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Augustus (Biblical Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. In 1985, Andrew Wallace-Hadrill remarked, “The task of surveying the bibliography on Augustus is impossible” (Journal of Roman Studies 75, 245). He did so while reviewing the book Augustus: Prinzeps und Monarch by Dietmar Kienast (Kienast 1982, cited under General Overviews Post-1975), which included some 1,500 names in its index of modern authors. Since that time, of course, the number of works on Augustus has continued to swell, and so this list of just over 100 seems a bit underwhelming. The goal of this article is to identify some of the many areas of study that should be of interest to students of the New Testament and to provide a spectrum of useful publications within each category. Gaius Octavius, also known as Octavian, was born on 23 September 63 BCE, and lived a fairly quiet life until the death of his uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. In his will, Caesar made young Octavian his heir, and so the teenager was thrust into the middle of world events, including setting up an arrangement to rule one-third of the empire (43 BCE), avenging the death of his adopted father (42 BCE), and seeing that arrangement devolve into civil war, from which he emerged victorious after winning a decisive naval battle at Actium in western Greece (31 BCE) So at the age of thirty-two, Octavian found himself in control of the entire Roman empire, and that’s when the hard work began. Consolidating that power involved extensive fighting, both in the provinces and in Rome, until in 27 BCE he claimed that he turned his extraordinary powers back to the Senate and People. He preferred to be known by the title princeps (first man), but in that year the Senate awarded him the extraordinary title Augustus, and this was used by all emperors after him. Officially, Augustus was given power only in certain provinces, but through personality, accomplishments, and subterfuge, he came to control Rome and the rest of the empire. His power was extended in 12 BCE, when he was elected head of the priests in Rome (pontifex maximus). Augustus rebuilt the city physically and reformed many of the political and religious institutions in Rome and beyond. His final problem concerned succession, and since he outlived most of his preferred heirs, the honor went to Tiberius, the son of his wife Livia. After the death of Augustus in 14 CE, the Senate deified him, and the great emperor became the Divine Augustus.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews Pre-1975
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  7. As exemplified in Mommsen 2009, the modern study of Caesar Augustus has followed the path of much other scholarship—including biblical studies—in developing increasingly critical ways of reading ancient sources and examining the ancient world and its leading figures. While Syme 2002 (originally published in 1939) sets the standard for negative portrayal of Augustan actions and motives, Hammond 1968 (originally published in 1933), Rostovtzeff 1998 (originally published in 1957), and Jones 1971 admit the autocratic nature of his rule but include positive developments as well. Limitations of Syme’s view of the rise of Augustus are concisely addressed in Momigliano 1940. Ogilvie 2000 (originally published in 1969) discusses the religious practices and reforms that were necessary in order for Augustus to rule.
  8.  
  9. Hammond, Mason. The Augustan Principate: In Theory and Practice during the Julio-Claudian Period. 2d ed. New York: Russell & Russell, 1968.
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  11. Review of influences on the development of the career of Octavian/Augustus and the impact of his reign and policies on his dynastic successors. First published in 1933.
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  13. Jones, A. H. M. Augustus. New York: Norton, 1971.
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  15. Written near the end of a very productive life, this concise account tells the story of Augustus’s rise to power and lengthy rule. It highlights some aspects of his reign (social and political policy) and leaves others, such as religion, relatively untouched. Takes a more moderate view of Augustus in reaction to Syme’s “violent prejudice” against him.
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  17. Momigliano, Arnaldo. “Review of The Roman Revolution by Ronald Syme.” Journal of Roman Studies 30 (1940): 75–80.
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  19. Written shortly after publication of Syme’s monumental work, this review both praises and raises fundamental questions about the book and especially Syme’s dependence on prosopographical analysis. In short, Momigliano argues that the emergence of the Augustan principate is not a victory of one elite faction over another but rather “a victory of the non-political classes” (p. 78). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  21. Mommsen, Theodor. The History of Rome. 4 vols. Translated by William P. Dickson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  23. Mommsen wrote the original Römische Geschichte (Berlin: Weidmann, 1856) between 1854 and 1856 and transformed the study of ancient Rome by imposing a critical perspective on sources and traditional views. Although Mommsen’s work ends with the death of Julius Caesar, his approach has been extremely influential on later studies of Augustus.
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  25. Ogilvie, R. M. The Romans and Their Gods: In the Age of Augustus. London: Pimlico, 2000.
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  27. Brief and helpful survey of the Roman deities and the religious practices used to honor them. Does not discuss the influence of eastern gods or the imperial cult. Originally published in 1969 (New York: Norton).
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  29. Rostovtzeff, Michael. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. 2d ed. 2 vols. Revised by P. M. Fraser. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
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  31. First published by Oxford in 1926. Chapters on “Italy and the Civil War” (pp. 1–37) and “Augustus and the Policy of Restoration and Reconstruction” (pp. 38–74). References to Augustus throughout emphasize that he “accepted the existing conditions, and only modified them slightly, when absolutely necessary” (p. 75). Originally published in 1957.
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  33. Syme, Ronald. The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  35. This book set the trend in modern studies of Augustus in English and other languages as well. Syme looks at “Caesar’s heir” and his reign with a “critical eye,” and follows Tacitus in rejecting the claim that Augustus sought only to restore the Republic, leading to suspicion about every act and motive. Originally published in 1939.
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  37. General Overviews Post-1975
  38.  
  39. More recent overviews cover a spectrum of approaches and styles. Eck 2007 and Galinsky 2012 are more accessible for introductory-level understandings, while the other texts take a more scholarly approach and may be a bit dense for beginning students. Kienast 1982 is exceptional for its massive bibliography, Bleicken 2010 (originally published in 1998) for its extended coverage of the reign, Millar 1977 for its comprehensive knowledge of many types of source material, and Galinsky 1996 for influencing the recent generation of scholarship. Millar 1977 looks at particular aspects of imperial activity, correspondence, and adjudication, with references to Augustus throughout. Levick 2010 takes up the critical approach to Augustus with renewed vigor. Wallace-Hadrill 2008 synthesizes much of recent research with newer theoretical approaches to the study of identity and other aspects of the Roman world.
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  41. Bleicken, Jochen. Augustus: Eine Biographie. Reinbek, Germany: Rowohlt Taschenbuch, 2010.
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  43. Very dense discussion of the life of Augustus from the death of Caesar to his attempts to name a successor. Bleicken suggests that under Augustus monarchy is constructed as principate. Originally published in 1998 (Berlin: Alexander Fest Verlag).
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  45. Eck, Werner. The Age of Augustus. 2d ed. Translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider and Robert Daniel. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
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  47. English translation of Augustus und seine Zeit (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1998). A concise and readable overview of the reign of Augustus. Eck emphasizes the importance of the army in the development and maintenance of Augustus’s power. Includes translation of and short commentary on the Res Gestae Divi Augusti by Sarolta A. Takács.
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  49. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
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  51. Emphasizes the auctoritas of Augustus and the impact of his reign on all aspects of Roman culture, including values, art and architecture, literature, and religion. The author’s comments on the latter emphasize the diversity of local practice and empirewide syncretistic religions.
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  53. Galinsky, Karl. Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  54. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139045575Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. Designed as a “concise and informative” introduction to the “life and impact” of Augustus, the book includes a select bibliography and indices of subjects and also “Passages and Inscriptions,” but no footnotes. This provides an interesting contrast to the more heavily documented Augustan Culture (Galinsky 1996).
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  57. Kienast, Dietmar. Augustus: Prinzeps und Monarch. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1982.
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  59. In-depth survey of Augustus, his reign, and scholarly interpretations thereof. Considers religious policy, new gods under Augustus, and the ruler cult (pp. 185–214). Extensive bibliographic information.
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  61. Levick, Barbara. Augustus: Image and Substance. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2010.
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  63. Starts with a chapter on “Octavian: Heir of an Autocrat” (pp. 23–62) and ends with “Unmasking a God” (pp. 288–318). Works to reveal the “techniques which he used to disguise the ruthlessness of his rise to power.”
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  65. Millar, Fergus. The Emperor in the Roman World (31 BC–AD 337). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977.
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  67. Massively thorough look at the role of the Roman emperor as correspondent, judge, and benefactor for people around the empire. Since such activity is devoted to relations with elite classes, it must leave out other important aspects of imperial rule. Includes relations with “Cities, Provincial Councils and Associations,” as well as with private individuals.
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  69. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Rome’s Cultural Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  71. Groundbreaking look at the transition from late Republican to Imperial Rome, with a focus on the interwoven “cultural identities” that contributed to both social and political change. The role of Augustus is seen as “the perfect revolution, which in changing everything changes also the perception of what is normal and traditional, and so erases its own revolutionary status” (258).
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  73. Reference Resources
  74.  
  75. Purcell’s article in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (Goldberg 2016) is a great place to start with a quick overview, while Scarre 1995 provides some helpful visual information. The Galinsky piece in Rüpke 2007 is more substantial but still an accessible source for the nonspecialist. The author raises helpful questions and provides answers about religion in the Augustan period, including the “imperial cult.” Bowman 1996 in The Cambridge Ancient History is an enormous resource including twenty-one different entries. Boardman, et al. 2001 is less rich, but still offers useful survey articles on the Augustan and other periods. The new archaeology volume found in Myers and Chancey 2012 focuses on King Herod and the Roman nature of his building projects. See also Potter’s essay in The Cambridge Dictionary of Classical Civilization (Shipley, et al. 2006) and, finally, “Transformation of Roman Society under Augustus: Bibliography.”
  76.  
  77. Boardman, John, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murry. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  79. Includes chapters on “The Founding of the Empire” by David Stockton (pp. 121–149) and “Augustan Poetry and Society” by R. O. A. M. Lyne (pp. 182–205). Great pictures and drawings.
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  81. Bowman, A. K., Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, eds. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 10, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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  83. Almost 1,100 pages! Seemingly endless list of high-quality essays on the workings of Empire, Italy and the Provinces, and Society and Culture. Of special note are Levick on Greece and Asia Minor, and Goodman on Judaea. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  85. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Digital edition. Edited by S. Goldberg. New York: Oxford University Press.
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  87. Article on Augustus (pp. 207–209) by Nicholas Purcell, who highlights the flexibility of the regime created by Augustus, which allowed for his own successful rule and for the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The same essay appears in the Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Originally published in 1996, Hornblower, Simon, and Anthony Spawforth, eds., The Oxford Classical Dictionary.
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  89. Myers, Eric M., and Mark A. Chancey. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. 3, Alexander to Constantine. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012.
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  91. Chapter 3 on “Herod the Great and the Introduction of Roman Architecture” (pp. 50–82) covers the ongoing relationship with and influence of Augustus. Also available for Kindle.
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  93. Rüpke, Jörg, ed. A Companion to Roman Religion. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007.
  94. DOI: 10.1002/9780470690970Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. Karl Galinsky (pp. 71–82) addresses “Continuity and Change: Religion in the Augustan Semi-Century.” He sees the Augustan period as a time of great change, including restoration of some traditional religious practices and ideas, along with the innovations of the imperial cult, which took many different forms across the empire.
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  97. Shipley, Graham, John Vanderspoel, David Mattingly, and Lin Foxhall, eds. The Cambridge Dictionary of Classical Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  99. Essay on Augustus by David Potter includes a detailed family tree (dark background makes it hard to read) of the Julio-Claudian emperors.
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  101. Scarre, Chris. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. London: Penguin, 1995.
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  103. Pages 34–49 include helpful maps and diagrams covering the civil wars through the reign of Augustus in Rome and the provinces.
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  105. Transformation of Roman Society under Augustus: Bibliography. University of Warwick.
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  107. An excellent and very well-organized bibliography of English-language sources to accompany a course, “Transformation of Roman Society under Augustus,” convened by Dr. Alison Cooley at the University of Warwick.
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  109. Textbooks
  110.  
  111. These texts offer a number of options for classes related to Augustus and the Romans. All are appropriate for college level, although Beard, et al. 1992 may be difficult for some undergraduates. Wallace-Hadrill 1993 is a great addition to classrooms. Boatwright, et al. 2004 and Ward, et al. 2010 are straight Roman history texts that include significant discussion of Augustus and his times. Beard, et al. 1992; Rives 2007; Rüpke 2007; and Turcan 2000 are texts for classes in Roman religion. Again, they focus only in part on Augustus. For an article specifically on Augustan religion, see Karl Galinsky (pp. 71–82) in Rüpke 2007, cited under Reference Resources. The concern with the army in Keppie 1984 reflects how important control of the military was to the success of Augustus.
  112.  
  113. Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. Religions of Rome. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  115. Religious developments under Augustus are discussed in Volume 1, chapter 4 (pp. 167–210), “The Place of Religion: Rome in the Early Empire”; chapters 5–7 (pp. 211–363) cover other important developments during the Imperial Period.
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  117. Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Ancient Rome from Earliest Times to Constantine. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  119. This vast survey includes a very complete chapter on “Augustus and the Transformation of the Roman World” (pp. 267–316).
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  121. Keppie, Lawrence. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
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  123. Chapter 6 (pp. 145–171) on “The Age of Augustus” covers regional developments around the far-flung empire and emphasizes Augustus’s ability to keep the troops loyal to himself and not to local commanders. First published 1984.
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  125. Rives, James B. Religion in the Roman Empire. Malden, MA; Blackwell, 2007.
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  127. Overview of Roman religion includes a chapter on religion and empire, and there are references to Augustus throughout, especially under the section sub-titled “Emperors and Gods” (pp. 148–157).
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  129. Rüpke, Jörg. Religion of the Romans. Translated and edited by Richard Gordon. Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2007.
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  131. Considers religion in terms of “Structures,” “Religion in Action,” and “Social Reality.” Explores private and public aspects of religion, and the difficulty of maintaining such categories. English translation of Die Religion der Römer (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2001).
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  133. Turcan, Robert. The Gods of Ancient Rome: Religion in Everyday Life from Archaic to Imperial Times. Translated by Antonia Nevill. New York: Routledge, 2000.
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  135. English translation of Rome et ses dieux (Paris: Hachette, 1998). Should be used with care, as it is a somewhat idiosyncratic approach to Roman religions. Discussion of “imperial cult” is sandwiched between “Mithras” and “The Occult.”
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  137. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Augustan Rome. London: Bristol Classical, 1993.
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  139. Short overview balancing both literary accounts and evidence from Augustan art and architecture. Starts with “The Myth of Actium” and ends with “God and Man.”
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  141. Ward, Allen M., Fritz M. Heichelheim, Cedric A. Yeo, Jonathan Scott Perry. A History of the Roman People. 5th ed. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2010.
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  143. First published in 1962. Often-revised general history offers chapters on “The Principate Takes Shape, 29 B.C. to A.D. 14” (pp. 248–260), “Imperial Stabilization under Augustus” (pp. 261–276), and “The Impact of Augustus on Roman Imperial Life and Culture” (pp. 277–291).
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  145. Sourcebooks
  146.  
  147. These texts represent useful collections of primary source material on Augustus. The offerings in Cherry 2001 (thematic approach), Lewis and Reinhold 1990 (longtime standard collection), Lomas 1996 (focus on Italy), and Sherk 1984 (focus on Greek East) cover longer periods of time, but feature useful sections on Augustus. Chisholm and Ferguson 1981 has been a standard for some time, but no longer appears on the Oxford website. The same is true of Ehrenberg and Jones 1976, which does not include translations. Newer sources like Cooley 2003 and Mellor 2006 are specifically aimed at getting students engaged with the texts, and include supporting material to aid that process. See also Beard 1992, Volume 2, which is a wide-ranging sourcebook of literature and images (cited under Textbooks).
  148.  
  149. Cherry, David, ed. The Roman World: A Sourcebook. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
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  151. Thematically arranged texts in translation. Topics include the Social Order; Women, Marriage and Family; Economy; Science and Medicine; and the Army.
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  153. Chisholm, Kitty, and John Ferguson, eds. Rome: The Augustan Age: A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.
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  155. Starting before and continuing after the reign of Augustus, this sourcebook includes introductory comments for most references, and a few illustrations. Assumes no knowledge of ancient languages.
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  157. Cooley, M. G. L., ed. The Age of Augustus. Translated by B. W. J. G. Wilson. LACTOR 17. London: London Association of Classics Teachers, 2003.
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  159. Has 416 pages of translated sources, including literary, epigraphic, legal, poetic, and numismatic, with contributions from numerous British specialists in these fields.
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  161. Ehrenberg, Victor, and A. H. M. Jones, eds. Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus & Tiberius. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
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  163. Originally published in 1949. Venerable collection of Greek and Latin texts, featuring sections on the Res Gestae, fasti and calendars, the imperial family, the imperial cult, and other facets of the reigns of these emperors.
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  165. Lewis, Naphtali, and Meyer Reinhold, eds. Roman Civilization: Selected Readings, Vol. 1: The Republic and the Augustan Age. 3d ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990.
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  167. Originally published by Columbia University Press in 1955. Has served as a standard sourcebook for college-level students and beyond.
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  169. Lomas, Kathryn. Roman Italy, 338 BC–AD 200: A Sourcebook. London: University College London Press, 1996.
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  171. Translated texts with focus on Italy. Sections on “The Social and Civil Wars, 90 BC–AD 14,” “Italy and the Emperor,” and “The Italian Economy.”
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  173. Mellor, Ronald, ed. Augustus and the Creation of the Roman Empire: A Brief History with Documents. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
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  175. Includes introduction and glossary of Greek and Latin terms. Intended to encourage students to ask questions about the various ways in which Augustus is remembered and discussed.
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  177. Sherk, Robert K. ed. and trans. Rome and the Greek East to the Death of Augustus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
  178. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511552687Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Excellent collection in translation, the last quarter of which is specifically relevant to the rise and reign of Augustus.
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  181. Anthologies
  182.  
  183. Edmondson 2009 and North and Price 2011 are composed of reprinted essays, including new translations, making the work of important authors easily accessible. The other volumes represent new work. Millar and Segal 1984 and Raaflaub and Toher 1990 are tributes to Sir Ronald Syme. Essays in Jacobson and Kokkinos 2009 investigate the role of King Herod in the Principate. Brodd and Reed 2011 focuses specifically on issues related to understandings of the imperial cult, and includes periods well beyond the time of Augustus. Galinsky 2005 features essays on a wide variety of topics, including several important works on religion at the time of Augustus. See also Bowman, et al. 1996 (cited under Reference Resources) and Small 1996 (cited under Imperial Cult).
  184.  
  185. Brodd, Jeffrey, and Jonathan L. Reed, eds. Rome and Religion: A Cross-Disciplinary Dialogue on the Imperial Cult. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011.
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  187. Papers presented over the course of several years at Society of Biblical Literature meetings. Sections include “Methodological and theoretical issues” and “Christian and Jewish engagement.” Introduced and concluded by insightful contributions from Karl Galinsky.
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  189. Edmondson, Jonathan. Augustus. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
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  191. Reprints of important articles, including new translations of pieces by Jean-Louis Ferrary, Werner Eck, John Scheid, Tonio Hölscher, and Walter Trillmich. A very useful compendium, but with a high price tag.
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  193. Galinsky, Karl. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  194. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521807964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. A who’s who of current scholars of Rome and Augustus. John Scheid’s chapter on “Augustus and Roman Religion: Continutity, Conservatism, and Innovation” (pp. 175–196) and L. Michael White’s on “Herod and the Jewish Experience of Augustan Rule” (pp. 361–388) are of special interest.
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  197. Jacobson, David M., and Nikos Kokkinos. Herod and Augustus: Papers Presented at the IJS Conference, 21st–23rd June 2005. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  198. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004165465.i-418Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. This collection of conference papers explores a broad range of topics related to Augustus and Herod, his client king in the East. Daniel R. Schwartz’s essay “One Temple and Many Synagogues: On Religion and State in Herodian Judaea and Augustan Rome” (pp. 385–398) is especially relevant.
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  201. Millar, Fergus, and Erich Segal, eds. Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
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  203. Seven essays originally presented to honor the eightieth birthday of Sir Ronald Syme. Essays cover just about every topic in this bibliography except for religion.
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  205. North, John A., and S. R. F. Price. The Religious History of the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  207. Reprinted articles and new translations from a great lineup of authors, arranged in sections on “Changes in Religious Life: Roman and Civic Cults,” “Elective Cults,” “Coexistence of Religions, Old and New,” and “Late Antiquity.”
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  209. Raaflaub, Kurt A., and Mark Toher, eds. Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
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  211. A wide-ranging collection of papers. Of special interest are Glen Bowersock’s “The Pontificate of Augustus” (pp. 380–394) and Erich Gruen’s “The Imperial Policy of Augustus” (pp. 395–416).
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  213. Ancient Sources
  214.  
  215. Ancient testimony to the reign of Augustus is relatively abundant. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti, said to be composed by Augustus himself, is a very good place to start (see Res Gestae Divi Augusti). This document can be compared to the lost fragments of Augustus’s memoirs presented in Smith and Powell 2009. Leben des Kaisers Augustus (Nicolaus of Damascus 2003), Compendium of Roman History (Velleius Paterculus 1929), and Geography (Strabo 1917–1932) all were written during the reign of Augustus or immediately after. The first two offer largely positive (sometimes glowing) reports on the Principate, while the third offers geographical insights on the world of Augustus. The Lives of the Caesars (C. Suetonius Tranquillus 1914) and The Annals: The Reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero (Tacitus 2008) were written nearly a century after Augustus and offer severe criticism of his monarchical and morally suspect time in power. The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus (Cassius Dio 1987) is even later, and less critical, but also not preserved intact. Online versions of each author are included after the citation.
  216.  
  217. Brunt, P. A., and J. M. Moore. Res Gestae Divi Augusti: The Achievements of the Divine Augustus. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
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  219. Paperback edition from Oxford in 1969. Parallel Latin and English texts with introduction and notes. Available online in Latin and in Latin, Greek, and English (translated by Frederick W. Shipley, 1924).
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  221. Cassius Dio. The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin, 1987.
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  223. Written in the late 2nd and early 3rd century. Important narrative source for the first third of the reign of Augustus. This edition includes notes, timeline, list of consuls, key to place names, and maps. Available online in Greek and in English (translated by Earnest Cary).
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  225. Nicolaus of Damascus. Leben des Kaisers Augustus. Translated with commentary by Jürgen Malitz. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003.
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  227. Nicolaus was a contemporary of Augustus and a close advisor of Herod the Great; his discussion of the early years of the reign of Augustus survives only in Byzantine extracts. Malitz’s version supplies both Greek text and German translation. Available online in English (translated by Clayton M. Hall, 1923).
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Smith, Christopher, and Anton Powell, eds. The Lost Memoirs of Augustus and the Development of Roman Autobiography. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, 2009.
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  231. Includes original-language text and English translation of surviving testimony to the lost memoirs (pp. 1–13). Chapters discuss what can be learned from these fragments about Augustus, his reputation, and the practice of writing autobiography.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Strabo. Geography. 8 vols. Loeb Classical Library 49–50, 182, 196, 211, 223, 241, 267. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1917–1932.
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  235. Strabo died ten years after Augustus, so his geographical survey provides an extensive look at the known (and little-known) world of Augustus. Volume includes parallel Greek and English texts. Available online inGreek and in English.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. C. Suetonius Tranquillus. The Lives of the Caesars. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library 31. Translated with commentary by J. C. Rolfe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914.
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  239. Early-2nd-century historian tends to emphasize and embellish the gossip-sheet version of the emperors and their families. Volume includes parallel Latin and English texts. Available online in Latin and in English.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Tacitus. The Annals: The Reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. Translated by J. C. Yardley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  243. From the early 2nd century, Tacitus looks back with a critical senatorial perspective on the successors of Augustus and of the princeps himself. Available online in Latin and in English.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Velleius Paterculus. Compendium of Roman History. Loeb Classical Library 152. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1924.
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  247. Served as an officer in the Roman army during the later stages of the reign of Augustus. Volume includes parallel Latin and English texts and Shipley’s translation of the Res Gestae. Available online.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti
  250.  
  251. Starting with the words “A record of the achievements and expenses of the Divine Augustus,” the Res Gestae was posted on bronze pillars in front of the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, apparently with copies being sent to cities around the empire. Wigtil 1982 and Güven 1998 deal with a very complete example that is inscribed in Latin and Greek on the Temple of Roma and Augustus in Ancyra (now Ankara, Turkey), with fragments showing up in Apollonia and Pisidian Antioch. The Latin edition Brunt 1967 (cited under Ancient Sources) Cas long stood as the definitive publication. Now Res gestae divi Augusti/Hauts faits du divin Auguste, with critical editions by John Scheid of both the Greek and Latin texts, would seem to assume that role. Cooley 2009 offers some changes in Scheid’s text and other insights. Eck 2007 (cited under General Overviews Post-1975) provides a good general starting point for the document as part of its introduction to Augustus. Ramage 1987 also takes a broad view but should be used with care. Turpin 1994 considers how Augustus’s claim to return power to the senate and people of Rome squares with the realities of his activity in 27 BCE, while Yavetz 1984 reviews arguments about the intended audience of the document. Bosworth 1999 addresses the important question of how the Res Gestae is related to the divinization of Augustus.
  252.  
  253. Bosworth, Brian. “Augustus, the Res Gestae and Hellenistic Theories of Apotheosis.” Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999): 1–18.
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  255. Reviews both Hellenistic and Roman literary influences on the Res Gestae, and argues for specific allusions to the description of Zeus by Euhemerus. Ultimately, Augustus is apotheosized due to his conquests and benefactions. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Cooley, Alison, ed. and trans. Res Gestae Divi Augusti: Text, Translation, and Commentary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  259. Very thorough treatment of the Res Gestae, including extensive commentary on the text and discussion of the known contexts in which the inscription was displayed. Helpful maps and drawings.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Güven, Suna. “Displaying the Res Gestae of Augustus: A Monument of Imperial Image for All.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 57.1 (1998): 30–45.
  262. DOI: 10.2307/991403Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Turkish scholar discusses the effects of inscribing the Res Gestae in Latin and Greek on the Temple of Roma and Augustus in Ancyra. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Ramage, Edwin S. The Nature and Purpose of Augustus’ “Res Gestae.” Einzelschriften 26. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1987.
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  267. Claims to draw meaning from the Res Gestae without reading into the text. Of course, this is impossible, and Ramage brings plenty of ideas to his work, especially preconceptions about the developed nature of Augustus’s political thinking.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Res gestae divi Augusti/Hauts faits du divin Auguste. Edited and translated by John Scheid. Paris: Belles Lettres, 2007.
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  271. Scheid’s critical version of the Greek and Latin evidence for the Res Gestae promises to be a basis for much scholarship in the future.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Turpin, William. “Res Gestae 34.1 and the Settlement of 27 B. C.” Classical Quarterly, n.s., 44.2 (1994): 427–437.
  274. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800043871Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. In this much-studied passage, Augustus claims that he has “transferred the state from my power to the authority of the senate and people of Rome” (Res Gestae 34.1). Against the normal interpretation that this is deceitful, Turpin suggests that Augustus is referring to an actual voluntary limitation of his power by returning most of the provinces to senatorial control. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Wigtil, David N. “The Translator of the Greek Res Gestae of Augustus.” American Journal of Philology 103.2 (Summer 1982): 189–194.
  278. DOI: 10.2307/294249Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Goes against one current of interpretation to suggest that the person who rendered the Res Gestae into Greek was, in fact, a non-Roman who was more familiar with Greek than Latin. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Yavetz, Zvi. “The Res Gestae and Augustus’ Public Image.” In Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects. Edited by Fergus Millar and Erich Segal, 1–36. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984
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  283. Discusses the intended audience of the Res Gestae (not the plebs, as often thought, but a broad spectrum of society including the noble young men), and its overall impact on the public image of Augustus after his death.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Augustan Poets
  286.  
  287. As revealed in the sources in this section, there has long been great debate about how to view and understand the poets and other authors associated with Augustus. Were they only court flatterers who served to promote the ruling power, or was their relationship to the princeps more complicated? The articles listed in this section approach these questions from variety of perspectives. Miller 2009 has the broadest treatment, looking at a variety of authors to identify ways in which Apollo is used by the poets. Starr 1969, Barker 1996, and Marks 2008 consider Horace, his art, and his role. Syme 1959 studies Livy, Cairns 2006 studies Propertius, and Millar 1993 provides a helpful view of Ovid. On Vergil and the Aeneid, see Nappa 2005 (cited under Battle of Actium) and Morwood 1991 (cited under Augustus and the City of Rome). Finally, White 1993 takes a socioeconomic look at the poets’ work.
  288.  
  289. Barker, Duncan. “‘The Golden Age Is Proclaimed’? The Carmen Saeculare and the Renascence of the Golden Race.” Classical Quarterly, n.s., 46.2 (1996): 434–446.
  290. DOI: 10.1093/cq/46.2.434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Suggests that the Carmen Saeculare does not proclaim the start of a new golden age (or “golden race”) because of concern that gold was “associated with decadence, crime and the un-Roman luxury of the Hellenistic World” (p. 446). Believes that the plenty of the new saeculum is based in agriculture, not coinage. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Cairns, Francis. Sextus Propertius: The Augustan Elegist. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  295. Although information on Propertius is scarce, Cairns offers a broad view of the poet, his relationship with Augustus, and the world in which he lived and worked.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Marks, Raymond. “Augustus and I: Horace and ‘Horatian’ Identity in Odes 3.14.” American Journal of Philology 129.1 (2008): 77–100.
  298. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2008.0015Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Marks responds to other critics who argue that Horace must be read as either pro- or anti-Augustus, and suggests that in Odes 3.14, Horace is engaged in “identity negotiation” (p. 87), drawing parallels between himself and Augustus while also trying to differentiate himself from him. Because of this, it becomes impossible to determine whether he means to support or criticize Augustus. Available online by subscription.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Millar, Fergus. “Ovid and the Domus Augusta: Rome Seen from Tomoi.” Journal of Roman Studies 83 (1993): 1–17.
  302. DOI: 10.2307/300975Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Argues that as opposed to other “Augustan” authors who wrote mostly during the time of the Triumvirate, Ovid wrote during the time of Augustus and provides a view from both inside and outside the reign, having been relegated to Tomoi in what is today Romania. Available online for purchase or by subscription. Reprinted in Rome, The Greek World and the East, Vol. 1, The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution, edited by Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), pp. 321–349.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Miller, John F. Apollo, Augustus, and the Poets. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  307. Extensive analysis of the role of imagery of Apollo in Augustan literature before and after Actium. Includes consideration of the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine and other Apollo-related construction.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Syme, Ronald. “Livy and Augustus.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 64 (1959): 27–87.
  310. DOI: 10.2307/310937Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Considers in detail the evidence for influences on the historian Livy and discusses his difficult role as chronicler of the Augustan period, stopping at 9 BCE when internal politics and external challenges made concurrent history impossible to write. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Starr, Chester G. “Horace and Augustus.” American Journal of Philology 90.1 (1969): 58–64.
  314. DOI: 10.2307/293304Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. This brief analysis sees Horace as a somewhat reluctant supporter of the Augustan regime who eventually had deep concerns about the impact of imperial rule.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. White, Peter. Promised Verse: Poets in the Society of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
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  319. White considers the connections between Augustus and the poets of his time and, using socioeconomic information, argues that the work of the poets was not as political as usually thought.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Imperial Cult
  322.  
  323. The topic of divine honors offered to Augustus and the other emperors is an area of perpetual interest for students of Rome and the New Testament. An excellent starting point is Brodd and Reed 2011 (cited under Anthologies), which questions the whole concept of a systematic understanding of “imperial cult.” Taylor 2002 (originally published in 1931) is foundational for this area of study and still contains important insights. Price 1984 redefined the field by calling out the tendency to use “Christianizing assumptions” in looking at honors in the provinces, and Price’s student Ittai Gradel (Gradel 2002) adapts his teacher’s method in looking at evidence in Italy and Rome. Small 1996 and Hänlein-Schäfer 1985 provide a cross-empire perspective on evidence for honors to the empire. Schowalter 1997 looks at a particular example of a votive altar for Augustus, and Fishwick 1987–2005 assembles a monumental consideration of evidence for the imperial cult in the western empire. Finally, Klauck 2003 looks at evidence for imperial cult from a New Testament studies perspective. See also Hoff 1996 (cited under Augustan Art and Architecture).
  324.  
  325. Fishwick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire. 3 vols. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 145–148. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: Brill, 1987–2005.
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  327. Massive collection from one of the leading scholars of the Augustan period, published in the Ètudes preliminaries aux religions orientales dans l’empire romain series (108). Volume 1 appeared in 1987 and covers the evolution of the cult in the west from Augustus up to the 3rd century. Volume 2 (1991) considers evidence for ritual associated with imperial cult and looks at important terminology. Volume 3 (2002–2004) studies architectural and other evidence for actual practice in the provincial imperial cults, including imperial priesthoods (Part 2). All three volumes have separate fascicles for extensive index and bibliography, and Volume 3 includes a section of responses to scholarly debates arising from the earlier volumes. This collection includes previously published and new material.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Gradel, Ittai. Emperor Worship and Roman Religion. Oxford: Clarendon, 2002.
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  331. Gradel was a student of Simon Price, and his work focuses on honors to the emperors in Rome and Italy. The chapter on “The Augustan Settlement” (pp. 109–139) reviews honors for Augustus and argues that “there was no state worship of Augustus, or his Genius, in his lifetime” (p. 139).
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Hänlein-Schäfer, Heidi. Veneratio Augusti: Eine Studie zu den Tempeln des ersten römischen Kaisers. Rome: G. Bretschneider, 1985.
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  335. Surveys evidence for temples of Augustus around the Mediterranean world (Western as well as Eastern cities) using both material remains and literary evidence. Gives special attention to the context, setting, and decoration of these important buildings.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity: A Guide to Graeco-Roman Religions. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003.
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  339. English translation of Die religiöse Umwelt des Urchristentums (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1995). Klauck provides a very thorough look at cultic honors for both Hellenistic kings and Roman emperors in the context of the New Testament background. His section on Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (pp. 294–307) includes reference to abundant additional resources.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Price, S. R. F. Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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  343. This book was the beginning of a new generation of studies of the “imperial cult,” featuring a challenge to the very idea of using a single label to identify the varied honors offered to Roman emperors.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Schowalter, Dan. “Written in Stone: A Prayer to Augustus.” In Prayer from Alexander to Constantine: A Critical Anthology. Edited by Mark Kiley, 159–164. London: Routledge, 1997.
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  347. Translation of and commentary on an altar inscription from Narbo in Gaul dedicated to the numen of Augustus (CIL XII, 4333).
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Small, Alastair, ed. Subject and Ruler: The Cult of the Ruling Power in Classical Antiquity; Papers Presented at a Conference Held in the University of Alberta on April 13–15, 1994, to Celebrate the 65th Anniversary of Duncan Fishwick. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1996.
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  351. This volume includes essays on evidence for the “imperial cult” under Augustus from Aphrodisias (J. Reynolds, pp. 41–50), Pompeii (Dobbins, pp. 99–114, and Small, pp. 115–136), Spain and the Iberian Peninsula (Curchin, pp. 143–152; Étienne, pp. 153–163; and Fishwick, pp. 165–184), Athens (Hoff, pp. 185–200), and Corinth (Walbank, pp. 201–213).
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Taylor, Lily Ross. The Divinity of the Roman Emperor. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 2002.
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  355. First published in 1931 by the American Philological Association. Extremely influential text examining Augustus as son of the deified Julius, pontifex maximus (chief priest), divus, and other religious roles. Taylor also considers evidence for the various priesthoods associated with Augustus. Finally she discusses how the precedents for divine honors set by Augustus were usually followed, but occasionally exceeded, by his successors.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Augustan Art and Architecture
  358.  
  359. Out of hundreds of articles on this topic, these provide a taste of some of the major monuments and questions in this field. See also the separate section on Ara Pacis and several entries under Augustus and the City of Rome. Simon 1986, Walker and Burnett 1981, and Zanker 1988 serve as broad introductions to the topic of how Augustus left his mark. The other pieces consider specific monuments or pieces. Hoff 1996 examines architectural evidence for the practice of the imperial cult in Athens. Buchner 1982 and Haselberger 2011 present a spirited debate about how to interpret the function of what Buchner proposes to be a giant sundial system. Klynne and Liljenstolpe 2000 looks for the original location of the most famous statue of Augustus, and Pollini 1992 studies a beautiful glass vessel and argues for a very close connection with Augustus.
  360.  
  361. Buchner, Edmund. Die Sonnenuhr des Augustus. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1982.
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  363. Buchner proposes a bold understanding of the Egyptian obelisk set up on the Campus Martius in Rome as a giant sundial arrangement and a tribute to Augustus. Reprints articles from Römische Mitteilungen 83 (1976) and 87 (1980).
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Haselberger, Lothar. “A debate on the Horologium of Augustus: Controversy and Clarifications.” Journal of Roman Archaeology 24 (2011): 47–73.
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  367. Very interesting discussion about Buchner’s theses on the Horologium, and critical reactions to them by P. J. Heslin, M. Schütz, R. Hannah, and G. Alföldy. Also a great publication model of debate in print.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Hoff, Michael C. “The Politics and Architecture of the Athenian Imperial Cult.” In Subject and Ruler: The Cult of the Ruling Power in Classical Antiquity; Papers Presented at a Conference Held in the University of Alberta on April 13–15, 1994, to Celebrate the 65th Anniversary of Duncan Fishwick. Edited by Alastair Small, 185–200. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1996.
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  371. Hoff uses primarily evidence from inscriptions to reconstruct the early years of emperor worship in the city of Athens and to discuss how these honors illustrate the political relationship between Athens and the empire.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Klynne, Allan, and Peter Liljenstolpe. “Where to Put Augustus? A Note on the Placement of the Prima Porta Statue.” The American Journal of Philology 121.1 (2000): 121–128.
  374. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2000.0011Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A short article about the original context of this most famous statue of Augustus. Includes good background information on the statue and the villa where it was found as well as a helpful bibliography. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Pollini, John. “The Tazza Farnese: Augusto Imperatore ‘Redeunt Saturnia Regna!’” American Journal of Archaeology 96.2 (1992): 283–300.
  378. DOI: 10.2307/505926Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Explores other imagery from the reign of Augustus to suggest that the Tazza Farnese should not be associated with the court of Ptolemaic Egypt; rather, it was created as a vessel for special ritual early in the reign of Augustus. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Simon, Erika. Augustus: Kunst und Leben in Rom um die Zeitenwende. Munich: Himer, 1986.
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  383. Richly illustrated overview of both public and private art in the Augustan period. Begins with building programs on the Palatine, the Campus Martius, and the Forum of Augustus. Simon’s conclusions must often be viewed in dialogue with other commentators.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Walker, Susan, and Andrew Burnett. The Image of Augustus. London: British Museum, 1981.
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  387. Small book, filled with important observations.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Translated by Alan Shapiro. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988.
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  391. English translation of Augustus und die Macht der Bilder (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1987). Zanker’s amply illustrated art-historical approach to Augustus highlights the variety of methods used for promotion of his reign and ideology.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. The Ara Pacis
  394.  
  395. Ever since the first pieces of the Augustan Altar of Peace were discovered in the 16th century, there has been ongoing controversy about almost every aspect of its excavation, reconstruction, and interpretation. Apart from issues of 20th-century politics and 21st-century museum design, the biggest debates come over the interpretation of the rich selection of relief carving on the monument. Simon 1968 provides a quick overview, but doesn’t really lay out the arguments about the different panels. Fullerton 1985, Rehak 2001, Rose 1990, and Spaeth 1994 all take on the interpretation of one or more of the relief panels, while Momigliano 1942 looks for broader imagery related to peace. For Galinsky 1992, examination of one panel, the “Tellus” relief, leads to conclusions on the multivalent nature of the monument and its sculptural program. Holliday 1990 investigates overall themes and how they spoke to a Roman concern with the cyclical nature of events, while Elsner 1991 suggests that it is misguided to try to establish one fixed interpretation of the relief images.
  396.  
  397. Elsner, John. “Cult and Sculpture: Sacrifice in the Ara Pacis Augustae.” Journal of Roman Studies 81 (1991): 50–61.
  398. DOI: 10.2307/300488Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Challenges traditional approaches to the Ara Pacis that focus on the identification and meaning of the characters portrayed. Elsner’s study points to the varied significance of sacrifice in Roman society and argues for accepting the ambivalence of meaning of a monument like the Ara Pacis and other examples of Augustan art. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Fullerton, Mark D. “The Domus Augusti in Imperial Iconography of 13–12 B. C.” American Journal of Archaeology 89.3 (1985): 473–483.
  402. DOI: 10.2307/504362Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Considers how the family of Augustus is glorified on coins and other representations, including the Ara Pacis. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Galinsky, Karl. “Venus, Polysemy, and the Ara Pacis Augustae.” American Journal of Archaeology 96 (1992): 457–475.
  406. DOI: 10.2307/506068Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. This article looks at the “Tellus” relief on the Ara Pacis and builds on the multiple meanings that have been attributed to this scene. According to Galinsky, the panel was created intentionally to communicate more than one meaning in the multivalent environment of Augustan Rome. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Holliday, Peter J. “Time, History, and Ritual on the Ara Pacis Augustae” Art Bulletin 72.4 (1990): 542–557.
  410. DOI: 10.2307/3045761Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. In addition to the political symbolism of the Ara Pacis, Holliday argues that the reliefs simultaneously reinforced for an elite segment of the population the idea of cyclical history and the dawning of a new age of hope. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Momigliano, Arnaldo. “The Peace of the Ara Pacis.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1942): 228–231.
  414. DOI: 10.2307/750454Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Also available in a collection of Momigliano’s articles found in On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987). This short note on the imagery of the altar concludes that “the Ara Pacis is the most genuine document on the Augustan conception of peace, because it emphasizes the value of moral and religious tradition which Augustus understood” (p. 230). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Rehak, Paul. “Aeneas or Numa? Rethinking the Meaning of the Ara Pacis Augustae.” Art Bulletin 83.2 (2001): 190–208.
  418. DOI: 10.2307/3177206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Emphasizes the Ara Pacis in its context on the Campus Martius and sees in the western face of the monument a contrast between the militaristic rule of Romulus and the pacific rule of Numa, which are combined in the reign of Augustus. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Rose, Brian Charles. “‘Princes’ and Barbarians on the Ara Pacis.” American Journal of Archaeology 94.3 (1990): 453–467.
  422. DOI: 10.2307/505797Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Examines representations of young boys on the Ara Pacis and argues for new identifications that reflect both the military/diplomatic successes of Augustus and Agrippa and the dynastic succession. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Simon, Erika. Ara Pacis Augustae. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, 1968.
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  427. Very short compendium of images and interpretation of the altar.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Spaeth, Barbette Stanley. “The Goddess Ceres in the Ara Pacis Augustae and the Carthage Relief.” American Journal of Archaeology. 98.1 (1994): 65–100.
  430. DOI: 10.2307/506222Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Reinterprets the relief panel located at the southeast corner of the Ara Pacis as depicting Ceres flanked by a Nereid (sea nymph) and a Naiad (freshwater nymph), and argues that a similar relief from Carthage is a copy of the Ara Pacis relief used in a new context. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Life and Rule of Augustus
  434.  
  435. This very inclusive category includes texts that speak to the person of Augustus, and also what can be determined about the way he conducted himself in ruling over the empire. Rogers 1941 touches on the personality of Augustus, and Hammond 1965 attempts a bit of historical psychoanalysis. In response to Syme’s accusations that Augustus was intentionally deceiving people about his intentions, Hammond 1965 attempts to show him as sincere in his deflection of honors and power. Millar 1973, on the other hand, shows that Augustus was clearly setting up a monarchical rule, and not trying to fool anyone. Lewis 2008 joins an ongoing discussion of how astrology was used as a factor in presenting and explaining the actions and attitudes of Augustus. The remaining entries take up specific questions about the policies promoted by Augustus. Ramage 1985 studies the dishonorable way in which the princeps treated the memory of Julius Caesar, Severy 2003 explores how Augustus shaped his own family into a dynasty and also worked to control families in the broader empire, Wallace-Hadrill 1986 states that coin images come from a number of sources and cannot necessarily be used as an indicator of official imperial policy, and Barnes 1974 considers what awarding of the title imperator can reveal about the military record of Augustus.
  436.  
  437. Barnes, T. D. “The Victories of Augustus.” Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 21–26.
  438. DOI: 10.2307/299257Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Reviews the evidence for the acclamations for Augustus as imperator and the succession of military activities during his reign. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Hammond, Mason. “The Sincerity of Augustus.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 69 (1965): 139–162.
  442. DOI: 10.2307/310780Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Challenges scholarly assessments of imperial motivations, especially the view from Syme and others that Augustus was “a hypocrite who deliberately concealed monarchy under the guise of a Restored Republic” (p. 139). Hammond suggests that the sincerity of Augustus is supported by “the high achievement of Augustan culture and the durability of the Augustan state” (p. 152). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Lewis, A.-M. “Augustus and his Horoscope Reconsidered.” Phoenix 62.3/4 (2008): 308–337.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Argues against the importance of Libra for the horoscope of Augustus and instead argues that Virgo should be seen as significant alongside Capricorn. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Millar, Fergus. “Triumvirate and Principate.” Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973): 50–67.
  450. DOI: 10.2307/299165Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Reads contemporary testimony to suggest that following the death of Antony, everyone was aware that the principate of Augustus was moving closer to monarchy. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Ramage, Edwin S. “Augustus’ Treatment of Julius Caesar.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 34.2 (1985): 223–245.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Ramage suggests that because of both the successes of Julius Caesar and his anti-Republican tendencies, Augustus seeks to distance himself from his predecessor by disassociating himself from his predecessor’s policies, minimizing his accomplishments, emphasizing the Divine Julius, and including “anti-Caesarean overtones in his building program” (p. 224).
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Rogers, Robert S. “Augustus the Man.” Classical Journal. 36.8 (1941): 449–463.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. An unusually engaging brief account of the life and reign of Augustus. Makes use of historical sources, but skims over more complicated issues. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Severy, Beth. Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge, 2003.
  462. DOI: 10.4324/9780203211434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Sees the acceptance of the title of pontifex maximus in 12 BCE and pater patriae in 2 BCE as critical points in Augustus’s efforts to consolidate power and assure succession. Everything from military to religious matters is orchestrated to give increasing power to his immediate family, and the Forum of Augustus dedicated in 2 BCE becomes a center for expression of familial and imperial loyalty.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. “Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus.” Journal of Roman Studies 76 (1986): 66–87.
  466. DOI: 10.2307/300366Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Argues that a coin issue “invokes authority at many levels” (p. 84), not only the imperial, but also local officials, the issuing state, the Senate, and divine figures. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. The Battle of Actium
  470.  
  471. Carter 1970 and Sheppard 2009 provide a view of Actium and its significance for lay readers, although Sheppard 2009 does so in a more engaging way and with more maps and other illustrations. Lange 2009 provides a helpful review of different theories about the course of the battle and why Antony was defeated. The remaining texts discuss some aspect of the aftermath of the battle. Zachos 2003 reports on excavations of the massive victory monument built above Nicopolis at the site of Augustus’s headquarters. Hölscher 1985 also looks at this monument and surveys other ways in which the victory was commemorated around the empire. Lange 2009 covers the literary aftermath of the battle and a series of disagreements about an official rhetoric that emerged after the battle. Gurval 1995 argues that the idea of an official response cannot be sustained. Lange 2009 also highlights the role of Apollo in the Augustan response, as does Miller 2009 (cited under Augustan Poets). Nappa 2005 interprets Vergil’s Georgics with an eye to the aftermath of this famous battle.
  472.  
  473. Carter, John M. The Battle of Actium: The Rise & Triumph of Augustus Caesar. New York: Weybright and Talley, 1970.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Aptly included in the Turning Points in History series. This book is a very readable summary of events leading up to Actium, as well as the battle and its aftermath. It has no notes and a very selective bibliography, so does not serve a scholarly audience. It does provide a good point of entry for readers coming to the topic for the first time.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Gurval, Robert Alan. Actium and Augustus: The Politics and Emotions of Civil War. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Attempts to deconstruct the understanding of the Battle of Actium as the source of official imagery and rhetoric promulgated by Augustus. Instead, Gurval sees an evolutionary process of interpretation of the battle coming from different authors and sources.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Hölscher, Tonio. “Denkmäler der Schlacht von Actium – Propaganda und Resonanz.” Klio 67 (1985): 81–102.
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  483. Translated in Edmondson 2009 (cited under Anthologies). Reviews a huge spectrum of tributes to Augustus’s victory, from monumental architecture to lamps and coins. Considers the motivations behind these tributes and the effect they would have had on the developing power of the princeps.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Kellum, Barbara. “Representations and Re-presentations of the Battle of Actium.” In Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars. Edited by Brian W. Breed, Cynthia Damon, and Andreola Rossi, 187–206. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  486. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Kellum argues that the Battle of Actium and the rise of the Augustan principate opened up opportunities for certain segments of Roman society, especially for leading citizens in Italian cities, and also for freedmen. The appreciation of Actium on the part of these groups appears to have lasted several generations.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Lange, Carsten Hjort. Res Publica Constituta: Actium, Apollo and the Accomplishment of the Triumviral Assignment. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  490. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004175013.i-234Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Detailed look at the Triumvirate and its breakdown leading to the battle of Actium. Also considers commemoration of the victory at the site and in Rome.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Nappa, Christopher. Reading after Actium: Vergil’s Georgics, Octavian, and Rome. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
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  495. According to Nappa, the complicated text of the Georgics was intentionally obfuscated by Vergil, who intended to deliver a particular message to Octavian, who faced important decisions after his recent success at Actium.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Sheppard, Si. Actium 31 BC: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra. Oxford: Osprey, 2009.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Concise but detailed survey of the battle of Actium, including the events leading to it and the aftermath. Richly illustrated, with excellent maps.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Zachos, K. L. “The Tropaeum of the Sea-Battle of Actium at Nikopolis: Interim Report.” Journal of Roman Archaeology 16.1 (2003): 64–92.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Preliminary report on excavations at the site of the massive monument built above the newly built city of Nicopolis honoring the victory at Actium.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Augustus and the City of Rome
  506.  
  507. Augustus accomplished many amazing things outside of Rome, but his efforts to change the culture, politics, architecture, and urban plan of the capital city were truly remarkable. Favro 1992 and Favro 1996 are overviews that speak to how Augustan policies and actions served to transform the city. Lott 2004, King 2010, and Sumi 2011 all address the question of city planning and how it reflected the policies and ideology of Augustus. Morwood 1991 identifies some of these civic themes in the Aeneid. Romano’s Digital Augustan Rome provides a comprehensive look at the city, while Ungaro 2007 zooms in on details of one urban complex and highlights how it served as a center for cult, political activity, and even dynastic succession.
  508.  
  509. Favro, Diane. “Pater urbis: Augustus as City Father of Rome.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 51.1 (1992): 61–84.
  510. DOI: 10.2307/990641Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Argues that as father of the city, Augustus not only recreated the urban environment of Rome, but also established a bureaucracy to manage and extend it. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Favro, Diane. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. According to Favro, Augustus had a single vision for reforming the city that was carried out by a variety of means. Ends with chapters dedicated to reading the meaning of the Augustan city and a walk through Rome at the time of the death of Augustus.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. King, Richard Jackson. “Ad Capita Bubula: The Birth of Augustus and Rome’s Imperial Centre.” The Classical Quarterly 60.2 (2010): 450–469.
  518. DOI: 10.1017/S000983881000011XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Considers the claim from Suetonius concerning Augustus’s place of birth and the symbolic importance of this spot after the reorganization of the city by Augustus. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Lott, J. Bert. The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Studies the neighborhoods created by Augustus’s reorganization of the city as individual living entities and as part of the urban matrix.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Morwood, James. “Aeneas, Augustus, and the Theme of the City.” Greece & Rome 2d ser. 38.2 (1991): 212–223.
  526. DOI: 10.1017/S0017383500023603Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Surveys the importance of building imagery in the Aeneid and highlights how references to the construction of cities points to Augustus as the third founder of Rome. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Romano, David Gilman. “Digital Augustan Rome.”
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Successor to Mapping Augustan Rome, which appeared as Supplement 50 in the Journal of Roman Archaeology Series, 2002. Incredible online resource, with detailed descriptions of hundreds of sites and monuments. Maps also available as hard copies.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Sumi, Geoffrey S. “Topography and Ideology: Caesar’s Monument and the Aedes Divi Ivlii in Augustan Rome.” Classical Quarterly 61.1 (2011): 205–229.
  534. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838810000510Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Examines the work of Augustus in developing the Roman Forum as the symbolic center of the city, restoring old monuments and building new, such as the Aedes Diui Iulii (Temple of the Divine Julius) as a “dynastic monument” located at that center. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Ungaro, Lucrezia, ed. The Museum of the Imperial Forums in Trajan’s Market. Texts by Maria Paola Del Moro. Translated by Richard Sadleir. Rome: Commune di Roma, 2007.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Sold as a guide book. Includes essays by Ungaro on The Forum of Augustus (pp. 118–129) and the Temple of Mars Ultor (pp. 130–169). Great photos and drawing, including a reconstruction of the eleven-meter-high statue (of Augustus?) in the “Hall of the Colossus” (p. 145).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Augustus and the Provinces
  542.  
  543. In many ways, the ability of Augustus to rule in the provinces was critical to his success. Yarrow 2006 provides an interesting review of how Rome (not only Augustus) was viewed as an imperial power. Braund 1984 explores one of the ways in which Roman control was articulated, through the client/friendly king. Almost all of Braund’s examples come from the eastern empire, and the remaining texts also focus on the east. This lopsidedness reflects the importance of this region for students of early Christianity and Judaism. Bowersock 1981 (originally published in 1965) provides a concise and accessible discussion of Rome’s relationship with the east, while Millar 1993 tells the story in much more detail. McCane 2008 looks at one of the best known of the “friendly kings,” Herod the Great, and Overman 2011 discusses Herod’s relationship with Augustus in a particularly important area of his kingdom. Rose 2005 and Orlin 2008 describe the impact of eastern culture and cults on architecture in Rome and the city’s religious situation. Another view of Augustus and the East, specifically his relationship with Herod the Great, can be found in Jacobson and Kokkinos 2009 (cited under Anthologies).
  544.  
  545. Bowersock, G. W. Augustus and the Greek World. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Originally published by Clarendon (Oxford) in 1965, this early work by Bowersock considers the ways in which empire in the east was articulated and enabled. Short chapters on “Opposition among the Greeks,” “The Imperial Cult,” and “Greek Literature under Augustus.”
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Braund, David. Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship. New York: St. Martin’s, 1984.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Covering a period from 300 BCE to the Severans, this study offers a systematic look at the creation, function, and demise of client kings and kingdoms. The author points out the Romans normally describe these rulers as friendly kings, not client kings.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. McCane, Byron R. “Simply Irresistible: Augustus, Herod, and the Empire.” Journal of Biblical Literature 127.4 (2008): 725–735.
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  555. Argues that recent, more positive, assessments of Herod’s reign are driven by an increase in archaeological information and a greater appreciation of Herod’s connection to Augustus and Rome. Accordingly, Herod’s religious architecture is seen to draw “Herod’s subjects toward willing participation in the empire” (p. 735). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. A rich resource for understanding the successes and struggles of Rome in the eastern provinces. Begins with consideration of Augustus and his immediate successor, Tiberius (pp. 27–56).
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Orlin, Eric M. “Octavian and Egyptian Cults: Redrawing the Boundaries of Romanness.” American Journal of Philology 129.2 (2008): 231–253.
  562. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.0.0007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. According to Orlin, when Augustus banned Egyptian cults from within the pomerium or sacred precinct of Rome, he sought to more clearly define what Roman religion was about, rather than to degrade Egyptian or other eastern cults. Available online by subscription.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Overman, J. Andrew. “Omrit as Part of the Roman East.” In The Roman Temple Complex at Horvat Omrit: An Interim Report. Edited by J. Andrew Overman and Daniel N. Schowalter, 7–17. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Views the development of a three-phase Roman temple site in northern Israel in light of the deepening relationship between Herod the Great, Agrippa, and Augustus, along with the increased significance of Herod as a representative of Rome in the eastern empire.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Rose, Charles Brian. “The Parthians in Augustan Rome.” American Journal of Archaeology 109.1 (2005): 21–75.
  570. DOI: 10.3764/aja.109.1.21Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Reviews monuments and images from Rome and elsewhere, especially on the east end of the Roman Forum, and identifies a display of power and control over the previously unruly Parthians. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Yarrow, Liv Mariah. Historiography at the End of the Republic: Provincial Perspectives on Roman Rule. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  574. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277544.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Builds on “speech-act theory” to consider the “political significance of history writing during the period from 146 BC to AD 14” (p. 85). Texts from different provincial intellectuals are examined for the way they present Roman rule “to influence the form of the emerging Roman empire” (p. 17).
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