this area is a new dimension of time diary research.
  588.  
  589. Aerts, Dorien, Filip Descamps, Ine Wouters, Joeri Minnen, and Ignace Glorieux. 2012. Modellering elektriciteitsverbruik van gezinnen op basis van tijdsbestedingsonderzoek. Bouwfysica 23.1: 8–13.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. This paper illustrates how people’s use of time and space in buildings contributes and relates to energy consumption.
  592. Find this resource:
  593.  
  594. Fisher, Kimberly, Roujman Shahbazian, and Mohammad Sepahvand. 2012. Environmental policies & daily behaviours in the USA: How time diaries inform sustainability debates. Paper presented at the 12th International Society for Ecological Economics Conference, 16–19 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro.
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596. This paper illustrates a range of behaviors that reflect the degree of human impact on the environment. These include measuring physically active transport, use of public transport and the proportion of time driving cars alone, time inside during weather requiring heating or cooling, and time interacting with other species.
  597. Find this resource:
  598.  
  599. Joh, Chang-Hyeon, Theo Arentze, and Harry J. P. Timmermans. 2001. Pattern recognition in complex activity travel patterns: Comparison of Euclidean distance, signal-processing theoretical, and multidimensional sequence alignment methods. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1752.1: 16–22.
  600. DOI: 10.3141/1752-03Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601. This is one of the early articles setting out key principles of sequence analysis using time diary data. In addition to its general methodological contributions, this paper illustrates the way time use data contributes to modeling of travel patterns for use in transportation planning and policy. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  602. Find this resource:
  603.  
  604. Millward, Hugh, and Jamie Spinney. 2011. “Active living” related to the rural-urban continuum: A time-use perspective. Journal of Rural Health 27.2: 141–150.
  605. DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-0361.2010.00328.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  606. This paper gives an example of the combination of time diaries with geographic positioning system (GPS) mapping of people’s movements through social spaces. This paper also highlights the variations in behaviors in rural and urban areas. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609. Mont’Alvão, Arnaldo, and Neuma Aguiar. 2009. Travel time in a Brazilian city. Social Indicators Research 93.1: 219–222.
  610. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-008-9373-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. This paper employs time diary techniques to monitor urban travel time behaviors, highlighting the challenges of employing these techniques in developing countries. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  612. Find this resource:
  613.  
  614. Schipper, Lee, Sarita Bartlett, Dianne Hawk, and Edward Vine. 1989. Linking life-styles and energy use: A matter of time? Annual Review of Energy 14:273–320.
  615. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.eg.14.110189.001421Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616. This is the first publication to suggest the potential for using time diaries in analysis of energy consumption. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  617. Find this resource:
  618.  
  619. Torriti, Jacopo. 2012. Demand side management for the European Supergrid: Occupancy Variances of European single-person households. Energy Policy 44 (May): 199–206.
  620. DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  621. This paper uses the Harmonised European Time Use Surveys and demonstrates how time diaries contribute to analysis of energy consumption and energy production planning. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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