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Early Modern Catholicism

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  1. Introduction
  2. “Early modern Catholicism” is a broad, inclusive term employed by many historians in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The term includes how the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century elicited a critical response from Catholics that involved efforts to restore Catholic belief and practice where they had been supplanted. But Catholicism between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment was much more than that. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries historians have also examined internal reform, that is, reform of the Catholic Church in head and members, from popes to average laypeople. And cultural historians especially have done a great deal on global Catholicism, on Jesuits and other European missionaries, and on missionaries’ complex interaction with the native peoples of Asia and the Americas.
  3. General Overviews
  4. There are overviews that focus on internal reform of the Catholic Church, such as Evennett 1970and Bedouelle 2002. Others focus on the Council of Trent, such as Jedin 1951–1975 on the council itself and Prodi and Reinhard 1996 on the reception, implementation, and consequences of Trent. How Catholicism in the 16th and 17th centuries changed in relation to what it had been in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is treated in Delumeau 1992, Bossy 1985, and Bouwsma 2000. The historiography and nomenclature of early modern Catholicism is the topic of the magisterial studyO’Malley 2000.
  5. Bedouelle, Guy. La Réforme du Catholicisme: 1480–1620. Paris: Cerf, 2002.
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  7. Clear and concise exposition of how and why and by whom and by what means the Catholic Church was reformed. With a focus on the period 1480–1620, this work gives less attention to long-term implementation of reform than to its early stages. In addition to the French and English versions, the book also appears in Italian and Spanish. English translation is The Reform of Catholicism (1480–1620), translated by James K. Farge (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2008).
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  9. Bossy, John. Christianity in the West, 1400–1700. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
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  11. Differences between Protestant Christianity and early modern Catholicism are minimized in this book. Instead, the author proposes that medieval religion was one in which community was paramount but that this sensibility was then replaced by one of individual piety.
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  13. Bouwsma, William J. The Waning of the Renaissance, 1550–1640. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  15. Useful for assessing the complex relationships between the Renaissance and the era of Protestant and Catholic Reformations. The author, a specialist on John Calvin and on Venice, claims that creativity and freedom were stifled in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, as order became the dominant value.
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  17. Delumeau, Jean. Le Catholicisme entre Luther et Voltaire. 4th ed. Translated by Jeremy Moiser. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992.
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  19. A much-debated work by a leading historian of religious mentalities, this book argues that the European countryside remained mostly pagan until the catechetical efforts of both Protestant and Catholic reformers. But Delumeau portrays Enlightenment era “de-Christianization” as unmasking what had passed for devotion or faith as in fact little other than social conformity. Originally published in 1977. English translation is Catholicism between Luther and Voltaire: A New View of the Counter-Reformation, translated by Jeremy Moiser (London: Burns and Oates, 1977).
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  21. Evennett, H. Outram. The Spirit of the Counter-Reformation. Edited by John Bossy. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1970.
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  23. Originating in 1951 as the Birbeck Lectures at Cambridge University, this book has helped make 16th-century Catholicism a respected field of research in the most prestigious Protestant and secular universities. First published in 1968 by Cambridge University Press.
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  25. Jedin, Hubert. Geschichte des Konzils von Trient. 4 vols. Freiburg, West Germany: Herder, 1951–1975.
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  27. A massive, thoroughly researched account of the Council of Trent, its origins, its members, its fits and starts and difficulties, and the canons and decrees it produced. Less helpful on the implementation and reception of Trent. First two volumes available in English translation: A History of the Council of Trent, translated by Ernest Graf (London: Nelson, 1957–1961).
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  29. O’Malley, John W. Trent and All That: Renaming Catholicism in the Early Modern Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
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  31. Developed from lectures the author gave at Campion Hall, Oxford. A very useful overview of nomenclature and periodization. O’Malley convincingly offers the term “early modern Catholicism” as an inclusive one that may encompass not only internal reform of the church and the Catholic response to Protestant reformers but also popular and elite spirituality along with proliferation of missionary efforts around the world.
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  33. Prodi, Paolo, and Wolfgang Reinhard, eds. Il Concilio di Trento e il Moderno. Papers presented at a conference held on 11–15 September 1995. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 1996.
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  35. Consisting of papers from a conference held in 1995 in connection with the 450th anniversary of the opening of the Council of Trent, this volume explores how Tridentine Catholicism was above all a modernization of the church with its new emphases on the individual, discipline, and bureaucratic organization.
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  37. Reference Works
  38. Some reference works cover a chronological span much larger than that of the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation, but they include a great deal on this period: Viller, et al. 1932–1995;Levillain 2002; and Carson and Cerrito 2003. Hillerbrand 1996 is focused exclusively on the early modern age. On the Jesuits, especially as authors, Sommervogel 1890–1932 remains extremely useful, while O’Neill and Domínguez 2001 is especially helpful for biographical information. Whitford 2008 offers an orientation to historiographical trends in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
  39. Carson, Thomas, and Joann Cerrito, eds. New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2d ed. 15 vols. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2003.
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  41. Indispensable reference work especially for history of the institutional church, popes, councils, dioceses, bishops, religious orders, and so on.
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  43. Hillerbrand, Hans, ed. Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. 4 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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  45. Topics include not only the Protestant Reformation but also the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Entries include bibliographies that are now a bit dated but still useful.
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  47. Levillain, Philippe, ed. The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. 3 vols. New York: Routledge, 2002.
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  49. Useful work not only for entries on individual popes but also for a broad range of related topics, such as the Basilica of Saint Peter and the Quirinal Palace, the sedia gestatoria, the camerlengo, Vatican Radio, and the Vatican gardens. A thorough index aids access to topics treated but lacking their own entries.
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  51. O’Neill, Charles, and Joaquín Domínguez, eds. Diccionario histórico de la Compañia de Jesús: Biográfico-Temático. 4 vols. Madrid: Universidad Pontificia Comillas, 2001.
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  53. With some six thousand entries, a valuable work for biographies of Jesuits from the 16th century to the late 20th century. Also includes geographic and thematic entries on the history of the Society of Jesus. Although entries conclude with bibliographies, the abundance of current work on Jesuit history makes these already outdated.
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  55. Sommervogel, Carlos. Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus. Rev. ed. 11 vols. Brussels: Schepens, 1890–1932.
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  57. Although dated, an extraordinarily useful work for researching what Jesuits published from their founding in the 1540s to the 19th century. Includes short biographies of Jesuit authors and lists various editions and translations of the books they published.
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  59. Viller, Marcel, Charles Baumgartner, and André Rayez, eds. Dictionnaire de spiritualité: Ascétique et mystique, doctrine et histoire. 17 vols. Paris: Beauchesne, 1932–1995.
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  61. A massive reference work by French Jesuits. Entries tend to be very lengthy essays, offering in some cases exhaustive treatment of a topic. Focus is on the history of Christian spirituality; earlier volumes may neglect some non-Catholic topics, but the more recent volumes have more ecumenical tone and content.
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  63. Whitford, David M., ed. Reformation and Early Modern Europe: A Guide to Research. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2008.
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  65. Consists of eighteen bibliographical essays grouped under three headings: “Confessional Trends,” “Regional Trends,” and “Social and Cultural Trends.” The book keeps its focus on Europe and thus gives little attention to the broader international dimensions of early modern Catholicism.
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  67. Papacy
  68. Duffy 1997 offers a history of the papacy from Peter to John Paul II, and it includes and helps contextualize the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation papacy. Pastor 1886–1933 offers much detail on the postmedieval period of papal history, while Wright 2000 sheds light on the challenges faced by popes between the Council of Trent and the French Revolution. Corkery and Worcester 2010 explores how popes have evolved from princes and pastors to a more exclusively pastoral model of the papacy from 1500 to the present. And there are studies focused on significant individual popes: for Julius II (r. 1503–1513), see Shaw 1993; for Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585), seeBaumgartner 2003; for Pius V (r. 1566–1572), see Lemaître 1994; for Urban VIII (r. 1623–1644), seeShea and Artigas 2003.
  69. Baumgartner, Frederic. “Popes, Astrologers, and Early Modern Calendar Reform.” In History Has Many Voices. Edited by Lee Palmer Wandel, 41–56. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2003.
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  71. Especially concerned with Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585) and his sponsorship of the reform that led to adoption of the calendar that now bears his name. Offers an excellent example of a pope as patron of science and mathematics.
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  73. Corkery, James, and Thomas Worcester, eds. The Papacy since 1500: From Italian Prince to Universal Pastor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  75. Explores how and why the role of the pope has changed over the past five centuries from one that privileged the pope as a prince and patron of the arts, defending and expanding his territory in Italy, to the pope as universal pastor, concerned not solely with salvation in the next world but also with the dignity and well-being of all persons in this life.
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  77. Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.
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  79. Offers a concise and well-written overview of the history of the papacy from Peter to John Paul II. Lavishly illustrated, the volume includes an exceptionally rich abundance of images that tell the story every bit as much as Duffy’s text does. Although there are later editions, they exclude much of the visual material that makes the first edition so valuable.
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  81. Lemaître, Nicole. Saint Pie V. Paris: Fayard, 1994.
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  83. A Dominican, Pope Pius V (r. 1566–1572) was instrumental in setting in motion implementation of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). This book shows how Pius was both a pastor and an eventual canonized saint as well as a significant political figure of his day, organizing an alliance against the Turks and maneuvering, less successfully, to counter Protestant sovereigns, such as Elizabeth I.
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  85. Pastor, Ludwig von. Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters. 21 vols. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 1886–1933.
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  87. The German original as well as its later editions and English and other translations remain a point of reference for any history of the early modern papacy. English translation is The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, 40 vols., 3d ed., edited and translated by F. I. Antrobus, R. F. Kerr, Ernest Graf, and E. F. Peeler (London: Kegan Paul, 1899–1953).
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  89. Shaw, Christine. Julius II: The Warrior Pope. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
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  91. Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1513) is often cited for his role as patron of Michelangelo and other leading artists. This book focuses instead on Julius as head of the papal states and as a military leader. Shaw succeeds in showing how central warfare was to the strategies and priorities of a pope who seems to have modeled himself as much after Julius Caesar as Jesus Christ.
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  93. Shea, William R., and Mariano Artigas. Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  95. Organized around examination of Galileo’s six trips to Rome, this work includes ample consideration of why Pope Urban VIII (r. 1623–1644) became so hostile to Galileo. The authors, a historian of science and a philosopher, successfully avoid anachronistic juxtaposition of science and religion.
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  97. Wright, Anthony D. The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution, 1564–1789. New York: Longman, 2000.
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  99. A helpful examination of how, after the Council of Trent, popes sought to impose papal authority throughout the church. Considers resistance by Jansenists and others to papal authority over doctrine. Also includes consideration of tension between papal efforts to supervise the church beyond the Italian Peninsula and the goal of European Catholic monarchs to thoroughly subject churches in their territories to themselves.
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  101. BISHOPS AND CARDINALS
  102. Calls for reform of the clergy, especially of bishops and cardinals, were many and often repeated in the 16th century. Hallman 1985 offers insight into why cardinals were frequently targets of reform agendas. Alberigo and Jedin 1985 explains how an ideal for bishops was developed and articulated in the early modern period. Case studies of bishops and cardinals who embodied and put into practice such ideals include Alberigo and Jedin 1985 and Headley and Tomaro 1988 on Saint Charles Borromeo (b. 1538–d. 1584), Harline and Put 2000 on Mathias Hovius (b. 1542–d. 1620),Ravier 1985 on Saint François de Sales (b. 1567–d. 1622), Jones 1993 on Federico Boromeo (b. 1564–d. 1631), and Bergin 1991 on Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu (b. 1585–d. 1642).
  103. Alberigo, Giuseppe, and Hubert Jedin. Il tipo ideale di Vescovo Secondo la Riforma Cattolica. Translated by E. Durini and G. Colombi. Brescia, Italy: Morcelliana, 1985.
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  105. Consists of two parts. The first is a translation from German of a 1950 work by Jedin that traces development of an ideal for bishops from late medieval articulations up to the early 17th century. The second part, equally valuable, by Alberigo examines the role of Charles Borromeo as model bishop in the century or so after the Council of Trent.
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  107. Bergin, Joseph. The Rise of Richelieu. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991.
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  109. By an expert on the history of the episcopate in early modern France, this book focuses on Richelieu’s “rise” to bishop of Luçon, to cardinal, to a member of the king’s council, and to the king’s principal minister. Bergin shows that Richelieu (b. 1585–d. 1642) worked hard as a resident bishop, erecting a seminary, preaching, visiting his diocese, and publishing a catechism and an instruction on Christian doctrine.
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  111. Hallman, Barbara M. Italian Cardinals, Reform, and the Church as Property. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
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  113. With a thorough examination of how 15th- and 16th-century cardinals amassed benefices and other sources of wealth and how nepotism served their worldly interests, this book gives more attention to the need for reform than to adoption or implementation of it.
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  115. Harline, Craig, and Eddy Put. A Bishop’s Tale: Mathias Hovius among His Flock in Seventeenth-Century Flanders. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  117. Archbishop of Mechelen from 1596 to 1620, Hovius kept a diary that serves as the primary source for this work. The authors offer a case study of a bishop after the Council of Trent who had to contend with a myriad of challenges, including war-related destruction, Calvinist polemics and iconoclasm, decadent Catholic clergy and religious, the burden of secular authorities interfering in religious matters, various financial problems, dubious miracles and devotions, and resilient paganism.
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  119. Headley, John M., and John B. Tomaro, eds. San Carlo Borromeo: Catholic Reform and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century. Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1988.
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  121. With its origins in a conference held in 1984 to commemorate the fourth centennial of the death of Carlo Borromeo, this collection of essays offers a broad array of perspectives on the significance of Borromeo as cardinal archbishop of Milan (1560–1584) and on his enduring influence after his death, especially after his canonization as a saint in 1610.
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  123. Jones, Pamela M. Federico Borromeo and the Ambrosiana: Art Patronage and Reform in Seventeenth-Century Milan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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  125. A cousin of Carlo Borromeo, Federico Borromeo was cardinal archbishop of Milan (1595–1631) and a prominent patron of the arts. In this very fine study, Jones focuses on Borromeo’s founding of the Ambrosiana—an art museum, a library, and an art academy—and shows how the archbishop understood this tripartite institution to serve the best interests of the church in the post-Tridentine era.
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  127. Ravier, André. Un sage et un saint: François de Sales. Paris: Nouvelle Cité, 1985.
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  129. Written in a broadly accessible style but also based on solid scholarship, this biography traces key stages of and events in the life of François de Sales, bishop of Geneva in name although resident in Annecy in Savoy. Confirms a received image of this saint (canonized 1665) as a model of gentleness but also shows him as a successful preacher, writer, spiritual director, and administrator.
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  131. Jesuits
  132. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the Society of Jesus (its members known as Jesuits) has become a very hot topic among historians of early modern culture and religion. Some works offer overviews of a period of Jesuit history, such as O’Malley 1993 on the first generation, while others offer overviews of the Jesuits from their founding to the present, such as Worcester 2008. Studies focusing on a superior general or on another especially prominent Jesuit include McCoog 2004,Findlen 2004, Colombo 2007, and Coupeau 2010. A recurring problem for the Jesuits was gaining necessary support from political authorities to open schools and otherwise function; Nelson 2005 is a case study of this problem.
  133. Colombo, Emanuele. Convertire i Musulmani: L’esperienza di un Gesuita Spagnolo del Seicento. Milan: Mondadori, 2007.
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  135. A useful work for showing how conversion of Muslims was a major preoccupation of Jesuits, no less than the conversion of Protestants or of pagans. This book examines the life and work of Tirso González da Santalla (b. 1624–d. 1705), a Spanish Jesuit and moral theologian who authored a manual explaining how Jesuits should preach to and engage in dialogue with Muslims. He was eventually elected superior general of the Jesuits in 1687.
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  137. Coupeau, J. Carlos. From Inspiration to Invention: Rhetoric in the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2010.
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  139. With its origins in a doctoral dissertation directed by John O’Malley, this work is a careful study of the rhetorical structure and argumentation of the Jesuit Constitutions, a text composed principally by Ignatius of Loyola (b. 1491–d. 1556). Coupeau includes comparison with the “rules” of earlier founders of religious orders, such as Benedict and Francis of Assisi.
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  141. Findlen, Paula, ed. Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man Who Knew Everything. New York: Routledge, 2004.
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  143. A German Jesuit, prolific author, and creator of an eclectic museum in Rome, Kircher (b. 1602–d. 1680) has become a very hot topic among historians of 17th-century culture, science, art, literature, religion, and more. This collection of essays, edited by a prominent historian of science and of Italian cultural history, is written by an international team of leading scholars.
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  145. McCoog, Thomas, ed. The Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture, 1573–1580. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2004.
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  147. Edited by an expert on Jesuits in 16th- and 17th-century Britain, this hefty volume (nearly one thousand pages) offers some thirty essays by as many scholars on a critical period in Jesuit history, the generalate of Everard Mercurian. Mercurian was the first non-Spaniard to govern the order as it dealt with various growing pains, political, theological, and other.
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  149. Nelson, Eric. The Jesuits and the Monarchy: Catholic Reform and Political Authority in France (1590–1615). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  151. Not only Protestants but many Catholics in France resisted establishment of a Jesuit presence. This book offers a study of how King Henri IV (r. 1589–1610) gave his support and protection to the Jesuits but in such a way as to make their continued existence utterly dependent on his good pleasure and that of his successors.
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  153. O’Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
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  155. A seminal work—translated into many languages—that has helped make Jesuit history a mainstream and lively topic among early modern historians. O’Malley explores how the first generation of Jesuits, in the 1540s–1560s, was not principally devoted to the cause of fighting the Protestant Reformation but to a more diverse panoply of ministries. This book focuses less on Jesuit official documents than on what Jesuits actually did.
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  157. Worcester, Thomas, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  158. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521857314Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. With some eighteen essays by well-established experts and younger scholars, this volume is divided into five parts: “Ignatius of Loyola,” “European Foundations of the Jesuits,” “Geographic and Ethnic Frontiers,” “Arts and Sciences,” and “Jesuits in the Modern World.” Emphasis is on the religious and cultural significance of the Jesuits with special attention to how they have been received, positively and negatively.
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  161. OTHER RELIGIOUS ORDERS/CONGREGATIONS
  162. Both reform of old orders and creation of new ones was a central component of the Catholic Reformation. Molen 1994 provides case studies of some key examples. Medwick 1999, on Teresa of Avila and reform of Carmelite women, and Lowe 2003, on three Italian convents, treat old orders in an age of reform. Rapley 1990, Wetter 2006, and Picaud and Foisselon 2010 shed light on obstacles faced by women seeking to live religious lives outside the cloister. Boureau 1991 examines how an Italian congregation of priests was the model for one in France.
  163. Boureau, René. L’Oratoire en France. Paris: Cerf, 1991.
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  165. A congregation of diocesan priests modeled on the Roman Oratory of Philip Neri, the French Oratory was founded in 1611 by Pierre de Bérulle. This book offers a concise account of its history.
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  167. Lowe, Kate P. J. Nuns’ Chronicles and Convent Culture in Renaissance and Counter-Reformation Italy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  169. A comparative study of extant but unpublished chronicles compiled in the 16th and early 17th centuries in three Italian convents: one in Venice, one in Florence, and one in Rome. This study shows a vibrant convent life in which cultural creativity and cultural production thrived.
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  171. Medwick, Cathleen. Teresa of Avila: The Progress of a Soul. New York: Knopf, 1999.
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  173. Canonized as a saint in 1622, Teresa of Avila (b. 1515–d. 1582) struggled against many opponents in her efforts to reform the Carmelites in Spain. This readable biography is aimed at a broad audience and shows Teresa to have been a woman of profound prayer and a savvy administrator.
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  175. Molen, Richard de, ed. Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation: In Honor of John C. Olin on His Seventy-Fifth Birthday. New York: Fordham University Press, 1994.
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  177. This collection of essays offers fine introductory essays on several new or reformed orders and congregations. Essays include Elisabeth Gleason on the Capuchins, Charmarie Blaisdell on the Ursulines, Jodi Bilinkoff on Teresa of Avila and Discalced Carmelites, Wendy Wright on Jeanne de Chantal and the Visitation, and Kenneth Jorgensen on the Theatines.
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  179. Picaud, Gérard, and Jean Foisselon. Au Coeur de la Visitation: Trésors de la vie monastique, 400e anniversaire de l’ordre; Exposition, Musée de la Visitation. Paris: Somogy, 2010.
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  181. Catalogue of an exhibition held in 2010 for the four hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Visitation by Jeanne de Chantal and François de Sales.
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  183. Rapley, Elizabeth. The Dévotes: Women and Church in Seventeenth-Century France. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990.
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  185. Although the Council of Trent insisted that nuns be cloistered, other models of women religious emerged nonetheless. This study shows that 17th-century France was critically important for this development with the founding of new congregations, such as the Daughters of Charity by Louise de Marillac and Vincent de Paul and similar congregations by others.
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  187. Wetter, Immolata. Mary Ward under the Shadow of the Inquisition. Translated by Bernadette Ganne and Patricia Harriss. Oxford: Way, 2006.
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  189. Mary Ward (b. 1585–d. 1645) met with fierce opposition and persecution as she pursued her goal of establishing a female equivalent to the Jesuits. This book, translated from German, offers valuable insights into the life and character of the founder of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, also known as the Congregation of Jesus. German edition is Maria Ward: Unter dem Schatten der Inquisition (Munich: Sankt Michaelsbund, 2003).
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  191. WOMEN
  192. Scholars working on women’s history have not ignored the topic of women and the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Wiesner 2008 approaches questions of women and Catholicism in the broad context of early modern culture, and Strasser 2007 considers them in the German context. McNamara 1998 offers an overview of the entire history of “nuns,” the 16th and 17th centuries included, while Rapley 1990, Diefendorf 2004, and Molina 2008 are focused studies of examples of women religious in the period of the Catholic Reformation. Davis 1995 is a comparative study of three early modern women: one Jewish, one Protestant, and one Catholic.
  193. Davis, Natalie Z. Women on the Margins: Three Seventeenth-Century Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
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  195. By a leading specialist in the cultural history of early modern France, this book offers comparative biographies of three women: one a Dutch Protestant; one a German Jew; and one a French widow, mother, and Ursuline nun, Marie of the Incarnation, who left France for Canada, where she played a central role in founding a school for girls.
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  197. Diefendorf, Barbara B. From Penitence to Charity: Pious Women and the Catholic Reformation in Paris. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  199. Focusing on the late 16th and early 17th centuries, this study examines female piety in Paris during and for some decades after the Wars of Religion and argues that large numbers of women willingly embraced penitential austerity and the cloistered life but that these emphases were balanced by an “impulse” to charitable works, an impulse that grew stronger in the 1600s.
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  201. McNamara, Jo Ann Kay. Sisters in Arms: Catholic Nuns through Two Millennia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
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  203. In this overview of the entire history of Catholic women religious are three helpful chapters on the early modern period, “Defenders of the Faith” (pp. 419–451), “Martha’s Part” (pp. 452–488), and “The Mystical Regiment” (pp. 489–525).
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Molina, J. Michelle. “Technologies of the Self: The Letters of Eighteenth-Century Mexican Jesuit Spiritual Daughters.” History of Religions 47.4 (2008): 282–303.
  206. DOI: 10.1086/589782Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. In a challenge to historians that would see women in early modern Catholicism as oppressed by male hierarchies, this study shows women in Mexico who did the spiritual exercises of Saint Ignatius to have been agents of their own spiritual growth and transformation. Available online by subscription.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Rapley, Elizabeth. The Dévotes: Women and Church in Seventeenth-Century France. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990.
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  211. An account of how French women, with the help of some sympathetic men, succeeded in creating congregations of sisters that eschewed the cloistered life and devoted themselves instead to teaching and works of charity.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Strasser, Ulrike. State of Virginity: Gender, Religion, and Politics in an Early Modern Catholic State. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007.
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  215. Focusing on Bavaria and southern Germany, this study considers nuns, whores, and married women; public and private spaces inhabited by women; female education; and the significance of the Thirty Years’ War for Catholic women.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Wiesner, Merry E. Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe. 3d ed. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  219. This book is very useful as a textbook for undergraduates. It provides an up-to-date survey of the scholarship on a hot topic and includes a substantial chapter on religion.
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  221. LAY VOICES
  222. Reform of clergy and religious was not the whole story of the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation, as reformers also sought reform of laymen and laywomen. Indeed, the leadership of reform was at times lay. Bireley 1990 and Kamen 2010 are studies of the piety of Catholic heads of state, while Duffy 2001 and Logan 2011 examine cases of lay Catholic resistance to Protestant reform imposed by the state. Confraternities and other lay fraternal organizations played a major role in Catholicism as practiced and experienced by the laity; among pertinent studies of this topic areTallon 1990, Terpstra 2000, and Lazar 2005.
  223. Bireley, Robert. The Counter-Reformation Prince: Anti-Machiavellianism or Catholic Statecraft in Early Modern Europe. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
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  225. Niccolò Machiavelli’s political theory, in which the prince was urged to do whatever was necessary to retain power regardless of what Christian morality might demand, had many advocates. This study shows how several Catholic writers urged princes to guide not only their private lives but their public, political actions by the principles of the Christian religion.
  226. Find this resource:
  227. Duffy, Eamon. The Voices of Morebath: Reformation and Rebellion in an English Village. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
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  229. In the small English village of Morebath and its environs many laypeople participated in the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549 in opposition to Protestant reforms imposed in the reign of Edward VI. This book offers a case study of lay resistance to state-mandated reform.
  230. Find this resource:
  231. Kamen, Henry. The Escorial: Art and Power in the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.
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  233. A palace and monastery built by King Philip II of Spain between 1563 and 1584, the Escorial is shown in this study to have demonstrated in art and architecture the political and religious agenda of the Spanish Habsburgs.
  234. Find this resource:
  235. Lazar, Lance G. Working in the Vineyard of the Lord: Jesuit Confraternities in Early Modern Italy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005.
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  237. Focusing on mid-16th-century Rome, this book shows how the early Jesuits founded or helped found confraternities of laypeople devoted to charitable work among the poor and marginalized, including prostitutes and other at-risk or exploited women.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Logan, George M., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Thomas More. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  240. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521888622Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. Thomas More (b. 1477/1478–d. 1535) was a humanist and writer, a lawyer, a statesman, and a married man with children who paid with his life for his opposition to Henry VIII. This collection of essays by leading scholars is divided into three parts: “Life and Times,” “Five Major Writings,” and “Reception of More since His Death.” Available online by subscription.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Tallon, Alain. La Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement, 1629–1667: Spiritualité et société. Paris: Cerf, 1990.
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  245. This book uncovers the history of an elite association of priests and devout laity founded in Paris in 1629 and suppressed by King Louis XIV in the 1660s. Insisting that genuine Christians must lead a sober life of humility, charity, and devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, members of this company came to be seen by many as hypocrites rather than exemplars of virtue.
  246. Find this resource:
  247. Terpstra, Nicholas, ed. The Politics of Ritual Kinship: Confraternities and Social Order in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  249. A collection of essays by some fifteen scholars, this book focuses on the social function of confraternities. Although most of the essays treat confraternities in one or another of Italy’s major cities, some consideration is also given to their rural existence.
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  251. SAINTS
  252. Catholic reformers sought to eliminate certain abuses associated with the cult of the saints and to bring it under control of the bishops. But in response to wholesale Protestant attacks, Catholics also emphasized and defended piety focused on the saints. Burke 1987, Delumeau 1989, Luria 1991,Soergel 1993, and Collins 2008 treat devotion to the saints in Europe, while Schurhammer 1973–1982 examines at length Saint Francis Xavier, Jesuit missionary to Asia. Greer and Bilinkoff 2003and Greer 2005 consider how sanctity was imagined and identified in the Americas.
  253. Burke, Peter. “How to Be a Counter-Reformation Saint.” In The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication. By Peter Burke, 48–62. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  255. Burke is a leading cultural historian. This essay examines the types of people canonized in the early modern period. It argues that saints, like other heroes, reveal the values of the culture in which they are recognized as holy.
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  257. Collins, David J. Reforming Saints: Saints’ Lives and Their Authors in Germany, 1470–1530. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  259. Although Renaissance humanists and Protestant reformers criticized certain aspects of the late medieval cult of the saints, this book shows that not a few German humanists in the late 15th and early 16th centuries devoted much time to composing, in Latin, lives of saintly figures, such as certain bishops and recluses.
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  261. Delumeau, Jean. Rassurer et protéger: Le sentiment de sécurité dans l’Occident d’autrefois. Paris: Fayard, 1989.
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  263. Well known for his books on the history of fear and insecurity in the late medieval and early modern periods, Delumeau in this volume explores the history of reassurance and of a sentiment of security. The cult of the saints as reassuring plays a major role in this book, with chapters on the Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and other saints and on relics and rosaries.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Greer, Allan. Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  267. A Mohawk convert to Catholicism, Tekakwitha (b. 1656–d. 1680), who chose the baptismal name Catherine of Siena, was beatified in 1980 and approved for canonization in 2012. This book examines how French Jesuits, beginning shortly after her death, constructed her biography in such a way as to promote European acceptance of her sanctity.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Greer, Allan, and Jodi Bilinkoff, eds. Colonial Saints: Discovering the Holy in the Americas, 1500–1800. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  271. With origins in a conference held at the University of Toronto in 2000, this collection contains some fifteen essays that explore the multiplicity of meanings of holiness in early modern Latin America and Canada. Particular attention to how native peoples adopted but also adapted and transformed European traditions regarding sanctity. Also see Missions outside Europe.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Luria, Keith P. Territories of Grace: Cultural Change in the Seventeenth-Century Diocese of Grenoble. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  275. Relying heavily on records of visitations of the diocese by Bishop Etienne Le Camus, this work is a case study of the complexity of interactions between average Catholics and clerical authority. Devotions to a variety of saints emerge as the heart of popular piety in this Alpine region.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Schurhammer, Georg. Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times. 4 vols. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1973–1982.
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  279. This massive biography is by far the most thorough account available of the life of Saint Francis Xavier (b. 1506–d. 1552), one of the first Jesuits, a missionary to Asia, and a very popular saint. German edition is Franz Xaver: Sein Leben und Seine Zeit, 4 vols. (Freiburg im Breisgau, West Germany: Herder, 1955–1973).
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Soergel, Philip M. Wondrous in His Saints: Counter-Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
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  283. This study explores how books and pamphlets promoted and defended the cult of the saints in late-16th-century Bavaria, where religion remained based in ritual and was rural, agrarian, and local. Books that were printed to encourage and accompany pilgrimages explained and lauded shrines, miracles, relics, and indulgences.
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  285. SIN AND CONFESSION
  286. Some historians argue that the fear of eternal punishment was central to late medieval and early modern Catholic piety and that the sacrament of penance did little to alleviate such fear. Delumeau 1990b and Camporesi 1991 present much evidence along these lines. But other works, includingTentler 1977, Delumeau 1990a, and Myers 1996 present a more positive view of penance or at least a more nuanced one in which penitents were disciplined at times, consoled at times. Catholic monarchs did not enjoy exemption from the obligation of confession; Minois 1988 considers the role of the royal confessor in France.
  287. Camporesi, Piero. The Fear of Hell: Images of Damnation and Salvation in Early Modern Europe. Translated by Lucinda Byatt. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 1991.
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  289. Translated from the original Italian edition, La casa dell’eternità (Milan: Garzanti, 1987), this work is divided into two parts, the first on the promotion of fear of hell and the second on Eucharistic piety. The first part is the more persuasive one and includes appropriate citation of sermons and other primary sources, especially Italian ones, on sin.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Delumeau, Jean. L’aveu et le pardon: Les difficultés de la confession XIIIe–XVIIIe siècle. Paris: Fayard, 1990a.
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  293. Examining the practice of confession from the Fourth Lateran Council’s requirement of annual confession of mortal sins to the pastorally sensitive moral theology of Saint Alphonsus Liguori, this book highlights both the ways penitents were comforted and reassured about their salvation and the ways they were led to scrupulosity and enduring anxiety about their status before God.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Delumeau, Jean. Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture, 13th–18th Centuries. Translated by Eric Nicholson. New York: St. Martin’s, 1990b.
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  297. Translated from the original French edition, Le péché et la peur: La culpabilisation en Occident XIIIe–XVIIIe siècles (Paris: Fayard, 1983), this work examines how a culture of guilt and fear of eternal punishment was sustained over five centuries. Topics include the macabre and Renaissance pessimism, the belief that many would be damned but few saved, images of hell and purgatory, and the imagined limits of divine goodness.
  298. Find this resource:
  299. Minois, Georges. Le confesseur du roi: Les directeurs de conscience sous la monarchie française. Paris: Fayard, 1988.
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  301. In Catholic countries even kings were expected to go to confession. This study considers the role of the king’s confessor in France and finds him to have played a variety of roles, hearing the king’s confession, to be sure, but also serving as a religious and moral adviser to him, guiding his conscience in matters of state and in more personal matters.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. Myers, W. David. “Poor, Sinning Folk”: Confession and Conscience in Counter-Reformation Germany. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
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  305. This book shows how confession in Germany in the era after the Council of Trent became more frequent and more private than it had been before the Reformation. The confessional was introduced from Italy and prevented scandal and heightened privacy and confidentiality, while the practice of confession went from annual to much more often for devout Catholics.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Tentler, Thomas N. Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
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  309. Martin Luther denounced the Catholic practice of confession as anxiety producing, and many historians have assumed his description accurate. This book cautions against such assumptions and portrays a more nuanced sacramental practice entailing both discipline and consolation.
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  311. POPULAR CULTURE
  312. The Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation was in some ways an elite movement led by clergy, religious orders, and certain laypeople. It was also broader than that. It not only affected all levels of society but at times included the “people” as advocates and agents of reform. Burke 1978depicts tensions between popular and elite religion and culture. Christian 1981 and Eire 1995 shed light on the continuities and discontinuities between elite and popular piety in Spain, while Delumeau 1987 and Rubin 1991 explore the centrality of Eucharistic devotion in its diverse manifestations.Diefendorf 1991 shows how popular zeal for elimination of Protestants played a major role in the French Wars of Religion.
  313. Burke, Peter. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1978.
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  315. A seminal work first published in 1978 and republished in many editions and translations. Argues that there was a growing divide between elite and popular culture in early modern Europe and that elites made major efforts, with varying results, to reform popular culture by stamping out immorality and superstition.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Christian, William A., Jr. Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.
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  319. This book demonstrates how traditional, local manifestations of Catholic piety survived Spanish attempts at centralization and standardization imposed from above. The Catholic Reformation is shown to have pruned certain “excesses” or oddities of local religion but no more than that.
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  321. Delumeau, Jean, ed. La première communion: Quatre siècles d’histoire. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1987.
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  323. With essays by a dozen scholars, this volume traces the ritualized practice of first reception of communion from its origins in the Catholic Reformation of the early modern period to the 20th century. Includes some comparative discussion of first communion traditions in Protestant churches.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Diefendorf, Barbara B. Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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  327. Examines the climate of religious hatred and popular zeal for extermination of heretics that prepared the way for and made possible the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of 1572. This book refutes alternate interpretations of that massacre that would restrict blame to the monarchy or to a handful of nobles.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Eire, Carlos M. N. From Madrid to Purgatory: The Art and Craft of Dying in Sixteenth-Century Spain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  331. This book is a study of both popular and elite piety in the face of death with special attention to the Catholic practices of King Philip II and Saint Teresa of Avila. Uses a wide variety of sources, such as wills and testaments and requests for masses for the dead, and focuses on the use of holy water, relics, and other physical means of accessing the sacred.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Rubin, Miri. Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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  335. This study traces development of the feast of Corpus Christi from its origins in the 13th century to the eve of the Reformation and examines lay and clerical forms of Eucharistic devotion. A useful work for understanding the roots of many of the key controversies between Catholics and Protestants.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. PREACHING
  338. In the early 16th century popes and other bishops rarely preached. But the Council of Trent identified preaching as the most important duty of bishops, and in the decades after Trent the quality and quantity of Catholic preaching by both bishops and other clergy rose in many places. The seminal works O’Malley 1979 and Bayley 1980 have helped elicit further studies on preaching, especially sermons in Italy and France, such as McGinness 1995 and Norman 1998 for Italy and Taylor 1992and Worcester 1997 for France. Taylor 2001 offers essays on preaching across a wider geography, Catholic and Protestant.
  339. Bayley, Peter. French Pulpit Oratory, 1598–1650: A Study in Themes and Styles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
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  341. A literary study of both Catholic and Protestant preaching in France in the first half of the 17th century. Very useful for its bibliography of sermons published in that era.
  342. Find this resource:
  343. McGinness, Frederick J. Right Thinking and Sacred Oratory in Counter-Reformation Rome. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
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  345. This examination of preaching in late-16th-century Rome finds many triumphant and confident preachers whose sermons often exalted Rome itself as a model of virtue and of exemplary Catholic piety. Rome in the era after the Council of Trent was celebrated as a prefiguring and foretaste of nothing less than the heavenly Jerusalem.
  346. Find this resource:
  347. Norman, Corrie E. Humanist Taste and Franciscan Values: Cornelio Musso and Catholic Preaching in Sixteenth-Century Italy. New York: Lang, 1998.
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  349. This work studies the preaching of a Conventual Franciscan and bishop, Cornelio Musso (b. 1511–d. 1574), who preached the inaugural sermon at the Council of Trent. The author shows how Musso integrated a Franciscan oratorical content (especially vices and virtues) with humanist style; he also managed to balance in his many sermons the themes of fear and hope.
  350. Find this resource:
  351. O’Malley, John. Praise and Blame: Rhetoric, Doctrine, and Reform in the Sacred Orators of the Papal Court, c. 1450–1521. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1979.
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  353. While Renaissance popes rarely preached, prominent preachers, mostly from the religious orders, were invited to preach in the pope’s presence. This study shows how these sermons delivered before popes drew on classical forms, genres, and styles of rhetoric and emphasized not so much sin as the goodness of creation and of human nature.
  354. Find this resource:
  355. Taylor, Larissa J. Soldiers of Christ: Preaching in Late Medieval and Reformation France. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  357. Based on a careful study of some sixteen hundred French sermons preached between 1460 and 1560, this book reveals a remarkably hopeful and optimistic outlook on the part of most preachers. The author also argues that many of the preachers in this period were not misogynistic but indeed praised women as more virtuous than men.
  358. Find this resource:
  359. Taylor, Larissa J., ed. Preachers and People in the Reformations and Early Modern Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  361. A collection of eleven essays by as many scholars, this volume has three parts: the sermon as genre, the social history of preaching, and preaching and the geography of the Reformations. Includes consideration of Catholic and Protestant preaching in France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and the Low Countries.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Worcester, Thomas. Seventeenth-Century Cultural Discourse: France and the Preaching of Bishop Camus. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997.
  364. DOI: 10.1515/9783110809725Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365. The Council of Trent identified preaching as the principal duty of bishops. Jean-Pierre Camus (b. 1584–d. 1652) was bishop of Belley, a disciple of François de Sales, a novelist, and a prolific preacher. This book uses some four hundred of his sermons, all published in his lifetime, to undertake a case study of an episcopal preacher after the Council of Trent.
  366. Find this resource:
  367. THEOLOGY
  368. Theology in the Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation prospered, building on biblical, scholastic, and humanist traditions as it delineated what was Catholic from what was not. Boss 1962offers a case study of Catholic biblical exegesis in relation to the doctrine of justification, whileO’Malley 1974 and Posset 2003 examine two key examples of Catholic humanists, Desiderius Erasmus and Johann von Staupitz. Duval 1985 and Alonso-Lasheras 2011 highlight the major role of scholastic questions and distinctions. Kołakowski 1995 considers Jansenist insistence on salvation through grace alone, while Tutino 2010 is a study of Robert Bellarmine’s theory of “indirect” papal power.
  369. Alonso-Lasheras, Diego. Luis de Molina’s De Iustitia et Iure. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  370. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004202252.i-246Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Luis de Molina (b. 1535–d. 1600) was a Spanish Jesuit and a theologian known for his efforts to reconcile free will and grace. This book, however, focuses on another aspect of Molina’s work, explanation and defense of the morality of the practice of lending money.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Boss, Gerhard. Die Rechtfertigungslehre in den Bibelkommentaren des Kornelius a Lapide. Münster, West Germany: Aschendorff, 1962.
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  375. An exegete and Flemish Jesuit, Cornelius a Lapide (b. 1567–d. 1637) published commentaries on nearly every book of the Bible. This dated but valuable study explores his handling of the doctrine of justification of the sinner that Catholics found necessary to clarify in the wake of Protestant insistence on justification by faith alone.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Duval, André. Des sacrements au Concile de Trente. Paris: Cerf, 1985.
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  379. Against Protestant claims of only two sacraments, the Council of Trent defended seven sacraments. This study by a French Dominican offers a clear presentation of the council’s teaching, especially on the Eucharist.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Kołakowski, Leszek. God Owes Us Nothing: A Brief Remark on Pascal’s Religion and on the Spirit of Jansenism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
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  383. From the 1640s the disciples of Cornelius Jansen were active in promoting an Augustinian version of Christianity (i.e., one that stressed the sinfulness of humanity and the utter gratuity of salvation). This book sheds important light on the philosophical and theological foundations of the conflicts between Jansenists and their opponents, the Jesuits especially.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. O’Malley, John. “Erasmus and Luther: Continuity and Discontinuity as Key to Their Conflict.”Sixteenth Century Journal 5.2 (1974): 47–65.
  386. DOI: 10.2307/2539821Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. This article identifies an underlying heuristic pattern in the controversies between Erasmus and Luther. The former was an irenicist, and he highly valued consensus, unity, peace, and concord; the latter stressed difference and conflict between sin and grace, God and the world, reason and revelation, righteousness and faith, truth and falsehood. Available online by subscription.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Posset, Franz. The Front-Runner of the Catholic Reformation: The Life and Works of Johann von Staupitz. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003.
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  391. For a time Luther’s superior and mentor in the Augustinian order and later a Benedictine abbot, Johann von Staupitz (b. c. 1463–d. 1524) was a humanist and a preacher. Against scholars who would see Staupitz as of little significance, this book argues that he was the father of the Protestant Reformation in Germany and the front-runner of the Catholic Reformation.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Tutino, Stefania. Empire of Souls: Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) and the Christian Commonwealth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  395. Saint Robert Bellarmine (b. 1542–d. 1621) was a Jesuit, theologian, bishop, and cardinal. This study examines his theory of the indirect power of the pope with respect to temporal rulers and suggests that he anticipated in some ways how popes would relate to them once the papal states were abolished.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. CATHOLICS AND PROTESTANTS
  398. The Counter-Reformation in the literal sense of actions taken to contain or better yet overturn the Protestant Reformation continues to be a focus of some new research done on early modern Catholicism. Jedin 1946 articulates a helpful nomenclature of the Counter-Reformation and Catholic Reformation. More recently, Dompnier 1985, Armstrong 2004, and Holt 2005 take fresh looks at the anti-Protestant efforts in France, while Duffy 2009 examines Mary Tudor’s restoration of English Catholicism. Fehleison 2010 explores the complexity of confessional boundaries in the diocese of Geneva, and Parish 2010 brings to light Catholic defense of clerical celibacy.
  399. Armstrong, Megan C. The Politics of Piety: Franciscan Preachers during the Wars of Religion, 1560–1600. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2004.
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  401. Shows how pulpit oratory both reflected and affected Catholic fanaticism during the civil wars in late-16th-century France.
  402. Find this resource:
  403. Dompnier, Bernard. Le venin de l’hérésie: Image du Protestantisme et combat Catholique au XVIIe siècle. Paris: Centurion, 1985.
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  405. In the 1598 Edict of Nantes, King Henri IV of France granted a degree of toleration to Protestants. This book examines the ways Catholic clergy continued to engage in polemical battles against what they perceived as pernicious and seditious heretics.
  406. Find this resource:
  407. Duffy, Eamon. Fires of Faith: Catholic England under Mary Tudor. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
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  409. Against interpretations of the reign (1553–1558) of “bloody” Mary as little other than an excess of anti-Protestant violence, an excess that is said to have failed and prepared the way for Protestant revival under Queen Elizabeth I, this book argues that Mary’s policies largely succeeded in restoring Catholicism and that it was but her early death that led to Catholic defeat.
  410. Find this resource:
  411. Fehleison, Jill. Boundaries of Faith: Catholics and Protestants in the Diocese of Geneva. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2010.
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  413. Examination of how three bishops in the late 16th and early 17th centuries were or were not successful in promoting and restoring Catholicism in the shadow of Protestant Geneva. In arguing its points this book makes very effective use of records of episcopal visitations.
  414. Find this resource:
  415. Holt, Mack. The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629. 2d ed. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  416. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511817922Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. This book is a very useful introduction to and overview of the events of the Wars of Religion and of debates by historians on how religious or otherwise those wars really were.
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Jedin, Hubert. Katholische Reformation oder Gegenreformation? Ein Versuch zur Klärung der Begriffe nebst einer Jubiläumsbetrachtung über das Trienter Konzil. Lucerne, Switzerland: Stocker, 1946.
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  421. A seminal work, this study of nomenclature has played a key role in making scholars aware of the internal Catholic Reformation as distinguished from and at least as important historically as the Counter-Reformation.
  422. Find this resource:
  423. Parish, Helen. Clerical Celibacy in the West, c. 1100–1700. Catholic Christendom, 1300–1700. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010.
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  425. This book shows how early modern Catholicism both defended the ideal of clerical celibacy against Protestant attacks and sought to improve the living out of that ideal by creating seminaries for training of clergy, by enhanced supervision of priests’ lifestyles, and, in particular, by termination of any cohabitation with concubines.
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  427. MISSIONS OUTSIDE EUROPE
  428. Globalization and encounters of diverse cultures are hot topics among a great variety of historians, including those working on early modern Catholicism. Studies of European missionaries in the Americas include Greer and Bilinkoff 2003, Deslandres 2003, and Clayton 2011. Favre and Vincent 2007 and Clossey 2008 examine missions in both Asia and the Americas and questions of motivation and formation of the missionaries. Fontana 2010 considers the work of Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit in China.
  429. Clayton, Lawrence A. Bartolomé de Las Casas and the Conquest of the Americas. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
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  431. A Dominican friar, Las Casas (b. 1474–d. 1566) is well known for his defense of native peoples against the violence and cruelty of Spanish colonialists. This book, designed for use in undergraduate courses, offers a concise biography of this important figure and a useful bibliographical essay of relevant primary and secondary sources.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Clossey, Luke. Salvation and Globalization in the Early Jesuit Missions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  434. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Narrower than its title suggests, this book, a revised version of a University of California, Berkeley, doctoral dissertation, focuses on Jesuit missions in China and Mexico, their links with each, and their links with Germany. Special attention is given to the varied motives of European Jesuits seeking to be sent to the overseas missions.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Deslandres, Dominique. Croire et faire croire: Les missions françaises au XVIIe siècle (1600–1650). Paris: Fayard, 2003.
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  439. Providing a comparative study not only of overseas French missions but of interior missions as well, that is, of missionary efforts in places such as Brittany and elsewhere in rural France, this work sheds light on a mentality of zeal for instructing the ignorant and reforming their lives.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Favre, Pierre-Antoine, and Bernard Vincent, eds. Missions religieuses modernes: Notre lieu est le monde. Rome: École Française de Rome, 2007.
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  443. Taking its origins from a conference organized in 2000 by scholars from the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, this collection of essays is organized in three parts: “Formation, Vocation, Destination,” “Mission and Empire,” and “Interior Missions, Distant Missions.” Focus is on missionaries in Spain and Portugal and their empires.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Fontana, Michela. Matteo Ricci: Gesuita, scienziato, umanista in Cina. Rome: De Luca, 2010.
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  447. The year 2010 marked the four hundredth anniversary of the death of Matteo Ricci, the most famous of the Jesuits who went to China in the early modern period. This biography is a good example of the many publications that appeared in connection with this anniversary.
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  449. Greer, Allan, and Jodi Bilinkoff, eds. Colonial Saints: Discovering the Holy in the Americas, 1500–1800. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  451. With origins in a 2000 conference at the University of Toronto, this collection of essays offers a window onto ways European missionaries both promoted European models of the ideal Christian and engaged with local ideas about the holy. Also see Saints.
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  453. CATHOLICISM AND THE ARTS
  454. If Protestant reformers emphasized that faith comes through hearing the Word, Catholic reformers promoted both hearing and seeing as central to faith development and moral decision making. The Catholic Church after the Council of Trent was an extremely important patron of the visual and performing arts. Much scholarship on this topic in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has focused on Italy, such as Hammond 1994, Rice 1997, Mormando 1999, and Jones and Worcester 2002. For a case study of the performing arts in France, see Rock 1996. Some studies, such as Bailey 1999, treat Catholicism and the arts beyond the frontiers of Europe.
  455. Bailey, Gauvin A. Art on the Jesuit Missions in Asia and Latin America, 1542–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
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  457. With chapters on Japan, China, India, and Paraguay, this book shows how Jesuits incorporated the arts into their missionary work, bringing art and artists from Europe to various parts of the world and also engaging in a process of cultural exchange and hybridization in which native artistic traditions were accommodated and combined with European ones.
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  459. Hammond, Frederick. Music and Spectacle in Baroque Rome: Barberini Patronage under Urban VIII. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
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  461. Although Pope Urban VIII (r. 1623–1644) is often remembered above all for his role in the condemnation of Galileo, this book explores how Urban and his family, the Barberinis, were major patrons of music and especially of opera in 17th-century Rome.
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  463. Jones, Pamela M., and Thomas Worcester, eds. From Rome to Eternity: Catholicism and the Arts in Italy, ca. 1550–1650. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  465. This collection of essays, taking its origins from a 1999 conference, has three parts: “Italian Artists as Saints and Sinners,” “Arts of Sanctity, Suffering, and Sensuality in Italy,” and “Italy and Beyond: Rome and Global Catholic Culture.” Illustrated with some fifty reproductions.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. Mormando, Franco, ed. Saints and Sinners: Caravaggio and the Baroque Image. Chestnut Hill, MA: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College, 1999.
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  469. The catalogue of an exhibition of some thirty paintings shown at the McMullen Museum at Boston College, this volume also includes a collection of essays on the centrality of the visual arts in Catholic culture after the Council of Trent.
  470. Find this resource:
  471. Rice, Louise. The Altars and Altarpieces of New St. Peter’s: Outfitting the Basilica, 1621–1666. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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  473. The cornerstone of the new Saint Peter’s Basilica was laid in 1506 in the reign of Pope Julius II, but completion of the project took more than a century and a half. While many studies examine the architectural history, this study focuses on the furnishing of the basilica with altars, thus shedding light on the interaction of liturgy and the arts.
  474. Find this resource:
  475. Rock, Judith. Terpsichore at Louis-le-Grand: Baroque Dance on the Jesuit Stage in Paris. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of the Jesuit Sources, 1996.
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  477. Focusing on performances of ballet at a Jesuit college in Paris from the 1660s to the 1760s, this study shows how such performances were intended to entertain but also and especially to elicit good moral choices from audiences that included not only students and teachers but also the Parisian elites, even on occasion the royal family.
  478. Find this resource:
  479. EDITIONS OF PRIMARY SOURCES: MULTIAUTHORED COLLECTIONS
  480. Editions of primary sources in their original languages (Latin, Italian, French, German, etc.) includeCorpus Catholicorum 1919–, Societas Goerresiana Promovendis inter Germanos Catholicos Litterarum Studiis 1901–2001, and the Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation. There are also English translations of important texts, such as Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, translated by H. J. Schroeder (Rockford, IL: Tan, 1978), and collections of key documents edited and translated into English, including Olin 1969, Ryan and Rybolt 1995, Homza 2006, and Haskins 2008.
  481. Corpus Catholicorum. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 1919–.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A collection of 16th-century anti-Protestant texts.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. A very large collection of primary sources from the 16th and 17th centuries in various languages. Online access is available by subscription through select academic libraries.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Haskins, Susan, ed. and trans. Who Is Mary? Three Early Modern Women on the Idea of the Virgin Mary. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
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  491. This book includes a lengthy introduction by the editor Susan Haskins and texts on the Virgin Mary by three women in 16th- or early-17th-century Italy: Vittoria Colonna, Chiara Matraini, and Lucrezia Marinella.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Homza, Lu Ann, ed. and trans. The Spanish Inquisition, 1478–1614: An Anthology of Sources. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2006.
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  495. A selection of mainly trial records from the creation of the Spanish Inquisition by the Spanish monarchy to the expulsion of Muslim converts (Moriscos) from Spain. With good introductions and notes and careful selection of sources, this volume is valuable for classroom use.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Olin, John C., ed. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola, 1495–1540. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.
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  499. Along with helpful introductions and notes by the editor John Olin, this is a selection of key texts from Girolamo Savonarola and late-15th-century Florence to Ignatius of Loyola and mid-16th-century Rome. Among authors included are Desiderius Erasmus, Gasparo Contarini, and Egidio da Viterbo.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Ryan, Frances, and John Rybolt, eds. Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac: Rules, Conferences, and Writings. The Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist, 1995.
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  503. This book makes available key texts by Vincent de Paul (b. 1581–d. 1660) and Louise de Marillac (b. 1591–d. 1660). Saint Vincent founded the Congregation of the Mission, and with his help, Saint Louise founded the Daughters of Charity.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Societas Goerresiana Promovendis inter Germanos Catholicos Litterarum Studiis, ed.Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, Actorum, Epistularum, Tractatuum Nova Collectio. 13 vols. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1901–2001.
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  507. This collection of documents from behind the scenes at the Council of Trent is especially useful for understanding the debates that took place at the council on controversial issues. For an English version of Trent’s formal pronouncements, see Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, translated by H. J. Schroeder (Rockford, IL: Tan, 1978).
  508. Find this resource:
  509. EDITIONS OF PRIMARY SOURCES: SINGLE AUTHORS
  510. In some cases, the complete works of key writers are available in English translation or soon will be, including Teresa of Avila 1975, John of the Cross 1991, and Erasmus 1974–. For others, only selected writings have been published in English editions, such as Cajetan 1978, Bellarmine 1989,Marie of the Incarnation 1989, and Ignatius of Loyola 1996. François de Sales’s best-sellingIntroduction to the Devout Life has been available in many languages since the 17th century, but his abundant complete works are accessible in their original language only (François de Sales 1892–1932).
  511. Bellarmine, Robert. Spiritual Writings. Edited and translated by John Patrick Donnelly and Roland Teske. The Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist, 1989.
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  513. This edition of works by Saint Robert Bellarmine (b. 1542–d. 1621), Jesuit, bishop and cardinal, and theologian, includes two of his most widely read pieces: The Mind’s Ascent to God by the Ladder of Created Things and The Art of Dying Well.
  514. Find this resource:
  515. Cajetan, Tommaso de Vio. Cajetan Responds: A Reader in Reformation Controversy. Edited and translated by Jared Wicks. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1978.
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  517. Eleven works by Cardinal Cajetan (b. 1469–d. 1534), master general of the Order of Preachers (1508–1518), Thomist theologian, papal legate, and skilled controversialist. A lengthy introduction by the editor, Jared Wicks, places the selected writings in context and makes them accessible for students and scholars.
  518. Find this resource:
  519. Erasmus, Desiderius. Collected Works. Edited by R. J. Schoeck and B. M. Corrigan. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974–.
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  521. Most historians consider Erasmus (b. c. 1469–d. 1536) a central figure of the Catholic Reformation and a kind of forerunner of the Protestant Reformation. The many volumes in this critical edition offer scholars and students ready access to his abundant writings.
  522. Find this resource:
  523. François de Sales. Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales. 26 vols. Annecy, France: Niérat, 1892–1932.
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  525. The complete works of the bishop and best-selling writer François de Sales (b. 1567–d. 1622). Editors added helpful footnotes and summaries of the works.
  526. Find this resource:
  527. Ignatius of Loyola. Personal Writings: Reminiscences, Spiritual Diary, Select Letters, Including the Text of the Spiritual Exercises. Edited and translated by Joseph Munitiz and Philip Endean. London: Penguin, 1996.
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  529. In addition to the autobiography, spiritual exercises, and spiritual diary of Saint Ignatius of Loyola (b. 1491–d. 1556), this volume includes a selection of some forty of his letters. Notes by the editors make this edition reader friendly and accessible to students.
  530. Find this resource:
  531. John of the Cross. The Collected Works of Saint John of the Cross. Rev. ed. Edited and translated by Kieran Kavanaugh and Otilio Rodriguez. Washington, DC: Institute of Carmelite Studies, 1991.
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  533. Spanish mystic and reformer of the Carmelites, Saint John of the Cross (b. 1542–d. 1591) was also a writer, and he is known especially for his Dark Night of the Soul and Ascent of Mount Carmel. This edition puts these and his other works in context and makes them accessible.
  534. Find this resource:
  535. Marie of the Incarnation. Marie of the Incarnation: Selected Writings. Edited and translated by Irene Mahoney. New York: Paulist Press, 1989.
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  537. Widow and mother, Marie Guyart (b. 1599–d. 1672) joined the Ursulines, took the religious name Marie of the Incarnation, and departed from France for Canada. The writings in this volume show her as a woman of profound prayer, as a practical missionary devoted to the education of both the French and the natives in Quebec, and as a loving mother who sent many letters across the Atlantic to the son she had left behind.
  538. Find this resource:
  539. Teresa of Avila. The Complete Works of St. Teresa of Jesus. 3 vols. Rev. ed. Edited and translated by E. Allison Peers. London: Sheed and Ward, 1975.
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  541. Perhaps known above all through Gian Bernini’s sculpture of her in mystical ecstasy, Saint Teresa of Avila (b. 1515–d. 1582) was a controversial reformer of the Carmelites in Spain and a skilled writer. This edition of her works, Interior Castle and an autobiography among them, makes her writings available for students and scholars.
  542. Find this resource:
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