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The Classical Tradition (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Even the word “Renaissance” (“rebirth” in French) points to the effort to revive the learning of antiquity that motivated the intellectual elite of that era—for what sprang forth was an urgent awareness of the ancient past, prompting innovations in both ideas and the arts. The classical tradition, accordingly, has long played a central role in Renaissance studies. With the growing interest in nonelite cultures, the classical tradition in what is now sometimes called the early modern period has had to share the scholarly stage with an ever-increasing number of other areas of inquiry, but the recent burst of activity in reception studies has given the classical heritage a new lease on life along with a way to engage with the more theoretical discourse that has flourished in other areas of Renaissance studies over the past generation.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. The absence of a worthwhile book-length survey of the classical tradition in the Renaissance is a noticeable lacuna in the scholarship of the past fifty years. Much good information can still be found in Bolgar 1954, Highet 1949, and Jenkyns 1992, although these classic studies are becoming increasingly dated. The essays in Bolgar 1976 are good, but coverage is limited; Buck 1976, in turn, treats only the Romance-language areas. Kallendorf 2007 suggests some of the issues that a new narrative survey might address. Hardwick 2003 and Martindale 1993 show how the emphasis is shifting from a more passive understanding of tradition to a more active appropriation of the classics that gives new emphasis to postclassical readers.
  8.  
  9. Bolgar, R. R. The Classical Heritage and Its Beneficiaries. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1954.
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  11. A general survey of Europe’s long affiliation with the classical world; see especially pp. 239–379, on the Renaissance, and the appendices on Greek manuscripts in Italy during the 15th century and on pre-1600 translations of Greek and Latin authors. Reprinted in 1958, 1963, and 1973.
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  13. Bolgar, R. R., ed. Classical Influences in European Culture, A.D. 1500–1700: Proceedings of an International Conference Held at King’s College, Cambridge, April 1974. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
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  15. A set of conference proceedings by distinguished contributors, with sections on catalogs and editions, the arts of discourse, religion, political thought, and the fine arts.
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  17. Buck, August. Die Rezeption der Antike in den romanischen Literaturen der Renaissance. Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 1976.
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  19. An older study, but clearly written and useful in laying out general issues; restricted to Romance-language materials, but covering textual criticism, commentaries, philosophy, historical writing, poetry, mythology, and the “quarrel of the ancients and moderns” in the Renaissance.
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  21. Highet, Gilbert. The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature. Oxford: Clarendon, 1949.
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  23. A magisterial overview, based largely on direct work with the primary sources, with long sections on various literary genres in the Renaissance.
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  25. Jenkyns, Richard, ed. The Legacy of Rome: A New Appraisal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  27. A study of Rome’s influence on later centuries, with most chapters devoted to individual literary genres; see especially Anthony Grafton, “The Renaissance” (pp. 97–123).
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  29. Kallendorf, Craig W., ed. A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
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  31. The first new survey in a generation, designed to bring the field into contact with recent scholarship. See especially the editor’s “Renaissance” (pp. 30–43). Countries are treated separately, each with a section on the Renaissance. Other relevant material can be located through the index.
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  33. Hardwick, Lorna. Reception Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  35. A nice introduction to reception studies, suggesting how classical studies can be reoriented by giving serious consideration to the succession of postclassical readers.
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  37. Martindale, Charles. Redeeming the Text: Latin Poetry and the Hermeneutics of Reception. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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  39. Ostensibly an introduction to reception studies, but one that has actually staked out a provocative and influential position, arguing that inevitably, modern interpretations of the classics are simply the latest in a chain of readings extending back to the works’ first audience.
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  41. Reference Works
  42.  
  43. Several reference works offer access to different sorts of primary source materials. Information about Renaissance scholars working on the classical tradition may be found in Cosenza 1962–1968, with access to their manuscripts provided by Kristeller 1965–1997. The fortuna (fortune, or influence) of a Greek or Latin author can be found in Cranz, et al. 1960–2003, while many topics in the classical tradition are treated in Landfester 2006.
  44.  
  45. Cosenza, E. M. Biographical and Bibliographical Dictionary of the Italian Humanists and of the World of Classical Scholarship in Italy, 1300–1800. 2d ed. 7 vols. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1962–1968.
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  47. A photographic reproduction of Dr. Cosenza’s files, containing thousands of cards with information on the life and works of the Italian humanists.
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  49. Cranz, F. Edward, Virginia Brown, and Paul Oslar Kristeller, eds. Catalogus translationum et commentariorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries; Annotated Lists and Guides. Edited by. 8 vols. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1960–2003.
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  51. The CTC, as it is generally known, lists and describes the Latin translations of ancient Greek authors and the Latin commentaries on ancient Latin and Greek authors. Some of the earlier articles required addenda, and the articles on a number of the most important ancient authors are far from completion, but this is nevertheless an invaluable resource.
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  53. Kristeller, Paul Oslar. Iter Italicum: A Finding List of Uncatalogued or Incompletely Catalogued Humanistic Manuscripts of the Renaissance in Italian and Other Libraries. 7 vols. London: Warburg Institute, 1965–1997.
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  55. A list of manuscripts with humanistic content, including commentaries on classical texts, works influenced by the Greek and Latin authors, and the like. One of the great monuments of 20th-century scholarship.
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  57. Landfester, Manfred, ed. Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopedia of the Ancient World: Classical Tradition. English edition edited by Francis G. Gentry. 5 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: E. J. Brill, 2006.
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  59. An encyclopedia of the classical tradition, uneven in quality and tilted toward German scholarship, somewhat ameliorated in the English edition. Contains articles on many relevant topics, although it does not follow the fortunes of individual authors. Originally published as Der neue Pauly: Enzyklopädie der Antike (Stuttgart, Germany: J. B. Metzler, 1999–2003).
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  61. Journals
  62.  
  63. There are several excellent journals that publish articles on the classical tradition in the Renaissance. The Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes is the oldest and best established, but the International Journal of the Classical Tradition is now in its second decade and has printed many good essays in the field. Silva: Estudios de Humanismo y Tradición Clásica/Studies in Humanism and the Classical Tradition provides another good outlet, and Classical Receptions Journal is poised to become a major new player.
  64.  
  65. Classical Receptions Journal.
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  67. A new Oxford University Press journal, with publication starting in 2009, covering all areas of the reception of the classics, including the Renaissance.
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  69. International Journal of the Classical Tradition.
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  71. The official journal of the International Society for the Classical Tradition, headquartered at Boston University. Broad coverage, including but not limited to the Renaissance.
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  73. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes.
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  75. Published by a scholarly institute whose origins go back to Aby Warburg (see Warburg 1999, cited under Art), this journal publishes one volume annually that always contains several articles on the classical tradition in the Renaissance.
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  77. Silva: Estudios de Humanismo y Tradición Clásica/Studies in Humanism and the Classical Tradition.
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  79. A Spanish journal published annually and based at the University of Leon, with articles in the major European languages on the classical tradition, always with several on the Renaissance. Funding for the journal is currently in jeopardy, and publication may be suspended.
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  81. Central and Eastern Europe
  82.  
  83. This area is often overlooked in studies of the classical tradition, but it should not be, since Greek and Roman material interacted with indigenous cultures in interesting ways in this region. Lencek 1988 provides a useful orientation, while Birnbaum 1986, Segel 1989, and the essays in Irmscher 1962 narrow the focus to specific Eastern and Central European countries.
  84.  
  85. Birnbaum, Marianna D. Humanists in the Shattered World: Croatian and Hungarian Latinity in the Sixteenth Century. Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1986.
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  87. An introduction for those who do not read the languages to the humanist culture of Croatia and Hungary and to the efforts there to revive the classical tradition in the Renaissance.
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  89. Irmscher, Johannes, ed. Renaissance und Humanismus in Mittel- und Osteuropa: Eine Sammlung von Materialen. 2 vols. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1962.
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  91. A wide-ranging collection of essays, with special sections on humanism and the classical tradition in Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.
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  93. Lencek, Rado L. “Humanism in the Slavic Cultural Tradition with Special Reference to the Czech Lands.” In Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. Vol. 2, Humanism beyond Italy. Edited by Albert Rabil Jr., 335–375. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  95. A comprehensive survey of the humanist concerns and scholarship of the Slavic cultures, to which access is very difficult without command of the Slavic languages; with special focus on the Czech region.
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  97. Segel, Harold B. Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470–1543. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989.
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  99. The first book-length account of Renaissance humanism in 15th- and 16th-century Poland, demonstrating Poland’s Western cultural orientation and providing information on the spread of the classical tradition into this area.
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  101. France
  102.  
  103. The essays in Gundersheimer 1970 describes the general humanist environment in which the classical tradition in France flourished, while those in Sandy 2002 and Salmon 1980 offer overviews of various disciplines and authors. Coleman 1979, Demerson 1972, MacPhail 1990, and McGowan 2000 show how various aspects of the classical tradition stimulated artistic and literary creativity in the French Renaissance.
  104.  
  105. Coleman, Dorothy Gabe. The Gallo-Roman Muse: Aspects of Roman Literary Tradition in Sixteenth-Century France. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
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  107. Stresses the importance of bilingualism in offering French Renaissance authors the resources of Roman literature to transform the poetry and prose of their day.
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  109. Demerson, Guy. La Mythologie classique dans l’oeuvre lyrique de la “Pléiade.” Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1972.
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  111. Shows that from 1545 to around 1560, the Pléiade poets drew heavily from ancient mythology not as a scholarly exercise but as a stimulus to their own creativity.
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  113. Gundersheimer, Werner L., ed. French Humanism, 1470–1600. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
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  115. A good introduction to humanism in France as the stimulus to the flourishing of the classical tradition in various aspects of Renaissance life.
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  117. MacPhail, Eric. The Voyage to Rome in French Renaissance Literature. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri, 1990.
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  119. A study of the voyage to Rome as a rhetorical figure and a cultural paradigm for the French Renaissance, first for the early 16th-century humanists, then for the mid-century lyric poets, and finally for the later humanists who were preoccupied with Roman history.
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  121. McGowan, Margaret M. The Vision of Rome in Late Renaissance France. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  123. Explores the ways in which the perception of Rome as a physical and symbolic entity stimulated intellectual endeavor among writers, artists, scholars, and architects in 16th-century France.
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  125. Salmon, J. H. M. “Cicero and Tacitus in Sixteenth-Century France.” American Historical Review 85 (1980): 307–331.
  126. DOI: 10.2307/1860558Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Argues that by the end of the 16th century, Tacitus had replaced Cicero as the preferred linguistic model in France, while the ideal of the active citizen and virtuous orator associated with Cicero had given way to a Tacitean model of Stoic fortitude and withdrawal.
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  129. Sandy, Gerald, ed. The Classical Heritage in France. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: E. J. Brill, 2002.
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  131. A valuable collection of essays, covering everything from manuscript transmission and studies of individual authors to architecture and book illustration.
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  133. Germany
  134.  
  135. When the humanist interest in the classics arrived in Germany, autochthonous elements led to a product that differed from its Italian origins (Riedel 2000, Spitz 1975), being more book-centered than artistic, with greater interest in scientific and professional subjects and a Christian overlay that was more pronounced than in Italy. Fochler 1990 explores how German humanists treated history, while Holzberg 1981 and Springer 2007 present studies of two important individuals that open out into broader issues.
  136.  
  137. Fochler, Petra. Fiktion als Historie: Der Trojanische Krieg in der deutschen Literatur des 16. Jahrhunderts. Wiesbaden, Germany: L. Reichert, 1990.
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  139. An interesting examination of how German humanists assessed the various sources for the historicity of ancient Troy in relation to fictional works, including the Dictys-Dares tradition, Homer, and 16th-century German poems.
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  141. Holzberg, Niklas. Willibald Pirckheimer: Griechischer Humanismus in Deutschland. Munich: W. Fink, 1981.
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  143. A widely ranging study that focuses on one of Germany’s premier humanists, but places Pirckheimer’s work on the various classical authors into the broader reception of those authors in German humanism.
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  145. Riedel, Volker. “Renaissance—Humanismus—Reformation.” In Antikerezeption in der deutschen Litaratur vom Renaissance-Humanismus bis zur Gegenwart: Eine Einführung. By Volker Riedel, 13–75. Stuttgart, Germany: Metzler, 2000.
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  147. The first comprehensive treatment of the reception of antiquity in German culture in almost 150 years, containing much useful information along with relevant bibliography.
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  149. Spitz, Lewis W. “The Course of German Humanism.” In Itinerarium Italicum: The Profile of the Italian Renaissance in the Mirror of Its European Transformations. Edited by Heiko A. Oberman and Thomas A. Brady Jr., 371–436. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1975.
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  151. A masterful survey, stressing the factors that distinguish German humanism from its Italian origins and kept it, as Spitz puts it, as an age of bronze rather than an age of gold.
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  153. Springer, Carl P. E. “Martin’s Martial: Reconsidering Luther’s Relationship with the Classics.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 14 (2007): 23–50.
  154. DOI: 10.1007/s12138-008-0003-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. Uses Luther’s imitations of Martial, Epigram 10.47 as the starting point for a broader consideration of Luther’s knowledge of the classics, concluding that the relationship was deeper and more creative than is often assumed.
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  157. Great Britain
  158.  
  159. Ogilvie 1964 shows how British education centered on the classics in the Renaissance, with Stanford 1976 extending the field of study to Ireland. Attridge 1974 and Haynes 2003 focus on language, with Braden 1978 and Bush 1952 turning their attention to poetry. Hopkins 2008 offers a good example of current trends in the study of the classical tradition, suggesting that the more straightforward influence studies of older scholars such as Bush 1932 neglect the complexities of other simultaneous cultural forces.
  160.  
  161. Attridge, Derek. Well-Weighed Syllables: Elizabethan Verse in Classical Metres. London: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
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  163. A demonstration of why the possibility of composing English verse in classical meter was so tempting for the 16th-century poet.
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  165. Braden, Gordon. The Classics and English Renaissance Poetry: Three Case Studies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978.
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  167. An examination of Golding’s Ovid and Herrick’s poetry, with a focus on how passages from the classics are translated and fitted into new Renaissance works.
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  169. Bush, Douglas. Mythology and the Renaissance Tradition in English Poetry. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932.
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  171. The still-standard treatment of the uses of mythology in English nondramatic poetry up to 1680. Reprinted in 1957 (New York: Pageant) and 1963 (New York: W. W. Norton).
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  173. Bush, Douglas. Classical Influences in Renaissance Literature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952.
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  175. Considers the effect of the critical spirit of antiquity on Renaissance scholarship and education, and studies classical influences on literary theory and on the form, style, and content of Renaissance literature.
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  177. Haynes, Kenneth. English Literature and Ancient Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  179. A study of the influence of the Greek and Latin languages on English literature, with a focus on code switching, language purism, and interference, with the Renaissance being a key focal point.
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  181. Hopkins, Lisa. The Cultural Uses of the Caesars on the English Renaissance Stage. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008.
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  183. An imaginative study of the cultural significations the Roman emperors had picked up between antiquity and the Renaissance in England, focusing on the city of Rome as the Catholic whore of Babylon, the migration of Caesarian power to Turkey and Russia, and the use of the Caesars to figure the Stuart kings.
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  185. Ogilvie, R. M. “Ovid and the Seventeenth Century.” In Latin and Greek: A History of the Influence of the Classics on English Life from 1600 to 1918. By R. M. Ogilvie, 1–33. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1964.
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  187. Traces the role of the classics in English education during the 17th century, arguing that Ovid held a pride of place that was not necessarily predictable.
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  189. Stanford, W. B. Ireland and the Classical Tradition. Dublin: Allen Figgis, 1976.
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  191. A general survey in which Renaissance figures slip in and out of chapters on “The Schools,” “Literature in Irish,” and so forth.
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  193. Italy
  194.  
  195. Since Italian unification considerably postdates the Renaissance, recent scholarship has been developing a new emphasis on the different ways in which the classical heritage was received within the early modern political units of modern Italy. The traditional focus on Florence (see Field 1988), especially by Anglo-American scholars, has expanded in the last generation, generating excellent monographs on the humanistic foundations of the classical tradition in other parts of Italy: Brown 1996 and King 1986 for Venice; D’Amico 1983, Hankins 1993, and Stinger 1998 for Rome.
  196.  
  197. Brown, Patricia Fortini. Venice and Antiquity: The Venetian Sense of the Past. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996.
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  199. Shows how the only city in Italy that had no classical past of its own invented one nonetheless, appropriating Greek and Roman objects, images, and texts into public and private life.
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  201. D’Amico, John F. Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Humanists and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
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  203. An examination of how the Roman humanists managed to take over the Church hierarchy in the early 16th century, melding key elements of the classical tradition with conventional religious thought in a distinctively Roman way.
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  205. Field, Arthur. The Origins of the Platonic Academy of Florence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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  207. A study of the beginnings of Cosimo de’ Medici’s Platonic Academy, which shaped Florentine culture in the later Renaissance and influenced science, religion, art, and literature throughout Europe in the early modern period.
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  209. Hankins, James. “The Popes and Humanism.” In Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library and Renaissance Culture. Edited by Anthony Grafton, 47–85. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
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  211. Explores the relationship between the Papacy and humanist interest in the classical tradition in Rome, a relationship with more than its share of bumps and byways.
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  213. King, Margaret L. Venetian Humanism in an Age of Patrician Dominance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
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  215. Describes how key figures in the patriciate absorbed classical values and adapted them to their interests in a humanism that played a vital role in 15th-century Venetian life. Contains a valuable set of profiles on the life and work of a core group of ninety-two influential individuals.
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  217. Stinger, Charles L. The Renaissance in Rome. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998.
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  219. Examines the period from 1443 to 1527 as the time when Renaissance Rome elaborated a vision of renewal that fused the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian past. Reprinted edition with new preface. Originally published 1985.
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  221. The Low Countries
  222.  
  223. Brinkkemper and Soepnel 1989 and IJsewijn 1988 offer the necessary overview, with Phillips 1970 providing an elegant analysis of a key figure. From an international perspective, the classical tradition was unusually significant in the visual arts in the Low Countries, with Blankert 1999 and Schoon and Paarlberg 2000 providing overviews and Stechow 1968 being an exemplary case study.
  224.  
  225. Blankert, Albert, ed. Hollands classicisme in de zeventiende-eeuwse schilderkunst. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: NAi Uitgevers, 1999.
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  227. An exhibition catalog on classical themes in Dutch art, with introductory essays on classicism in history paintings, painter-architects, and literary classicism, followed by sixty-eight carefully chosen paintings, each illustrated and accompanied by an extensive discussion.
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  229. Brinkkemper, Simpha, and Ine Soepnel. Apollo en Christus: Klassieke en christelijke denkbeelden in de Nederlandse renaissance-literatuur. Zutphen, The Netherlands: De Walburg Pers, 1989.
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  231. A nice overview of the interplay of the classical tradition with Christian ideas in the shaping of Dutch Renaissance literature, modeled explicitly on Isabel Rivers’s Classical and Christian Ideas in English Renaissance Poetry: A Student’s Guide (London: Allen and Unwin, 1979).
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  233. IJsewijn, Jozef. “Humanism in the Low Countries.” In Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. Vol. 2, Humanism beyond Italy. Edited by Albert Rabil Jr., 156–215. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  235. A good introduction to the full range of humanist activity in the Low Countries by the great expert in this field, from the mid-15th to the mid-17th centuries.
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  237. Phillips, Margaret Mann. “Erasmus and the Classics.” In Erasmus. Edited by T. A. Dorey, 1–30. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970.
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  239. A valuable overview of an important topic, emphasizing that Erasmus’s well-known enthusiasm for classical studies was always in the service of higher human values, and that he was in the end more of a popularizer than a narrowly focused scholar, as his Adages indicate.
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  241. Schoon, Peter, and Sander Paarlberg, eds. Greek Gods and Heroes in the Age of Rubens and Rembrandt. Athens, Greece: National Gallery/Alexandros Soutzos Museum, 2000.
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  243. A sumptuous exhibition catalog, containing seven essays on classical mythology in Dutch and Flemish art followed by reproductions of relevant paintings with analysis.
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  245. Stechow, Wolfgang. Rubens and the Classical Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
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  247. A lively study of how the classical tradition was transformed by an artist whom Jacob Burckhardt, one of the great cultural historians of the 19th century, considered the logical fulfillment of Renaissance painting.
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  249. Scandinavia
  250.  
  251. The classical tradition did not have the decisive impact on Scandinavia that it had on many other European countries, with much of what has been written being available only in Danish, Norwegian, or Swedish. Skard 1980 offers a brief overview, with useful information also available in Merisalo and Sarasti-Wilenius 2003.
  252.  
  253. Merisalo, Outi, and Raija Sarasti-Wilenius. Erudition and Eloquence: The Use of Latin in the Countries of the Baltic Sea (1500–1800): Acts of a Colloquium Held in Tartu, 23–26 August, 1999. Helsinki, Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 2003.
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  255. A collection of conference papers whose focus on Nordic Neo-Latin is developed by necessity through reference to the classical tradition.
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  257. Skard, Sigmund. “National Humanism.” In Classical Tradition in Norway: An Introduction with Bibliography. By Sigmund Skard, 55–59. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsförlaget, 1980.
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  259. A brief and superficial overview of an area on which little has been written.
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  261. Spain
  262.  
  263. Until the 1970s trends in Spanish cultural history downplayed the importance of humanism, so that Spain was often passed over in treatments of the classical tradition (see Lida de Malkiel 1975) and much relevant material remains unsurveyed in archives and libraries. Within the last generation this has begun to change, with Gil 1966 providing a good initial survey of the field and Di Camillo 1976, Di Camillo 1988, and Gil Fernández 1981 filling in some of the details. López Torrijos 1985 demonstrates the extent to which Spanish Renaissance art, whose religious content is often foregrounded, is infused with classical mythology. Interest has grown in identifying the distinctive features of the classical tradition in Spain, one of which is an unusual focus on translation (see Translation) and another of which is a tendency toward satire (Welles 1986). López Grigera 2007 surveys where scholarship in the field stands now.
  264.  
  265. Di Camillo, Ottavio. El humanismo castellano del siglo XV. Translated by Manuel Lloris. Valencia, Spain: Fernando Torres, 1976.
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  267. A study of the connections between Italian humanism and Spanish culture of the Renaissance, with a focus on Alonso de Cartagena and Nebrija as purveyors of the classical tradition.
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  269. Di Camillo, Ottavio. “Humanism in Spain.” In Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. Vol. 2, Humanism beyond Italy. Edited by Albert Rabil Jr., 55–108. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  271. An excellent overview, placing sound observations on the development of humanism within broader trends in Spanish scholarship.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Gil, Luis. “El humanismo español del siglo XVI.” Estudios clásicos 51 (1966): 211–297.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A pioneering survey of Spanish humanism from Nebrija to Sánchez de las Brozas.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Gil Fernández, Luis. Panorama social del humanismo español (1500–1800). Madrid: Alhambra, 1981.
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  279. A detailed study of the environment in which the classical tradition was disseminated in Spain during the Renaissance, focused on schools and teachers.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Lida de Malkiel, María Rosa. La tradición clásica en España. Barcelona, Spain: Ariel, 1975.
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  283. A collection and revision of a series of articles published originally between 1939 and 1962 on the classical tradition in Spain, primarily during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. See especially the essay entitled “La tradición clásica en España,” (339–397), a definitive response to the underemphasis on Spain in Highet 1949 (cited under General Overviews).
  284. Find this resource:
  285. López Grigera, Luisa. “Iberian Peninsula.” In A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Edited by Craig Kallendorf, 192–207. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007.
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  287. Ostensibly a broad survey, but in fact focused on classical influences on the major authors of Spanish Renaissance literature.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. López Torrijos, Rosa. La mitología en la pintura española del Siglo de Oro. Madrid: Cátedra, 1985.
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  291. An exhaustive study of mythological painting in Golden Age Spain, with an introduction covering sources, patrons, and painters, followed by an analysis of Hercules’ special position in Spanish art, of mythology as heroic example, and of depictions of the various gods and goddesses.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Welles, Marcia L. Arachne’s Tapestry: The Transformation of Myth in Seventeenth-Century Spain. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University Press, 1986.
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  295. An interesting demonstration of how Spanish Golden Age poets, playwrights, and painters reject the rigidity of the moral-allegorical reading of Ovid in favor of decentered, subversive readings of the amatory tales.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. “New” World Encounters
  298.  
  299. As Grafton 1992 and the essays in Haase and Reinhold 1994 note, the “new” world could only be understood within the “old” one through its preexisting mental framework, part of which was derived from the classics, so that even the status of the newly encountered people had to be debated within Aristotelian categories (Hanke 1959). González Rodríguez 1981 and Lupher 2003 provide useful studies of the Roman roots of the Spanish encounter.
  300.  
  301. González Rodríguez, Jaime. La idea de Roma en la historiografía indiana (1492–1550). Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1981.
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  303. A comprehensive study of the Roman model in the Spanish encounter with the “new” world, with an anthology of primary sources (pp. 151–200).
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Grafton, Anthony, April Shelford, and Nancy Siraisi. New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.
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  307. An engaging demonstration of the complexities by which the evidence of exploration in the “new” world challenged the authority of the ancient texts on which Renaissance culture so much depended.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Haase, Wolfgang, and Meyer Reinhold, eds. The Classical Tradition and the Americas. Vol. 1, European Images of the Americas and the Classical Tradition. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1994.
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  311. A valuable collection of essays on the contribution of the classics toward the intellectual preparation for, and the comprehensive mental dealing with, the encounter with the “new” world. The planned second volume, on the classical tradition in the Americas, was never published.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Hanke, Lewis. Aristotle and the American Indians: A Study of Race Prejudice in the Modern World. London: Hollis and Carter, 1959.
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  315. A fascinating inquiry into the afterlife of the doctrine of natural slavery from Aristotle’s Politics as it was applied during the Spanish conquest, with special attention paid to the debate in Valladolid between Bartolomé de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Lupher, David A. Romans in a New World: Classical Models in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
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  319. Examines how the Spanish perception of the Roman Empire in the 16th century guided the conquistadors in their interpretation of the peoples they encountered in the “new” world and their own actions toward them.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Reception
  322.  
  323. Humanism provided a framework for the reception of the classics in the Renaissance, with humble schoolmasters working on one level and professional scholars on another. Renaissance scholars in turn developed more sophisticated procedures for making texts and turned to the printing press, one of the more important inventions of the period, to put Greek and Latin texts into the hands of more readers.
  324.  
  325. Humanism
  326.  
  327. Baron 1966, Garin 1965, and Kristeller 1961–1965 (with Witt 2000) are the principal interpretations of Renaissance humanism as the driving intellectual force of the period, each of which gives a prominent position to the classics; the spread of humanism through Europe is chronicled in Rabil 1988. Weiss 1969 and Jacks 1993 provide good overviews of how the physical remains of antiquity were appropriated by Renaissance culture.
  328.  
  329. Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny. Rev. ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966.
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  331. Argues that as a response to an invasion threat around 1400, a group of Florentine intellectuals succeeded in establishing classical studies as the basis for active participation in the political concerns of their day, resulting in “civic humanism.” Originally published in 1955.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Garin, Eugenio. Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance. Translated by Peter Munz. New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
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  335. Identifies key values and assumptions about reality in humanism, including the importance of concrete examples over abstract speculation, the privileging of an active political life over contemplative withdrawal, and the value of studying the ancients in the context of their own culture. Originally published in Italian in 1947.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Jacks, Philip. The Antiquarian and the Myth of Antiquity: The Origins of Rome in Renaissance Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Examines the humanist exploration and perceptions of the origins and development of ancient Rome by examining guidebooks, topographical guides, and other antiquarian material.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Renaissance Thought. 2 vols. New York: Harper, 1961–1965.
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  343. Analyzes humanism as a teaching movement focused on grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy, with Greek and Latin authors providing the authoritative texts in each area.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Rabil, Albert, Jr., ed. Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. 3 vols. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  347. An important series of essays providing introductions to the rise of humanism and its spread beyond Italy and into the various areas of Renaissance intellectual life.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Weiss, Roberto. The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1969.
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  351. Traces the emergence of classical archaeology, with chapters on epigraphy, numismatics, and collecting, as part of the rise of humanism.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Witt, Ronald. In the Footsteps of the Ancients: The Origins of Humanism from Lovato to Bruni. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2000.
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  355. An important refinement of Kristeller’s work (Kristeller 1961–1965) on the origins of humanism, stressing the work of the so-called prehumanists and the origins of Italian humanism in late medieval French rhetoric.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Education
  358.  
  359. As Grendler 1989 and Clarke 1959 show, there is no question that part of humanism’s triumph involved injecting an expanded classical content into a new disciplinary structure in the classroom, with a new way of reading the classics detailed in Moss 1996. The collection of treatises from the period in Kallendorf 2005 lays out the educational theory on which scholarship focused through the preceding generation. In the last twenty years, however, Black 2001, Grafton and Jardine 1986, and Waquet 2001 have shown that practice often fell considerably short of theory.
  360.  
  361. Black, Robert. Humanism and Education in Medieval and Renaissance Italy: Tradition and Innovation in Latin Schools from the Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Stresses continuities between medieval and Renaissance approaches to the classics in the classroom, providing an important balance to those modern scholars who have accepted the humanists’ own educational claims less critically.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Clarke, M. L. Classical Education in Great Britain, 1500–1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1959.
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  367. A survey of the impact of humanism and its focus on the classics in English schools and universities, with basic information on Scotland and Trinity College, Dublin as well.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Grafton, Anthony, and Lisa Jardine. From Humanism to the Humanities: Education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986.
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  371. Based on the actual products of humanist teaching (such as lecture notes, textbooks, and the like), Grafton and Jardine argue that instruction in the classics was concerned more with elementary grammar and syntax and less with moral and civic education than the theoretical treatises of the day would suggest.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Grendler, Paul F. Schooling in Renaissance Italy: Literature and Learning, 1300–1600. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
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  375. The standard survey of the subject, explaining the triumph of the humanist schools and their reliance on classical authors to teach the humanist disciplines.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Kallendorf, Craig W., ed. and trans. Humanist Educational Treatises. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
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  379. Contains Latin texts and English translations of the educational treatises of Pier Paolo Vergerio, Leonardo Bruni, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, and Battista Guarino.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Moss, Ann. Printed Commonplace-Books and the Structuring of Renaissance Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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  383. An informative overview of the way in which Renaissance students were taught to read the classics, with an eye on aphorisms and stylistic gems from the ancients that could be reused in their own writing.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Waquet, Françoise. Latin; or, The Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Translated by John Howe. London: Verso, 2001.
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  387. A study of the central place of Latin in early modern education, stressing the variety of roles it played and the difficulties it presented for generations of students who tried to learn it. First published in French in 1998.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Classical Scholarship
  390.  
  391. Humanist scholars often boasted that, unlike their medieval predecessors, they recovered the ability to see antiquity as it actually was. Sandys 1921, Kenney 1974, and Pfeiffer 1976 concentrate on their accomplishments, especially in the area of textual criticism, and Grafton 1983 presents a detailed study of an especially influential scholar. Scholarship of the last generation has striven for a balance, recognizing both what the humanists accomplished and where they fell short (D’Amico 1988).
  392.  
  393. D’Amico, John F. Theory and Practice in Renaissance Textual Criticism: Beatus Rhenanus between Conjecture and History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
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  395. A stimulating study of a German humanist who was genuinely committed to a manuscript-based editorial method, and who used his textual criticism to write history as well, although his results in both areas do not always satisfy modern standards.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Grafton, Anthony. Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983–1993.
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  399. A richly detailed treatment of one of the great classical philologists of the Renaissance.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Kenney, E. J. The Classical Text: Aspects of Editing in the Age of the Printed Book. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
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  403. A survey of the history of the editing and criticism of classical texts from 1465 to the present, two-thirds of which is devoted to Renaissance scholarship.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Pfeiffer, Rudolf. History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
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  407. Begins with Petrarch and recounts the revival of classical studies, describing the achievements of the Italian humanists, the independent movement in Holland that led to Erasmus and the German scholar-reformers, and classical scholarship in 16th-century France.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship. 3 vols. 3d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1921.
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  411. An older work, partially superseded by Pfeiffer 1976, but containing much information that is still useful. Originally published 1903–1908 and reprinted in 1958 and 2009.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Manuscripts and the Rise of Printing
  414.  
  415. At its beginning the Renaissance was still a manuscript culture; Reynolds and Wilson 1991 and Reynolds 1983 provide information on the manuscript transmission of the classics, and Sabbadini 1905–1914 offers information on new manuscript discoveries. Classical texts passed from manuscript to print during this period; Jones 2004 and Mazal 2003 survey this process, and the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue provides publication data on 15th-century editions for all the Greek and Latin authors. The printed book ruled by the end of the Renaissance (Eisenstein 1979), although recent scholarship in book history emphasizes continuities with manuscript culture as well as ruptures (Febvre and Martin 1990).
  416.  
  417. Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
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  419. An influential and forceful statement of the revolutionary effects of the printing press, one that subsequent scholarship finds somewhat hyperbolic.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450–1800. Translated by David Gerard. London and New York: Verso, 1990.
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  423. A widely cited study of the rise of the printed book, solidly based in book history and reflecting years of careful research and thoughtful analysis. Originally published in English in 1976; French original published in 1958.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Incunabula Short Title Catalogue (ISTC).
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. An international database of 15th-century European printing created by the British Library with contributions from institutions worldwide, which can be searched electronically for any classical author.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Jones, Howard. Printing the Classical Text. Utrecht, The Netherlands: HES & de Graaf, 2004.
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  431. A survey of the early printed editions of the classics, especially valuable for its statistics.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Mazal, Otto. Die Überlieferung der antiken Literatur im Buchdruck des 15. Jahrhunderts. 4 vols. Stuttgart, Germany: Anton Hiersemann, 2003.
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  435. A monumental survey of the editions of the classics printed before 1501, providing a discussion of the earliest printings of each Greek and Latin author.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Reynolds, L. D., ed. Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. An account of the transmission of the texts of 134 classical Latin authors, focused primarily on the early witnesses but giving due account to Renaissance textual scholarship as well.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Reynolds, L. D., and N. G. Wilson. Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature. 3d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.
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  443. The standard introduction to the field, discussing the transmission of classical texts in manuscript and print, with a chapter and a half on the Renaissance.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Sabbadini, Remigio. Le scoperte dei codici latini e greci ne’ secoli XIV e XV. 2 vols. Florence: Sansoni 1905–1914.
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  447. The classic account of the discoveries of classical manuscripts in the Renaissance, updated by one of Italy’s leading 20th-century Renaissance scholars. Reprinted with corrections and addenda by Eugenio Garin in 1967 (Florence: Sansoni).
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Mythology
  450.  
  451. Guthmüller and Kühlmann 1999 provides a useful introduction to the variety of ways in which the Renaissance drew on classical mythology. The extent to which this represents real change is open to debate: Seznec 1972, for example, stresses the survival of medieval approaches, while Freedman 2003 emphasizes tensions, and Barkan 1986 sees myth as the source of direct challenge to the Christian Middle Ages. Mythological study shaded often into allegory, symbol, and magic (Allen 1970, Wind 1958), with much attention devoted to it by artists (Bull 2005). Reid 1993 offers information on how individual myths were appropriated in the Renaissance.
  452.  
  453. Allen, Don Cameron. Mysteriously Meant: The Rediscovery of Pagan Symbolism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970.
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  455. A classic study of how allegorical interpretation of Greek, Latin, and Egyptian myth came into existence in the Renaissance and how these interpretations influenced literary production during the period.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Barkan, Leonard. The Gods Made Flesh: Metamorphosis and the Pursuit of Paganism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A wide-ranging study of the concept of metamorphosis, not so much in a manifestation of Ovidian influence as in the genesis of a worldview and an aesthetic.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Bull, Malcolm. The Mirror of the Gods. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  463. Shows that the pagan gods provided Renaissance culture with “a third category between the true and the false, namely that of images that were acknowledged to be false but were nevertheless permissible,” eventually becoming “the stock examples of the unreal” (p. 394).
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Freedman, Luba. The Revival of the Olympian Gods in Renaissance Art. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  467. Examines how the major Greek gods appear in the visual arts of 16th-century Italy, noting the challenges that accompanied the efforts to integrate the gods into Christian culture and the peculiarities that often resulted.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Guthmüller, Bodo, and Wilhelm Kühlmann, eds. Renaissancekultur und antike Mythologie. Tübingen, Germany: Max Niemeyer, 1999.
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  471. A wide-ranging collection of essays, some on individual myths, others on topics including the mythological example, the political appropriation of myth, and the mythological burlesque.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Reid, Jane Davidson, and Chris Rohmann. The Oxford Guide to Classical Mythology in the Arts, 1300–1990s. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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  475. A masterful reference work in which each mythological figure is described, followed by a list of treatments of that figure in art, literature, and music.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Seznec, Jean. The Survival of the Pagan Gods: The Mythological Tradition and its Place in Renaissance Humanism and Art. Translated by Barbara F. Sessions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972.
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  479. Shows “how the mythological heritage of antiquity was handed down from century to century, through what vicissitudes it passed, and the extent to which, toward the close of the Cinquecento, the great Italian treatises on the gods which were to nourish the humanism and art of all Europe were still indebted to medieval compilations and steeped in the influence of the Middle Ages.”
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Wind, Edgar. Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958.
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  483. A study of the reception of the ancient mysteries, in the ritual, figurative, and magical senses, into Renaissance culture, especially in mythology.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Translations
  486.  
  487. Humanist education emphasized learning the classical languages, but most people in the Renaissance had some or all of their contact with the ancient world through translations. Botley 2004 and Rummel 1985 remind us of an often-forgotten but important fact: many more people in the Renaissance knew Latin than Greek, so translations of Greek works into Latin were very important. Translations into vernacular languages were also crucial, with separate studies devoted to Spanish (Beardsley 1970), French (Bunker 1939, Worth 1988), English (Lathrop 1933, Palmer 1911), and German (Thompson 1943).
  488.  
  489. Beardsley, Theodore S., Jr. Hispano-Classical Translations Printed between 1482 and 1699. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1970.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Lists and describes all the major Spanish translations of Greek and Latin works published from the dawn of printing in Spain through the seventeenth century.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Botley, Paul. Latin Translation in the Renaissance: The Theory and Practice of Leonardo Bruni, Giannozzo Manetti, and Desiderius Erasmus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  495. An important study of translation from Greek into Latin, focused on three key humanist translators and their work with Aristotle.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Bunker, Ruth. A Bibliographical Study of the Greek Works and Translations Published in France during the Renaissance: The Decade 1540–1550. New York: Columbia University Press, 1939.
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  499. An exhaustive study of the Greek books published in France during a key decade in the middle of the 16th century, with a lengthy study of the teaching of Greek and of the translation and printing of classical Greek texts at the time.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Lathrop, Henry Burrowes. Translations from the Classics into English from Caxton to Chapman, 1477–1620. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1933.
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  503. An older study that is still valuable for its careful delimitation, through a study of printed translations, of what the long 16th century found of value in the classics, namely the literature and thought of the Roman Empire, which offered a stable point of reference. Reprinted 1967 (New York: Octagon).
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Palmer, Henrietta R. List of English Editions and Translations of Greek and Latin Classics Printed before 1641. London: Blades, East and Blades, 1911.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. The raw material for further research: a list of editions and translations of Greek and Latin writers published in England before the establishment of the Commonwealth, along with an introduction commenting on what is and is not found in the list.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Rummel, Erika. Erasmus as a Translator of the Classics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985.
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  511. A specialized study of the practices and principles by which Desiderius Erasmus translated Greek works into Latin, which made them known to the many interested readers who never attained fluency in Greek, notwithstanding the exhortations of the humanists and educational theorists of the day.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Thompson, Lawrence S. “German Translations of the Classics between 1450 and 1550.” Journal of English and Germanic Philology 42 (1943): 343–363.
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  515. Notes that translations from Latin far outnumber those from Greek, with Cicero, Terence, Seneca, and Livy dominating the former field and Lucian, Plutarch, and Homer the latter.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Worth, Valerie. Practising Translation in Renaissance France: The Example of Étienne Dolet. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.
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  519. Focuses on the practice instead of the theory of translation among French Renaissance writers, viewed as part of imitatio (the imitation of classical authors) and looking at the mechanics of translation as well as the models of the translators and their motives.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Disciplines
  522.  
  523. The humanist model into which the classical tradition was received emphasized grammar, rhetoric, history, moral philosophy, and poetry as the key disciplines. Recent scholarship, however, also highlights the importance of classical reception in other areas, such as architecture, art, law, medicine and the sciences, and music.
  524.  
  525. Architecture
  526.  
  527. Wittkower 1971 provides the theoretical background for classical influence on Renaissance architecture, with Günther 1988 showing how this influence plays out in practice and Onians 1988 providing a thoughtful analysis of how architectural history opens into broader cultural practice. Callebat 1994, Ciapponi 1960, and Krautheimer 1963 focus on Vitruvius, whose writings played a significant part in Renaissance architectural theory. See also the essays in Art.
  528.  
  529. Callebat, Louis. “La Tradition vitruvienne au Moyen Age et à la Renaissance: Eléments d’interpretation.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 1 (1994): 3–14.
  530. DOI: 10.1007/BF02678990Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Describes the elevation of Vitruvius’s De architectura, especially by architects of the Quattrocento in Italy, to the position of a privileged reference text in which the projected ideals of later readers combined with principles derived from Euclid and Plato as well to guide the generation of ideal architectural rules.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Ciapponi, Lucia. “Il ‘De architectura’ di Vitruvio nel primo umanesimo.” Italia medioevale e umanistica 3 (1960): 59–99.
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  535. Shows that Vitruvius’s text began circulating again with Petrarch and came to be fundamental to the work of learned architects in the Quattrocento, even though it was not fully understood until the philological efforts of the beginning of the 16th century.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Günther, Hubertus. Das Studium der antiken Architektur in den Zeichnungen der Hochrenaissance. Tübingen, Germany: Wasmuth Verlag, 1988.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A well-illustrated, detailed study focused on the influence of ancient architecture on Simone del Pollaiulo, Giulian da Sangallo, Gian Cristoforo Romano, Bernardo della Volpaia, Riniero Neruccio da Pisa, Antonio da Sangallo, and Baldassare Peruzzi.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Krautheimer, Richard. “Alberti and Vitruvius.” In Studies in Western Art: Acts of the Twentieth International Congress of the History of Art. Vol. 2, The Renaissance and Mannerism. Edited by Millard Meiss, 42–52. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
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  543. An interesting discussion that brings out the complexity often inherent in the classical tradition, noting that in setting out to produce a new Vitruvius, Alberti criticizes a source he could not do without.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Onians, John. Bearers of Meaning: The Classical Orders in Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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  547. A study of the classical columns, capitals, and moldings as a material means of expression, tracing patterns of usage and interpretations of the forms from antiquity through the 16th century.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Wittkower, Rudolf. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism. New York: Norton, 1971.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. A lucid and engaging claim that the fundamental issues of Renaissance architecture, from the relationship with tradition to the manifestation of harmonic proportion, are resolved by reference to such ancient authorities as Plato, Pythagoras, and Vitruvius. Originally published 1949.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Art
  554.  
  555. Barkan 1999 offers a broad overview of how archaeology affected Renaissance culture, with Baxandall 1971 showing how the classical tradition in verbal areas affected artistic creation and criticism in humanist Italy. Ladendorf 1958 provides an overview of Renaissance practice, with Bober and Rubenstein 1986 and Haskell and Penny 1981 listing individual works of ancient art and their impact in the Renaissance. Warburg 1999 offers a classic collection of essays in this area, with Payne, et al. 2000 stressing more recent approaches. Cunnally 1999 is an interesting study of an often-overlooked field, and Joost-Gaugier 2009 shows how ancient mathematics affected Renaissance art.
  556.  
  557. Barkan, Leonard. Unearthing the Past: Archaeology and Aesthetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Employing a variety of interdisciplinary approaches, from Warburg to Foucault and from documentary history to cultural studies, Barkan explores the impact of the rediscovery of the physical remains of antiquity on Renaissance consciousness.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Baxandall, Michael. Giotto and the Orators: Humanist Observers of Painting in Italy and the Discovery of Pictorial Composition, 1350–1450. Oxford: Clarendon, 1971.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. An often-cited study of how the grammar and rhetoric of humanist Latin, with its indebtedness to the classics, affected both how Renaissance artists described paintings and how the humanist concept of pictorial composition developed.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Bober, Phyllis Pray, and Ruth Rubinstein. Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculpture: A Handbook of Sources. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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  567. A detailed catalogue of ancient sculptures known before the sack of Rome in 1527; especially valuable for information on sarcophagi and other reliefs.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Cunnally, John. Images of the Illustrious: The Numismatic Presence in the Renaissance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. An interesting study of how the coin collections of the Renaissance and the printed books that reproduced them made the culture of classical antiquity accessible to an ever-widening circle of literate Europeans.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Haskell, Francis, and Nicholas Penny. Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500–1900. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. A fascinating discussion of the role of classical sculpture in the formation of taste, followed by a catalog of ninety-five principal ancient sculptures once accepted as masterpieces, with accounts of how they were appreciated in the early modern period.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Joost-Gaugier, Christiane L. Pythagoras and Renaissance Europe: Finding Heaven. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Demonstrates that a number of well-known architects and artists (including Alberti, Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael) used a visual language inspired by the memory of Pythagoras to obtain perfect harmony in their creations.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Ladendorf, Heinz. Antikenstudium und Antikenkopie: Vorarbeiten zu einer Darstellung ihrer Bedeutung in der mittelalterlichen und neueren Zeit. 2d ed. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1958.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. A thoughtful overview of the effort by Renaissance artists to define their culture in relation to that of antiquity, with a focus on formal issues.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Payne, Alina, Ann Kuttner, and Rebekah Smick, eds. Antiquity and Its Interpreters. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. A thought-provoking group of essays emphasizing the constructedness of the antique model in the Renaissance, a model that was based on ignorance as well as new discoveries about the past.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Warburg, Aby. The Renewal of Pagan Antiquity: Contributions to the Cultural History of the European Renaissance. Translated by Kurt W. Forster. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 1999.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. The collected writings of the founder of the Warburg Institute, now a part of the University of London and a leading center for the study of the classical tradition. This volume is devoted primarily to the essays he published during his lifetime on the classical tradition in Renaissance art.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Grammar
  594.  
  595. While the humanists inveighed bitterly against the degradations that Latin had suffered through the Middle Ages, medieval grammar only gradually gave way to new instructional practice based on late antique authors (Ciccolella 2008, Schmidt 1992). Guarino’s famous grammar occupies a transitional position, with Sabbadini 1896 emphasizing its medieval qualities and Percival 2004 its innovations; Jensen 1996 offers a balanced assessment of the issues involved. De Nonno, et al. 2000 and Schmidt 1992 provide information on the textual transmission of the ancient grammarians, with Padley 1976 and Viljamaa 1976 showing the effects that this material had on Renaissance grammatical theory. Niccolò Perotti offered the first systematic Latin grammar based on new criteria (Percival 2004).
  596.  
  597. Ciccolella, Federica. Donati Graeci: Learning Greek in the Renaissance. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2008.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. A groundbreaking study of how Greek was actually taught in the Renaissance, based on a Venetian-Cretan tradition tied to Greek grammatical instruction based on the Latin schoolbook Ianua, or Donatus.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. De Nonno, Mario, Paolo De Paolis, and Louis Holtz eds. Manuscripts and Tradition of Grammatical Texts from Antiquity to the Renaissance, Proceedings of a Conference held at Erice, 16–23 October 1997. Cassino, Italy: Edizioni dell’Università degli Studi, 2000.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. An invaluable set of essays on the physical transmission of grammatical texts from antiquity to the Renaissance, concluding with a helpful synthesis by Louis Holtz, an acknowledged expert in the field.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Jensen, Kristian. “The Humanist Reform of Latin and Latin Teaching.” In The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Edited by Jill Kraye, 63–81. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. A balanced survey of how humanist schoolmasters tried to teach their students to write the Latin of the ancients, noting how successes were achieved but also exploring the factors that limited these successes.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Padley, G. A. Grammatical Theory in Western Europe, 1500–1700: The Latin Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
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  611. A clearly written survey in which the humanist effort to revive ancient grammar is studied alongside the oscillations in the tradition of medieval grammar that continues through the same period.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Percival, W. Keith. Studies in Renaissance Grammar. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004.
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  615. A collection of previously published essays in which the author, who dominated this field at the end of the 20th century, shows how, under the influence of humanism, Renaissance grammar widened its scope to include the appreciation of classical Latin literature and incorporated the teaching of Greek, with the direct criticism of medieval grammar and lexicography emerging only gradually.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Sabbadini, Remigio. “Grammatica.” In La scuola e gli studi di Guarino Guarini Veronese. By Remigio Sabbadini, 38–47. Catania, Italy: F. Galati, 1896.
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  619. Argues that Guarino’s Regulae grammaticales was in no way a rebellion against medieval grammar in the direction of humanist innovation, but merely an evolution of recent practice. Reprinted in Guariniana, edited by M. Sancipriano (Turin, Italy: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1964) 28–58.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Schmidt, Peter Lebrecht. “Die Wiederentdeckung der spätantiken Grammatik im italienischen Humanismus.” Studi Italiani di Filologia Classica 85 (1992): 861–871.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. An account of how Italian humanists regained access, rather belatedly, to the late antique grammatical writings, on the basis of which they attempted to correct medieval usages.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Viljamaa, Toivo. The Renaissance Reform of Latin Grammar. Turku, Finland: Turun Yliopisto, 1976.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Traces the roots of the modern generative approach to grammar through the reforms of Renaissance grammarians, especially Franciscus Sanctius, back to Quintilian.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. History
  630.  
  631. Burke 1966 presents fundamental information on access to the ancient historians in the Renaissance, while Enenkel, et al. 2001, Erasmus 1962, Fryde 1983, and Smuts 1993 explore how Renaissance historians tried to use the classical heritage as a guide to writing the history of their own times. Momigliano 1950 reminds us that physical evidence as well as classical texts were used to reconstruct life in ancient Greece and Rome.
  632.  
  633. Burke, Peter. “A Survey of the Popularity of Ancient Historians, 1450–1700.” History and Theory 5 (1966): 135–152.
  634. DOI: 10.2307/2504511Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Shows that Sallust was far and away the most frequently printed ancient historian in the Renaissance, and that Roman historians were printed far more often than Greek ones.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Enenkel, Karl, Jan L. de Jong, and Jeannine de Landtsheer, eds. Recreating Ancient History: Episodes from the Greek and Roman Past in the Arts and Literature of the Early Modern Period. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: E. J. Brill: 2001.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Explores how scholars and artists in the early modern period recreated Greek and Roman history, simultaneously reconstructing the past while using their reconstructions to understand and legitimize the present.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Erasmus, Hendrik Johannes. The Origins of Rome in Historiography from Petrarch to Perizonius. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1962.
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  643. Examines the treatment of the problem of the origins of Rome among humanist historians of the 14th through the 17th centuries, demonstrating that what was found in the ancient writers was regularly subjected to historical criticism during this period.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Fryde, E. B. Humanism and Renaissance Historiography. London: Hambledon, 1983.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. A general account of the effort to revive classical historiography in the Renaissance, with special attention to the library of Lorenzo the Magnificent, which contained the manuscript sources necessary for this revival.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Momigliano, Arnaldo. “Ancient History and the Antiquarian.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 13 (1950): 285–315.
  650. DOI: 10.2307/750215Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Traces an activity parallel to the study of historical texts among humanist historians: the systematic effort to reconstruct life in antiquity through the study of objects and inscriptions from that time.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Smuts, Malcolm “Court-Centred Politics and the Uses of Roman Historians, c.1590–1630.” In Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England. Edited by Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake, 21–43. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Explores the uses of Tacitus and other classical sources to craft potentially subversive commentary by courtiers on court politics in late Elizabethan and early Stuart England.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Law
  658.  
  659. Gilmore 1941, Koschaker 1966, Pédagogues et juristes 1963, Stein 1988, and Stein 1999 demonstrate the pervasive influence of Roman law on Renaissance theory and practice, with Strauss 1986 establishing that this influence was by no means uncontroversial at the time. Kelley 1970 shows how this process affected historical thought in general, while Maclean 1992 demonstrates that its ramifications were even broader, affecting basic issues of how language was understood in the Renaissance.
  660.  
  661. Gilmore, Myron Piper. Argument from Roman Law in Political Thought, 1200–1600. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941.
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  663. A good introduction to the influence of Roman law as it appeared in the Justinian compilation, especially in its effects on Renaissance humanism, with special attention paid to Bodin and Loyseau.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Kelley, Donald R. Foundations of Modern Historical Scholarship: Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
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  667. A classic survey of the development of historical thought in relation to the study of law in Renaissance France, concentrating on Roman law and ending with the antiquarian revival at the end of the 16th century.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Koschaker, Paul. Europa und das römische Recht. 4th ed. Munich and Berlin: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1966.
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  671. A comprehensive overview of the reception of Roman law, focusing on Germany but also with sections on France and England, with discussions of the Renaissance appearing at appropriate points in Koschaker’s narrative. Reprint of the 1947 edition.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Maclean, Ian. Interpretation and Meaning in the Renaissance: The Case of Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  675. An often-cited examination of how legal studies affected attitudes toward interpretation and meaning in the Renaissance, developed within the frameworks of the reception of Roman law and Aristotle’s approach to mentalism and word usage.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Pédagogues et juristes: Congrès du Centre d’Études Supérieures de la Renaissance de Tours; Été 1960. Paris: J. Vrin, 1963.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. A collection of conference papers focused on the definition of humanist law, with a special focus on the role of Roman law and the importance of Budé, Alciato, and Zasius.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Stein, Peter. The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil Law: Historical Essays. London and Ronceverte, WV: Hambledon, 1988.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. A series of essays, many of which touch on the Renaissance, demonstrating the pervasive influence of Roman law, noting that it was received differently in England, continental Europe, and the United States.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Stein, Peter. “Roman Law and the Nation State.” In Roman Law in European History. By Peter Stein, 71–103. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  687. An excellent brief introduction to the revival of Roman law in the Renaissance, touching on regional differences and the impact of Roman principles in the various areas of the law.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Strauss, Gerald. Law, Resistance, and the State: The Opposition to Roman Law in Reformation Germany. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
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  691. A study of the conflict between the legal profession’s advocacy of the supremely rational Roman law and the populist resistance it aroused, as it played out against the Reformation and the changes in political structures during the Reformation.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Medicine and the Sciences
  694.  
  695. Since Renaissance humanists were primarily interested in subjects other than the natural sciences, historians have often downplayed the relationship between humanism and science in the Renaissance (see Sarton 1955). More recent work such as Cochrane 1976, Edgerton 2009, and Siraisi 2007, however, has stressed the importance of the humanist rediscovery of ancient texts for the development of Renaissance science and medicine. Bylebyl 1985 and Olivieri 1981 offer differing perspectives on the relations between Aristotelianism and Renaissance science, while Swerdlow 1993 emphasizes the importance of access to relevant manuscripts.
  696.  
  697. Bylebyl, Jerome L. “Medicine, Philosophy, and Humanism in Renaissance Italy.” In Science and the Arts in the Renaissance. Edited by John W. Shirley and F. David Hoeniger, 27–49. Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1985.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Demonstrates that by the 16th century, humanism competed successfully with Aristotelianism as an intellectual foundation for medicine, opening up the medicine of the ancients as a source for Renaissance practice.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Cochran, Eric. “Science and Humanism in the Italian Renaissance.” American Historical Review 81 (1976): 1039–1057.
  702. DOI: 10.2307/1852869Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Argues that natural science should be recognized as another discipline to which the humanists devoted significant attention, thereby making Galileo the heir of humanist scholarship, not an opponent of it.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Edgerton, Samuel Y. The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009.
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  707. Argues that Euclidean geometry as a basis for linear perspective profoundly influenced developments in science and technology as well as art after it was rediscovered in the Italian Renaissance.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Olivieri, Luigi, ed. Aristotelismo veneto e scienza moderna: Atti del 250 anno accademico del Centro per la storia della tradizione aristotelica nel Veneto. 2 vols. Padua, Italy: Antenore, 1981.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. A wide-ranging series of essays, beginning with overviews by Eugenio Garin and Marino Gentile, showing the continued vitality of Aristotelian thought in Renaissance work in mathematics, biology, physics, medicine, anatomy, and the like.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Sarton, George. The Appreciation of Ancient and Medieval Science during the Renaissance (1450–1600). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955.
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  715. Argues that humanism in effect swept away the interest in science that had appeared in the 12th century, an interest that did not reappear in a serious way until the 17th century, at which point it became a permanent part of Western culture.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Siraisi, Nancy G. History, Medicine, and the Traditions of Renaissance Learning. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007.
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  719. Investigates doctors’ efforts to explore the legacies handed down to them from ancient medical and anatomical writings and the difficult reconciliations this required between the authority of the ancient world and the discoveries of the modern, arguing that part of what allowed medical writers to become so fully engaged in the writing of history was their general humanistic background.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Swerdlow, Noel M. “The Recovery of the Exact Sciences of Antiquity: Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography.” In Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library and Renaissance Culture. Edited by Anthony Grafton, 125–167. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
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  723. Demonstrates how “in the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana assembled a collection of some of the most interesting, important, and even beautiful of all manuscripts of the mathematical sciences, each one contributing to the learning of that age and to the renaissance of the mathematical sciences.”
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Music
  726.  
  727. Since there are no audible ancient models for musicians to imitate, the influence of ancient Greece and Rome on Renaissance music was generally downplayed or reduced to broad generalizations until recently. Walker 1941 provides an early challenge to this assumption, with Hanning 1980, Lowinsky 1982, Palisca 1985, and Palisca 1988 providing a good overview of how many ways the classics are now understood to have informed music in the Renaissance. Feldman 1995 offers a more focused study, relating the Venetian madrigal to Renaissance Ciceronianism.
  728.  
  729. Feldman, Martha. City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Explores the development of the madrigal in 16th-century Venice as one of several manifestations of a common framework of Ciceronian rhetorical norms, which emphasized decorum through adherence to strict stylistic levels.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Hanning, Barbara Russano. Of Poetry and Music’s Power: Humanism and the Creation of Opera. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research, 1980.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Argues that the theorists, poets, and composers who developed the new stile rappresentativo were deeply influenced by Greek, especially Aristotelian, concepts of music: the use of chromaticism based on Greek genera, the revival of the ancient modes, the nature of text treatment, the use of monody, and the idea that expressivity and moving the emotions was of utmost importance.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Lowinsky, Edward E. “Humanism in the Music of the Renaissance.” In Proceedings of the Southeastern Institute of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Summer, 1978. Edited by Frank Tirro, 87–220. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1982.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. A lengthy early study arguing that the Florentine musical drama, the French vers mesuré (musical verse settings), and the German humanistic ode all reflect the driving force of humanism’s search for the antique, which produced a new relationship between word and tone and a new concept of music as expressive of human emotion.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Palisca, Claude V. Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. A meticulous study that documents the debt Renaissance musical thought owes to ancient, especially Greek, texts, and traces its path of transmission through Italy.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Palisca, Claude V. “Humanism and Music.” In Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. Vol. 3, Humanism and the Disciplines. Edited by Albert Rabil Jr., 450–485. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  747. An excellent introduction to a complicated subject, suggesting that humanist scholarship informed later music on several levels: metaphysical, mathematical, ethical, rhetorical/grammatical, mimetic, and dramatic.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Walker, D. P. “Musical Humanism in the 16th and Early 17th Centuries.” Music Review 2 (1941): 1–13, 111–121, 220–227, 288–308.
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  751. Part two of this essay appears in Music Review 3 (1942): 55–71. A groundbreaking essay, arguing that the ancient writers left enough material to allow an indirect revival of the ideals of ancient music in the Renaissance.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Philosophy
  754.  
  755. Kraye 1996 begins at the beginning, showing how the classical influences on Renaissance philosophy required efforts to make the relevant texts available. Hankins and Palmer 2008 detail the results of this work, with Garin 1983 providing a narrative account. Other scholarship focuses on the reception of specific schools of thought: Stoicism (Abel 1978, Morford 1991), Plato and Aristotle (Platon et Aristote à la Renaissance 1976), and skepticism (Popkin 1979). See also Plato, Aristotle, and Epicurus and Epicureanism.
  756.  
  757. Abel, Günter. Stoizismus und frühe Neuzeit: Zur Entstehungsgeschichte modernen Denkens im Felde von Ethik u. Politik. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 1978.
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. A study of the reception of Stoicism in the early modern period, with special attention paid to Justus Lipsius, Guillaume du Vair, and Pierre Charron.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Garin, Eugenio. Il ritorno dei filosofi antichi. Naples, Italy: Bibliopolis, 1983.
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  763. One of the less well-known works of the great Italian historian of thought of the end of the 20th century, focusing more explicitly than many of his other writings on the classical tradition in philosophy. A readable narrative, reflecting its origin as a series of lectures.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Hankins, James, and Ada Palmer. The Recovery of Ancient Philosophy in the Renaissance: A Brief Guide. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 2008.
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  767. Aims to show when the major texts of ancient philosophy became available in Renaissance Europe, and which translators and commentators shaped their initial reception. An invaluable starting place for research in the field.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Kraye, Jill. “Philologists and Philosophers.” In The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Edited by Jill Kraye, 142–160. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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  771. A suggestive overview reminding us that Renaissance philosophy was based on ancient systems of thought, showing that an important part of the discipline was the philological work of preparing editions, translations, and commentaries for the texts of Greek and Roman philosophers.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Morford, Mark. Stoics and Neostoics: Rubens and the Circle of Lipsius. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
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  775. Discusses the revival of Stoicism in northern Europe, focusing on Lipsius’s editions of Tacitus and Seneca, his widely read handbooks on constancy and politics, and his interaction with leading scholars and public figures, especially with the painter Rubens.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Platon et Aristote à la Renaissance: XVIe Colloque International d’Études Humanistes. Paris: J. Vrin, 1976.
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  779. An extensive and valuable collection of conference papers, with essays focusing on the way in which Plato and Aristotle interacted in the Renaissance with Christianity, education, political and legal thought, science, and art, along with sections on readership, the Iberian world, and the city of Angers.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Popkin, Richard H. The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
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  783. Begins with the revival of Greek skepticism in the 16th century and traces the development of skeptical thought, and the reactions to it, through the end of the Renaissance. Revised and expanded edition published 2003.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Poetry and Literary Criticism
  786.  
  787. Greene 1982 presents a now-classic account of imitation, the process by which ancient literature reappeared in Renaissance form, with Maddison 1960, Peacock 1993, and Tufte 1970 providing examples of how this worked in various genres. Renaissance literary criticism also depended on ancient models, as Hardison 1973, Herrick 1946, and Weinberg 1961 show.
  788.  
  789. Greene, Thomas M. The Light in Troy: Imitation and Discovery in Renaissance Poetry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982.
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  791. An influential comparative study, clarifying the different ways in which Renaissance writers imitated classical authors.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Hardison, O. B., Jr. The Enduring Monument: A Study of the Idea of Praise in Renaissance Literary Theory and Practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1973.
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  795. Argues that in the Renaissance, literature was designed to praise virtue and condemn vice, a principle adopted from classical epideictic rhetoric. Originally published in 1962.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Herrick, Marvin T. The Fusion of Horatian and Aristotelian Literary Criticism, 1531–1555. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1946.
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  799. Examines several early 16th-century commentaries on the Ars poetica with an eye on the parallels that commentators found between Horace’s and Aristotle’s ideas on poetry and rhetoric.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Maddison, Carol. Apollo and the Nine: A History of the Ode. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960.
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  803. Shows how the Renaissance ode was created under the inspiration of Anacreon, Pindar, and Horace in England, France, and Italy.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Peacock, John. “The Stuart Court Masque and the Theatre of the Greeks.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 56 (1993): 183–208.
  806. DOI: 10.2307/751370Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. An example of how Renaissance theorists used ancient sources to justify their practices, instructive because in this case the ancient sources were called into service for a genre that did not exist among the Greeks and Romans.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Tufte, Virginia. The Poetry of Marriage: The Epithalamium in Europe and Its Development in England. Los Angeles: Tinnon-Brown, 1970.
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  811. Examines the epithalamium tradition, from its classical origins to its Renaissance flowering, as a genre especially amenable to the synthesis of classical and Christian in which Renaissance authors delighted.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Weinberg, Bernard. A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.
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  815. A magisterial survey of treatises on literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance, showing how the ideas of theorists such as Horace and Aristotle structured the understanding of poetry in this period. Reprinted 1974.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Rhetoric
  818.  
  819. Fumaroli 1980 is the indispensable starting place for the study of the classical tradition in Renaissance rhetoric, with Mouchel 1990 offering an interesting alternative model based on Cicero and Seneca, and Green and Murphy 2006 providing a bibliography of primary sources. Howell 1956 and Kahn 1985 explore the relationship of rhetoric and philosophy, with the former discussing logic and the latter the interplay between Aristotle and skepticism. Croll casts his scholarly net widely (Croll 1989), while Monfasani offers an exhaustive study of a key figure in Renaissance rhetoric who was steeped in the classical tradition (Monfasani 1976 ). See also Greek Rhetoricians.
  820.  
  821. Croll, Morris W. Style, Rhetoric, and Rhythm. Edited by J. Max Patrick and Robert O. Evans. Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow, 1989.
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  823. A classic collection of previously published essays on the influence of Cicero, Seneca, and Tacitus on various Renaissance styles, with valuable commentary by the editors on how later scholarship has dealt with Croll’s arguments. Reprint of the 1966 first edition.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Fumaroli, Marc. L’âge de l’éloquence: Rhétorique et “res literaria” de la Renaissance au seuil de l’époque moderne. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1980.
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  827. By far the best treatment of rhetoric in the Renaissance, comprehensive and detailed, organized explicitly around the ebb and flow of classical influence.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Green, Lawrence D., and James J. Murphy. Renaissance Rhetoric Short-Title Catalogue, 1460–1700. 2d ed. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006.
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  831. An invaluable source for when and where rhetorical works from antiquity were printed in the Renaissance. First edition published in 1981.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Howell, Wilbur Samuel. Logic and Rhetoric in England, 1500–1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1956.
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  835. A classic study of the relationship between logic and rhetoric in Renaissance England developed through reference to the classical tradition, following the continued influence of Aristotle, Ciceronian revivals, and Ramus’s challenge to classical doctrines, and ending with Descartes and Bacon. Reprinted in 1961.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Kahn, Victoria. Rhetoric, Prudence, and Skepticism in the Renaissance. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.
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  839. A fascinating account of how the early humanists’ faith that Academic skepticism can unite with Aristotelian prudential rhetoric to guide right action gives way in the later Renaissance to an increasing fear that skepticism will undermine the possibility of consensus.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Monfasani, John. George of Trebizond: A Biography and a Study of his Rhetoric and Logic. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1976.
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  843. A magisterial treatment of a major figure in intellectual history, in which the roots of Renaissance rhetoric are shown to be inextricable from the classical tradition.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Mouchel, Christian. Cicéron et Sénèque dans la rhétorique de la Renaissance. Marburg, Germany: Hitzeroth, 1990.
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  847. An interesting overview of Renaissance rhetoric, organized around an oscillation in the relative influence of Cicero and Seneca.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Race, Gender, and Sexuality
  850.  
  851. Recent work in race, gender, and sexuality, which is innovative and significant in quantity, has begun to affect the study of the classical tradition in the Renaissance, suggesting, for example, that more women were conversant in the classics than earlier scholarship has recognized (Lucretius 1996, Stevenson 2005) and that feminist readings can reorient our understanding of the classical influence on Renaissance literature (Kahn 1997). Skoie 2002 offers an interesting case study of how male scholars responded to classical poetry that challenged their presuppositions about gender. Other scholars have argued that the social relationships of humanism facilitated challenges to traditional heterosexual practices (Barkan 1991, Saslow 1986, Stewart 1997), while Massing 1995 and McGrath 1992 follow attitudes toward race from the Renaissance back to their classical sources. See also Sappho.
  852.  
  853. Barkan, Leonard. Transuming Passion: Ganymede and the Erotics of Humanism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991.
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  855. A brilliant speculative reading of the Ganymede myth as a focal point for humanistic homoeroticism in literature and art.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Kahn, Coppélia. Roman Shakespeare: Warriors, Wounds, and Women. London and New York: Routledge, 1997.
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  859. An influential feminist reading of Shakespeare, concentrating on the Roman content of the plays. Kahn interrogates the gender ideologies that uphold “Roman virtue,” with an eye on the image of the wound as a fetish of Roman masculinity.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Lucretius. Lucy Hutchinson’s Translation of Lucretius, De rerum natura. Edited by Hugh De Quehen. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
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  863. Presents the first English-language translation of Lucretius by a woman, dating from the 1650s, together with considerable information on Hutchinson herself and on Lucretius, as well as a brief commentary on the intellectual and social climate in which the translation was produced.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Massing, Jean Michel. “From Greek Proverb to Soap Advert: Washing the Ethiopian.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 58 (1995): 180–201.
  866. DOI: 10.2307/751510Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. Traces the expression “to wash an Ethiop white” (meaning “to attempt the impossible”) from Lucian and Zenobius through Erasmus, Renaissance editions of Aesop, and Alciati to the present, as an interesting focal point for racial attitudes.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. McGrath, Elizabeth. “The Black Andromeda.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 55 (1992): 1–18.
  870. DOI: 10.2307/751417Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871. Was Andromeda, an Ethiopian, white? Ovid thought not, which was noticed by a number of Renaissance artists, three of whom made her black when illustrating her rescue by Perseus.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Skoie, Mathilde. Reading Sulpicia: Commentaries 1475–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  875. A reception study of six short poems that present themselves as the work of the Roman poet Sulpicia, the first two chapters of which show how Renaissance scholarship began the process of removing the poems from Tibullus’s corpus and confronting the issues raised by a Roman woman writing elegiac poetry.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Saslow, James M. Ganymede in the Renaissance: Homosexuality in Art and Society. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986.
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  879. Focuses on Ganymede as a symbol for changing sexual, emotional, and social issues in Renaissance art, from pederasty, misogyny, and homoeroticism to conventions of marriage and gender roles.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Stevenson, Jane. Women Latin Poets: Language, Gender, and Authority from Antiquity to the Eighteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  883. A long section on the Renaissance suggests that the classical tradition affected the intellectual life of a good many Renaissance women. Paperback edition published in 2008.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Stewart, Alan. Close Readers: Humanism and Sodomy in Early Modern England. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
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  887. Explores the ways in which the humanist study of the classics led to relationships among men that could, and did, drift into sodomy.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Greek Authors
  890.  
  891. The humanist educational theorists stressed the need to learn Greek as well as Latin, but in practice real competence in the Greek language remained a fairly rare accomplishment throughout the Renaissance. This meant that, more often than not, access to philosophical texts like those of Aristotle and Plato often came via Latin translations, while popular writers like Lucian and Plutarch were more often than not read in vernacular translation.
  892.  
  893. Aristotle
  894.  
  895. In spite of the often-savage attacks launched by such critics as Valla, Luther, Copernicus, Ramus, and Bruno, the intellectual dominance of Aristotle continued through most of the Renaissance. Kristeller 1979 and Schmitt 1983a offer the standard overviews, with Lohr 1974–1980 confirming Aristotle’s importance through the number of commentaries written in the Renaissance. Green 1994 and Lines 2002 focus on specific disciplines, while Pagden 1975, Rice 1970, and Schmitt 1983b turn their attention to different countries.
  896.  
  897. Green, Lawrence D. “The Reception of Aristotle’s Rhetoric in the Renaissance.” In Peripatetic Rhetoric after Aristotle. Edited by William W. Fortenbaugh and David C. Mirhady, 320–348. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1994.
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  899. Traces three strands in the Renaissance reception of Aristotle’s Rhetoric—as a precursor to Cicero and Quintilian, as coherent with Plato, and as an adjunct to ethics or dialectic—along with how local needs and immediate controversies shaped detailed readings.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Kristeller, Paul Oskar. “The Aristotelian Tradition.” In Renaissance Thought and Its Sources. By Paul Oskar Kristeller, 32–49. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
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  903. Asserts that the Renaissance remained in many respects an Aristotelian age, continuing in part the tradition of medieval Aristotelianism and giving that tradition a new direction under the influence of humanism. A summary of La tradizione aristotelica nel Rinascimento (Padua, Italy: Antenore, 1962); also published as “Renaissance Aristotelianism,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 6 (1965): 157–174.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Lines, David A. Aristotle’s Ethics in the Italian Renaissance (ca. 1300–1650): The Universities and the Problem of Moral Education. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2002.
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  907. Studies the teaching of Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics (the standard textbook for moral philosophy) in the universities of Renaissance Italy, with special attention given to how university commentaries on the Ethics reflect developments in educational theory and practice and in humanist Aristotelianism.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Lohr, C. H. “Renaissance Latin Aristotle Commentaries: Authors A–B.” Studies in the Renaissance 21 (1974): 228–289.
  910. DOI: 10.2307/2857156Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. The first part of a series of articles completed in Renaissance Quarterly 28 (1975): 689–741; 29 (1976): 714–745; 30 (1977): 681–741; 31 (1978): 532–603; 32 (1979): 529–580; 33 (1980): 623–734. A detailed survey of Renaissance commentaries on Aristotle written in Latin, the established language for scholarly work in the period.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Pagden, A. R. D. “The Diffusion of Aristotle’s Moral Philosophy in Spain, ca. 1400–ca. 1600.” Traditio 31 (1975): 287–313.
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  915. Between the 1460s and the end of the following century, Aristotle’s moral writings were widely diffused in both popular and learned circles, exercising a significant influence on Spanish intellectual life.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Rice, Eugene F., Jr. “Humanist Aristotelianism in France: Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples and His Circle.” In Humanism in France at the End of the Middle Ages and in the Early Renaissance. Edited by A. H. T. Levi, 132–149. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1970.
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  919. Shows how the humanist Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples, through his translations, commentaries, introductions, paraphrases, and dialogues, won the reputation for having recovered both the precise meaning of Aristotle’s text and its elegant style.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Schmitt, Charles B. Aristotle and the Renaissance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983a.
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  923. The standard overview of the subject, based on extensive research with manuscripts and early printed editions.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Schmitt, Charles B. John Case and Aristotelianism in Renaissance England. Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1983b.
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  927. An eloquent argument that the mainstream of the classical tradition in the Renaissance was Aristotelian, and that individuals like Case show how that tradition contained many strands, developed internally, and was open to new ideas in such a way that Aristotelians made their full contribution to innovative thought in the Renaissance.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Greek Dramatists
  930.  
  931. Pertusi 1960 and Pertusi 1966 trace the revival of Euripides in Italy through manuscript diffusion, while Di Maria 2005 offers a more general study of the reception of the Greek dramatists in Italy, Mueller 1980 discusses humanist responses to tragedy, and Purkiss 2000 extends the inquiry to England. Gallo 1973 and Schrade 1960 focus on one well-publicized event, the performance of Giustiniani’s translation of Oedipus the King at the inauguration of the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza in 1585.
  932.  
  933. Di Maria, Salvatore. “Italian Reception of Greek Tragedy,” In A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Edited by Justina Gregory, 428–443. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
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  935. Shows how Greek tragedy was recovered at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, mainly through the efforts of Italian scholars, and adapted into a mirror of Renaissance culture.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Gallo, Alberto, ed. La prima rappresentazione al Teatro Olimpico: Con i progetti e le relazione dei contemporanei. Milan: Edizioni Il Polifilo, 1973.
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  939. An edition of documents relevant to the revival of Greek tragedy at Palladio’s Teatro Olimpico, with an introduction explaining the relevance of this event for the classical tradition in Europe.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Mueller, Martin. Children of Oedipus, and Other Essays on the Imitation of Greek Tragedy, 1550–1800. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
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  943. Contains several sections of interest, including an overview of humanist receptions of Greek tragedy (pp. 3–17), a study of Garnier’s Antigone (pp. 17–32), and an analysis of Buchanan’s Jephtha (pp. 156–172), a biblical play that is in fact a version of Iphigenia in Aulis.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Pertusi, Agostino. “La scoperta di Euripide nel primo Umanesimo.” Italia Medioevale e Umanistica 3 (1960): 101–152.
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  947. A meticulously documented study of the manuscripts through which Euripides came to be known again in early Renaissance Italy, focused on the holdings of the Laurentian library in Florence.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Pertusi, Agostino. “Il ritorno alle fonti del teatro greco classico: Euripide nell’Umanesimo e nel Rinascimento.” In Venezia e l’Oriente fra tardo Medioevo e Rinascimento. Edited by A. Pertusi, 205–224. Florence: Sansoni, 1966.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. Acknowledges that Italian tragic drama had its initial roots in the Roman theater but shows that during the 16th century, Latin sources were replaced by Greek ones, especially Euripides.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Purkiss, Diane. “Medea in the English Renaissance.” In Medea in Performance, 1500–2000. Edited by Edith Hall, Fiona Macintosh, and Oliver Taplin, 32–48. Oxford: Legenda, 2000.
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  955. An interesting examination of the reception of Medea, surveying Medea figures (such as Shakespeare’s Desdemona) and suggesting the difficulty in separating Euripides’ Medea from Ovid’s and Seneca’s.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Schrade, Leo. La Représentation d’Edipo Tiranno au Teatro Olimpico (Vicence 1585). Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1960.
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  959. An edition of Orsatto Giustiniani’s translation of Oedipus the King, which was given a famous performance at the inauguration of the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza in 1585, with a useful introduction that places this performance in the context of the reception of Greek tragedy in Renaissance Italy.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition
  962.  
  963. Jones 1989 and Wilson 2008 offer general overviews, with Harrison 1934, Kargon 1966, and Mayo 1934 presenting more detailed information on Renaissance England. See also Lucretius.
  964.  
  965. Harrison, Charles Trawick. “The Ancient Atomists and English Literature of the Seventeenth Century.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 45 (1934): 1–79.
  966. DOI: 10.2307/310631Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  967. An exhaustive study of Epicurus and his followers in late Renaissance England, generally omitting drama.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition. London and New York: Routledge, 1989.
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  971. A general survey of the nachleben (afterlife) of Epicurus that devotes significant attention to his place in Italian humanism, in the work of Pierre Gassendi, and in English Renaissance culture.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Kargon, Robert Hugh. Atomism in England from Hariot to Newton. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
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  975. A study of the reception of the atomic theories of Epicurus and Lucretius in late 16th-century and 17th-century England, with a focus on the Northumberland and Newcastle scientific groups and on Hariot, Bacon, Boyle, and Newton.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Mayo, Thomas Franklin. Epicurus in England (1650–1725). Dallas, TX: Southwest, 1934.
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  979. An older but still valuable study, documenting the influence of Epicurus on the thought of Thomas Hobbes, much poetry at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries, and much of the popular comedy of the Restoration.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  983. Examines the role played by the rediscovery of the writings of the ancient atomists, Epicurus and Lucretius, in the articulation of the major philosophical systems of the 17th century, and, more broadly, their influence on the evolution of natural science and moral and political philosophy at that time.
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Homer
  986.  
  987. Homer was regularly praised in the Renaissance but proved difficult to understand fully and appreciate, as Grafton 1997 and Sowerby 1995 explain. Grafton 1992 shows how Renaissance readers relied on late antique interpretive material to make sense of the text, and Miola 1996 gives a concrete example of how one encounter with Homer led to some un-Homeric results. Pontani 2007 offers a good overview of Homer’s Renaissance reception, with Bleicher 1972 focusing on Germany and Ford 2007 on France.
  988.  
  989. Bleicher, Thomas. Homer in der deutschen Literatur (1450–1740) zur Rezeption der Antike und zur Poetologie der Neuzeit. Stuttgart, Germany: Metzler, 1972.
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  991. Returns to the sources to recover how Homer was understood and valued in Germany before Goethe, with special attention to Homer’s place in the works of the “great humanists”: Erasmus, Vadian, Melanchthon, and Camerarius.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Ford, Philip. De Troie à Ithaque: Réception des épopées homériques à la Renaissance. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 2007.
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  995. Shows that Homer played a larger role than might have been expected in the culture of the French Renaissance, attracting inter alios the attention of the two greatest Hellenists of the day, Budé and Dorat. Also contains an accurate list of early printed editions of Homer through the year 1600.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Grafton, Anthony. “Renaissance Readers of Homer’s Ancient Readers.” In Homer’s Ancient Readers: The Hermeneutics of Greek Epic’s Earliest Exegetes. Edited by Robert Lamberton and John J. Kearney, 149–172. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
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  999. Examines how Homer’s Renaissance readers actually encountered the text, with an eye on the interpretive material of Porphyry and pseudo-Plutarch, which shaped their responses as much as their direct encounter with the text.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Grafton, Anthony. “How Guillaume Budé Read His Homer.” In Commerce with the Classics: Ancient Books and Renaissance Readers. By Anthony Grafton, 135–183. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997.
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  1003. Examines the extensive efforts of a major French humanist to come to terms with Homer’s text and with the interpretive tradition that accompanied it, often philologically, and sometimes personally.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Miola, Robert S. “On Death and Dying in Chapman’s Iliad: Translation as Forgery.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 3 (1996): 48–64.
  1006. DOI: 10.1007/BF02676903Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. Studies a key area of dissonance between Homer’s poem and Chapman’s influential translation: Homer’s depictions of death are graphic, formulaic, and sometimes subtly erotic, with a focus on mortality; Chapman’s privatizes and moralizes these moments, inserting them into a rational, Stoicized, and Christianized universe.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Pontani, Filippomaria. “From Budé to Zenodotus: Homeric Readings in the European Renaissance.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 14 (2007): 375–430.
  1010. DOI: 10.1007/s12138-008-0013-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1011. Assesses similarities and differences in the Homeric studies of several outstanding Italian, Spanish, German, and French humanists at the turn of the 16th century, paying special attention to Guillaume Budé.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Sowerby, Robin. “Early Humanist Failure with Homer.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 4 (1995): 37–63, 165–194.
  1014. DOI: 10.1007/BF02700220Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. Argues that the response to Homer in the early Renaissance was complicated, often apparently enthusiastic but actually tentative and half-hearted at best, and sometimes downright hostile, with Homer being regularly compared to Virgil and found wanting.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Lucian
  1018.  
  1019. Lucian is a good example of a classical author who was more popular in the Renaissance than he is now. Marsh 1998 and Robinson 1979 present the big picture, while Lauvergnat-Gagnière 1988 focuses on France, Vives Coll 1959 on Spain, Panizza 2007 on Italy, and Zappala 1990 on the latter two countries. See also Jonson.
  1020.  
  1021. Lauvergnat-Gagnière, Christiane. Lucien de Samosate et le lucianisme en France au XVIe siècle: Athéisme e polémique. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1988.
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  1023. A detailed study of the reception of Lucian in Renaissance France, with a focus on the role he played in the religious controversies of the 16th century and on how he acquired a reputation for being a dangerous freethinker.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Marsh, David. Lucian and the Latins: Humor and Humanism in the Early Renaissance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
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  1027. Describes how Renaissance authors rediscovered the comic writings of Lucian, beginning with a survey of Latin translations and imitations, then tracing how Lucianic themes and structures made an essential contribution to European literature, including to well-known authors such as More and Rabelais.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Panizza, Letizia. “Vernacular Lucian in Renaissance Italy: Translations and Transformations.” In Lucian of Samosata Vivus et Redivivus. Edited by Christopher Ligota and Letizia Panizza, 71–114. London: Warburg Institute, 2007.
  1030. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. Traces the changing faces of Lucian in Italian vernacular literature of the Renaissance, from moralist to reformer to the champion of political liberty.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Robinson, Christopher. Lucian and His Influence in Europe. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979.
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  1035. A lively survey of Lucian’s influence, heavily grounded in Renaissance writers, noting that the most common approach was to view Lucian as a moralist but to adapt various entertaining features from his work to new literary ends.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Vives Coll, Antonio. Luciano de Samosata en España, 1500–1700. Valladolid, Spain: Sever-Cuesta, 1959.
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  1039. Briefly analyzes the major Spanish translations of Lucian in the Renaissance, followed by brief sections on Lucian’s influence on major Spanish authors of the period.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Zappala, Michael O. Lucian of Samosata in the Two Hesperias: An Essay in Literary and Cultural Translation. Potomac, MD: Scripta Humanistica, 1990.
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  1043. A detailed study of Lucian’s influence in Renaissance Italy and Spain, concentrating on the ways in which the original text was fragmented and reinterpreted to converge with the culture of its later readers.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Greek Lyric Poets
  1046.  
  1047. Much of the basic work here (Hutton 1935, Hutton 1946, and Schmitz 1993) is positivistic, foregrounding factual information on imitative passages over interpretation. O’Brien 1995 adds information on translation, while Revard 2001 shows how Renaissance writers transformed a classical genre into one that addressed issues of their own day.
  1048.  
  1049. Hutton, James. The Greek Anthology in Italy to the Year 1800. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1935.
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  1051. A parallel volume to Hutton 1946, but focused on Italy.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Hutton, James. The Greek Anthology in France and in the Latin Writers of the Netherlands to the Year 1800. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1946.
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  1055. A monument of positivist scholarship, tracing the fortunes of the Greek epigrams in French writers and in writers of the Netherlands who wrote in Latin, cross-referenced so that study can begin either with the original poems or their postclassical readers.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. O’Brien, John. Anacreon Redivivus: A Study of Anacreontic Tradition in Mid-Sixteenth-Century France. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995.
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  1059. Examines Neo-Latin and vernacular translations of the Anacreontea in the French Renaissance, dealing with the context and theory of Renaissance translation, then concentrating on the major Renaissance authors who found the Anacreontea attractive: Pierre de Ronsard and Remy Belleau, Henri Estienne, and Elie Andre.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Revard, Stella P. Pindar and the Renaissance Hymn-Ode, 1450–1700. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2001.
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  1063. A learned study of how Renaissance poets adapted Pindar’s athletic victory odes to other occasions, finding his work congenial to later theories of the poet-priest while struggling with the difficulties his poetry presented.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Schmitz, Thomas. Pindar in der französischen Renaissance: Studien zu seiner Rezeption in Philologie, Dichtungstheorie und Dichtung. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1993.
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  1067. Shows that knowledge of and appreciation for Pindar in the French Renaissance was both broad and deep. Contains a valuable appendix of editions, translations, and commentaries up to 1630.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Sappho
  1070.  
  1071. With the increased interest in female same-sex eroticism, Sappho has come to serve as a springboard for a discussion of this topic in the early modern period. DeJean 1989, the most influential extensive survey, has been followed by a series of more specialized studies, with Andreadis 1996, Andreadis 2001, Harvey 1996, and Mueller 1993 filling out the story for England, and Rigolot 1983 giving a key case study for France. See also Race, Gender, and Sexuality.
  1072.  
  1073. Andreadis, Harriette. “Sappho in Early Modern England: A Study in Sexual Reputation.” In Re-Reading Sappho: Reception and Transmission. Edited by Ellen Greene, 105–121. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
  1074. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. Argues that Sappho was represented in early modern England as a suicidal abandoned woman, as the first example of female poetic excellence, and as an early exemplar of “unnatural” sexuality, and that these representations were well known to those able to read Latin.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Andreadis, Harriette. Sappho in Early Modern England: Female Same-Sex Literary Erotics, 1550–1714. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
  1078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. A study of Sappho’s influence on the development and articulation of female same-sex erotic relations in early modern England.
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. DeJean, Joan. Fictions of Sappho, 1546–1937. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
  1082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083. Focusing largely, though not exclusively, on the French tradition, where the Sapphic presence is especially pervasive, DeJean traces recreations of Sappho through translation and fiction from the mid-16th century to the period just prior to World War II, showing how these renderings reflect the fantasies and anxieties of each writer as well as the mentalité of his or her day.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Harvey, Elizabeth D. “Ventriloquizing Sappho, or the Lesbian Muse.” In Re-Reading Sappho: Reception and Transmission. Edited by Ellen Greene, 79–104. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
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  1087. Traces the reception of Sappho through Ovid, Heroides 15, into Donne’s “Sappho to Philaenis,” with a focus on the male author’s appropriation of the feminine voice and its implications for the silencing of women. Previously published in slightly different form in the author’s Ventriloquized Voices: Feminist Theory and English Renaissance Texts (London: Routledge, 1992), 116–139.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Mueller, Janel. “Troping Utopia: Donne’s Brief for Lesbianism.” In Sexuality and Gender in Early Modern Europe: Institutions, Texts, Images. Edited by James Grantham Turner, 182–207. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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  1091. Argues that Donne’s Sappho gradually reveals herself “as an ardent, active lesbian in full experiential and emotional career,” decisively rejecting Phaon in favor of Philaenis.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Rigolot, François. “Louise Labé et la rédecouverte de Sappho.” Nouvelle Revue du XVIe siècle 1 (1983): 19–31.
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  1095. A careful study of the Œuvres of Labé, showing that the label “La Sappho de la Renaissance française” is not an empty honorific but an accurate portrayal of the relationship between the two poets.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Plato and Neoplatonism
  1098.  
  1099. The classic studies of Kristeller 1979 and Robb 1935 remain valuable, but the key work on Renaissance Platonism is Hankins 1990. Allen 1984 discusses Renaissance Italy’s most famous Platonic scholar, while Cassirer 1953 and Walker 1972 focus on England, the former discussing Platonism as a coherent philosophical movement, and the latter stressing Plato’s interaction with religious thought.
  1100.  
  1101. Allen, Michael J. B. The Platonism of Marsilio Ficino: A Study of His Phaedrus Commentary, Its Sources and Genesis. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
  1102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1103. A study of Ficino’s Phaedrus commentary, starting with this text but broadening out to more general issues of Ficino’s Platonic exegesis and the relationship of Renaissance Neoplatonism to its Platonic sources.
  1104. Find this resource:
  1105. Cassirer, Ernst. The Platonic Renaissance in England. Translated by James P. Pettegrove. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1953.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. A classic study, demonstrating that the Platonism that flourished in Cambridge represents a coherent philosophical movement with ties to antiquity and to Renaissance philosophy in Italy and England. Originally published in German in 1932.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Hankins, James. Plato in the Italian Renaissance. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: E. J. Brill, 1990.
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111. A magisterial study of the ways in which Plato was read in Italy in the 15th century, with a focus on humanism in Florence, Milan, and Rome. Reprinted 1991.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Kristeller, Paul O. “Renaissance Platonism.” In Renaissance Thought and Its Sources. By Paul Oskar Kristeller, 50–65. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
  1114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1115. A valuable introduction to the different aspects of Plato’s thought emphasized at different times and the ways in which those aspects interacted with other areas of Renaissance thought.
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. Robb, Nesca A. Neoplatonism of the Italian Renaissance. London: Allen and Unwin, 1935.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. The classic study of Florentine Neoplatonism and its influence on art and literature from the age of Lorenzo de’ Medici to the beginnings of the Counter-Reformation.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Walker, D. P. The Ancient Theology: Studies in Christian Platonism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972.
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  1123. An interesting study of the texts from which Plato was believed to have taken the religious truths found in his writings and of the efforts during the Renaissance to integrate Platonism and Neoplatonism into Christianity.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Plutarch
  1126.  
  1127. As the studies in this section show, Plutarch appealed to the Renaissance as both historian and moralist. The most stimulating study of his reception in the Renaissance is Pade 2007, with Bergua Cavero 1995 and Pérez Jiménez 1990 focusing on Spain, DiStefano 1965 on France, and Shackford 1977 on England.
  1128.  
  1129. Bergua Cavero, Jorge. Estudios sobre la tradición de Plutarco en España (siglos XIII–XVII). Zaragoza, Spain: Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad, Universidad de Zaragoza, 1995.
  1130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1131. Not a comprehensive overview, but several case studies on the reception of Plutarch in Spain, including misattributions, translations, and imitations.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. DiStefano, Giuseppe. “La Découverte de Plutarque en France au debut du XVème siècle.” Romania 86 (1965): 463–519.
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135. Locates the recovery of Plutarch in France to well before Jacques Amyot, focusing on translations into Latin and French, especially the translation of De remediis irae of Nicolas de Gonesse.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Pade, Marianne. The Reception of Plutarch’s Lives in Fifteenth-Century Italy. 2 vols. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen, 2007.
  1138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. Discusses the many Latin translations of the Lives produced during the 15th century, examines their diffusion in manuscripts and printed books, and shows how their reception reflects the political ideologies of the environments in which they were produced or read.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Pérez Jiménez, Aurelio. “Plutarco y el Humanismo Español del Renacimento.” In Estudios sobre Plutarco: Obra y tradición; Actas del I Symposion Español sobra Plutarco, Fuengirola. Edited by Aurelio Pérez Jiménez and Gonzalo Del Cerro Calderon, 229–247. Málaga, Spain: Vicerrectorado de Extensión Universitaria y Area de Filología Griega de la Universidad de Málaga, 1990.
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. A survey of Plutarch’s role in the Spanish Renaissance, with a special eye on translations but extending to observations on Plutarch’s appearance in histories of the Spanish explorations. Reprinted from a 1988 edition.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Shackford, Martha Hale. Plutarch in Renaissance England, with Special Reference to Shakespeare. Norwood, PA: Norwood, 1977.
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  1147. An overview of the influence of the most widely read Greek author in Renaissance England next to Plato, using his popularity in the earlier Renaissance to help explain his appeal to Shakespeare. Reprint of the 1929 first edition.
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Greek Rhetoricians
  1150.  
  1151. The studies in this section stress the way in which classical authors could be appropriated for distinctly postclassical concerns. Blanshard and Sowerby 2005 shows how translation can serve as a political intervention, Gualdo Rosa 1984 traces the roots of Renaissance education back to Isocrates, and Patterson 1970 demonstrates the surprising role that Hermogenes’ stylistic prescriptions played in the creation of Renaissance poetry. See also Rhetoric.
  1152.  
  1153. Blanshard, Alastair J. L., and Tracey A. Sowerby. “Thomas Wilson’s Demosthenes and the Politics of Tudor Translation.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 12 (2005): 46–80.
  1154. DOI: 10.1007/s12138-005-0010-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1155. Argues that Wilson’s translations of Demosthenes’ Olynthiacs and Philippics advocated military intervention in the Netherlands against Spain, as filtered through paratextual material, thereby politicizing translation from the classics in English intellectual history.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Gualdo Rosa, Lucia. La fede nella “paideia”: Aspetti della fortuna europea di Isocrate nei secoli XV e XVI. Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 1984.
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  1159. A richly documented examination of Isocrates’ role in Renaissance culture, from an optimistic appropriation to a banal diffusion in Italy, then through Erasmus into the rest of Europe.
  1160. Find this resource:
  1161. Patterson, Annabel M. Hermogenes and the Renaissance: Seven Ideas of Style. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.
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  1163. Establishes the widespread diffusion of Hermogenes’ Concerning Ideas in Renaissance Europe and then shows how writers in a wide range of genres used what they found there to enhance their creative work.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Other Greek Writers
  1166.  
  1167. Woodward 1943 and Pade 1999 provide a general overview of the reception of the Greek historians in the Renaissance, with Momigliano 1974 focusing on Polybius. Other Greek authors also receive some attention: Dooley 1999 discusses Ptolemy; Heninger 1974, Pythagoras; Nutton 1989, Hippocrates; Rosenmeyer 1969, Theocritus; Wolff 1912, the Greek romances; and Yates 1964, the Hermetic writings.
  1168.  
  1169. Dooley, Brendan. “The Ptolemaic Astrological Tradition in the Seventeenth Century: An Example from Rome.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 5 (1999): 528–548.
  1170. DOI: 10.1007/BF02701800Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171. Examines the trial of Orazio Morandi, who tried to prove the validity of Ptolemaic astrology through empirical study. Valuable both methodologically, as a reminder that the classical tradition reached into criminal records, and for its findings on the Ptolemaic astrological tradition in the Renaissance.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Heninger, S. K., Jr. Touches of Sweet Harmony: Pythagorean Cosmology and Renaissance Poetics. San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1974.
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  1175. A wide-ranging study of the importance in the Renaissance of Pythagoras’s belief in a divinely ordered universe, tracing the influence of this doctrine in such diverse areas as the occult sciences and moral philosophy and concluding with an exploration of the kind of poetry it helped generate.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Momigliano, Arnaldo. “Polybius’ Reappearance in Western Europe.” In Polybe: Neuf exposés suivis de discussions. Edited by F. W. Walbank and Paul Péde, 347–372. Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt, 1974.
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  1179. Chronicles how Polybius was rediscovered in Florence, first by Bruni as an historian, then by Machiavelli as a political thinker, and then by Politian as an object of philological study, with his reputation as a military and diplomatic historian soaring in the 16th century.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Nutton, Vivian. “Hippocrates in the Renaissance.” In Die hippokratischen Epidemien: Théorie, Praxis, Tradition; Verhandlung des Ve Colloque Hippocratique, Berlin 10–15 September 1984. Edited by Gerhard Baader and Rolf Winau, 420–439. Stuttgart, Germany: F. Steiner, 1989.
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  1183. A useful overview of the reception of Hippocrates in the 16th century, noting that Hippocrates gained favor at the expense of Galen as the century wore on.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Pade, Marianne. “Zur Rezeption der griechischen Historiker im italienischen Humanismus des fünfzehnten Jahrhunderts.” Neulateinisches Jahrbuch 1 (1999): 151–169.
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  1187. A brief chronological overview of the reception of the Greek historians in Italian humanism, followed by more specific comments on Plutarch as the first Greek historian to have been read by the humanists, and on Herodotus and Thucydides, acknowledged as the principal historical writers in antiquity and the Renaissance.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Rosenmeyer, Thomas G. The Green Cabinet: Theocritus and the European Pastoral Lyric. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191. An often-cited study of Theocritus’s place at the beginning of the pastoral poetry tradition, which flowered throughout Europe in the Renaissance.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. Wolff, Samuel Lee. The Greek Romances in Elizabethan Prose Fiction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1912.
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  1195. An older study of the influence of Greek romances on the major prose writers of the English Renaissance: Lyly, Sidney, Greene, Nash, and Lodge. Reprinted 1961.
  1196. Find this resource:
  1197. Woodward, A. M. “Greek History at the Renaissance.” Journal of Hellenic Studies 63 (1943): 1–14.
  1198. DOI: 10.2307/626999Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1199. Concludes that Italy laid the foundations for the study of the Greek historians, but that real results did not come until it had crossed the Alps and become a subject for systematic study and untiring research.
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201. Yates, Frances. Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
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  1203. A classic study of the influence of the Hermetic writings, written between 100 and 300 CE and containing popular Greek philosophy, astrological observations, and principles from the occult sciences. Yates traces the reception of the Hermetic writings in the early Renaissance and then analyzes their importance to Giordano Bruno in detail.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Latin Authors
  1206.  
  1207. Because Latin was more widely understood than Greek, the influence of Latin authors was wider and deeper than that of Greek ones in the Renaissance. As was the case with Greek, some authors like Lucan and Quintilian were more popular in the Renaissance than they are now.
  1208.  
  1209. Catullus
  1210.  
  1211. Gaisser 1993 is the standard introduction, with Braden 1979 and McPeek 1972 filling out the discussion for England and Morrison 1963 for France, and Grafton 1975 focusing further on one key edition, that of Joseph Scaliger.
  1212.  
  1213. Braden, Gordon. “Vivamus mea Lesbia in the English Renaissance.” English Literary Renaissance 9 (1979): 199–224.
  1214. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6757.1979.tb01467.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1215. A fascinating study of how a brief passage from Catullus is broken apart even further under pressure from the Renaissance propensity to isolate commonplaces, with each of the three smaller units giving rise to its own poetic tradition.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Gaisser, Julia Haig. Catullus and His Renaissance Readers. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993.
  1218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1219. Follows the reception and interpretation of Catullus from the first edition (1472) through the 16th century, in textual emendation, commentary, teaching, imitation, and parody, revealing a Renaissance Catullus who was part sensualist, part patron of poetic sodalities.
  1220. Find this resource:
  1221. Grafton, Anthony T. “Joseph Scaliger’s Edition of Catullus (1577) and the Traditions of Textual Criticism in the Renaissance.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 38 (1975): 155–181.
  1222. DOI: 10.2307/750952Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223. A careful study of Scaliger’s Catullan scholarship, placed within the practices of textual criticism of his day.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. McPeek, James A. S. Catullus in Strange and Distant Britain. New York: Russell and Russell, 1972.
  1226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1227. A survey of Catullus’s influence on poetry of the English Renaissance, more focused on collecting parallels than interpretation but valuable as a starting place for further work. Originally published 1939.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Morrison, Mary. “Catullus and the Poetry of the Renaissance in France.” Bibiliotheque d’Humanisme et Renaissance 25 (1963): 25–56.
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  1231. An unusually thoughtful article, showing that the French Renaissance poets indeed appreciated Catullus, but often not for the reasons that we do.
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233. Cicero
  1234.  
  1235. Most students in the Renaissance read some Cicero at school, and he was generally considered a model of good prose style, as Zielinski 1912 indicates. There was a lively debate in this period about whether Cicero should be the exclusive model of stylistic imitation or one of several Latin authors so treated (see Ramus 1992, Sabbadini 1885, Scott 1991). Marsh 1980 and Ward 1983 shows how the Renaissance expanded the corpus, leading to a broader knowledge of Cicero and to a revival of the Ciceronian dialogue as a literary form. See also Green 1975 (cited under Montaigne).
  1236.  
  1237. Marsh, David. The Quattrocento Dialogue: Classical Tradition and Humanist Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
  1238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1239. Traces the revival of the Ciceronian dialogue in the Italian Renaissance as the form in which moral and ideological questions could be examined and debated.
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241. Ramus, Peter. Peter Ramus’s Attack on Cicero: Text and Translation of Ramus’s Brutinae Quaestiones. Edited by James J Murphy. Translated by Carole Newlands. Davis, CA: Hermagoras, 1992.
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  1243. An edition and English translation, with introduction, of a famous attack on the rhetorical theories of Cicero, which are said to be confusing, to have continued the same errors that Ramus ascribes to Aristotle, and to be filled with digression, repetition, and self-display.
  1244. Find this resource:
  1245. Sabbadini, Remigio. Storia del ciceronianismo e di altre questioni letterarie nell’età della rinascenza. Turin, Italy: E. Loescher, 1885.
  1246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1247. A classic study of how Renaissance scholars believed Cicero should be imitated, accompanied by several other valuable essays (such as on poetic allegory).
  1248. Find this resource:
  1249. Scott, Izora. Controversies over the Imitation of Cicero in the Renaissance. Davis, CA: Hermagoras, 1991.
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  1251. A second classic study on the Renaissance debate over imitating Cicero, including some of the primary documents, for those who need the material in English translation. Reprintof the 1910 first edition.
  1252. Find this resource:
  1253. Ward, John O. “Renaissance Commentators on Ciceronian Rhetoric.” In Renaissance Eloquence: Studies in the Theory and Practice of Renaissance Rhetoric. Edited by James J. Murphy, 126–173. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255. Shows that the Ad Herennium and the De inventione, on which medieval knowledge of Cicero rested, were gradually supplemented by commentaries on a wider variety of Ciceronian texts that could be put to more flexible uses.
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257. Zieliński, Tadeusz. Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte. 3d ed. Leipzig and Berlin: Teubner, 1912.
  1258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1259. The classic history of Cicero’s influence in the modern world, still valuable, with seventy pages on the Renaissance.
  1260. Find this resource:
  1261. Horace
  1262.  
  1263. As Edden 1973, Martindale and Hopkins 1993, Martindale 1977, and Røstvig 1954–1958 show, Horace was popular among the English lyric poets, and Schäfer 1976 confirms that this was true in Germany as well. For the influence of Horatian literary criticism in the Renaissance, see Poetry and Literary Criticism.
  1264.  
  1265. Edden, Valerie. “The Best of Lyric Poets.” In Horace. Edited by C. D. N. Costa, 135–159. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.
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  1267. Surveys the changes in Horace’s reputation in England, from satirist to lyric poet, from the beginning of the Renaissance through the 17th century.
  1268. Find this resource:
  1269. Martindale, Charles, and David Hopkins, eds. Horace Made New: Horatian Influences on British Writing from the Renaissance to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  1270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1271. Contains essays on Horace’s influence on Wyatt, Jonson, Marvell, Cowley, and Dryden, showing that there have been many Horaces through the ages that, directly or indirectly, constitute our Horace today.
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273. Martindale, Johanna. “The Response to Horace in the Seventeenth Century.” Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 1977.
  1274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1275. A detailed study of Horatian reception in the 17th century, often cited but (curiously) never published.
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277. Røstvig, Maren-Sofie. The Happy Man: Studies in the Metamorphoses of a Classical Ideal, 1600–1700. 2 vols. Oslo, Norway: Akademisk Forlag, 1954–1958.
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279. Traces the popularity of the classical motif of the “happy man,” especially as derived from Horace’s beatus ille themes, in 17th-century English poetry.
  1280. Find this resource:
  1281. Schäfer, Eckart. Deutscher Horaz: Conrad Celtis, Georg Fabricius, Paul Melissus, Jacob Balde: D. Nachwirkung d. Horaz in d. neulatein. Dichtung Deutschlands. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1976.
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  1283. A study of the many-sided reception of Horace in German Renaissance literature written in Latin, showing that the often-discussed influence of Horace in the 18th century has important earlier roots.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Livy
  1286.  
  1287. Livy has provoked several unusually stimulating, often-cited essays, such as Billanovich 1951, a classic study of Petrarch’s Livian scholarship. Jardine and Grafton 1990 shows how Livy moved from the study to everyday life in Renaissance England, while Spini 1948 shows that Livy affected political conflict in Italy as well. Ullman 1973 shows that the classical tradition is important even when the books being sought are never found. See also Machiavelli.
  1288.  
  1289. Billanovich, G. “Petrarch and the Textual Tradition of Livy.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 14 (1951): 137–208.
  1290. DOI: 10.2307/750338Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. A classic study showing that Livy was one of a handful of classical authors to whom Petrarch devoted his early attentions, refining his scholarly methodology and building a base for his poetic composition.
  1292. Find this resource:
  1293. Jardine, Lisa, and Anthony Grafton. “‘Studied for Action’: How Gabriel Harvey Read His Livy.” Past and Present 129 (1990): 30–78.
  1294. DOI: 10.1093/past/129.1.30Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1295. An often-cited study arguing that Harvey read Livy carefully, not as an abstract intellectual exercise, but as preparation for the active participation in the intellectual and political life of his day.
  1296. Find this resource:
  1297. Spini, Giorgio. “I trattatisti dell’arte storica nella Controriforma italiana.” In Contributi alla storia del Concilio di Trento e della Controriforma. By Eugenio Garin, et al., 109–136. Florence: Vallecchi, 1948.
  1298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299. Argues that the rivalry between pro-Livian and pro-Tacitan historians played an important role in the political conflicts of the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301. Ullman, B. L. “The Post-Mortem Adventures of Livy.” In Studies in the Italian Renaissance. 2d ed. By B. L. Ullman, 53–77. Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1973.
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  1303. A fascinating and highly entertaining account of the search for the lost books of Livy’s history.
  1304. Find this resource:
  1305. Lucan
  1306.  
  1307. Although seldom read today, Lucan was popular in the Renaissance, as Dörrie 1976 and Quint 1993 show. Chambers 1945 focuses on France and Schlayer 1927 on Spain, while Leidig 1975 shows how English readers struggled to deal with Lucan’s poetry as historical fiction, Blissett 1956 traces Lucan’s role in modeling the Elizabethan stage villain, and Cheney 2009 locates the stimulus for Marlowe’s republican ideology in Lucan.
  1308.  
  1309. Blissett, William. “Lucan’s Caesar and the Elizabethan Villain.” Studies in Philology 53 (1956): 553–575.
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  1311. A study of the Elizabethan villain who is modeled on Lucan’s Caesar, the restless, ruthless, larger-than-life character who is determined to have his way, sometimes still bearing the name of Caesar, other times renamed.
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313. Chambers, Frank McMinn. “Lucan and the Antiquitez de Rome.” Publications of the Modern Language Association 60 (1945): 937–948.
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  1315. Argues that Lucan was the prime mover for Du Bellay’s poem, which shares an interest in civil war that would have come logically from Lucan.
  1316. Find this resource:
  1317. Cheney, Patrick G. Marlowe’s Republican Authorship: Lucan, Liberty, and the Sublime. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
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  1319. Argues that Marlowe’s sustained interest in republican political theory derives from his interest in ancient Rome, particularly as filtered through Lucan.
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321. Dörrie, H. “Lucan in der Kritik des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts.” In Classical Influences in European Culture, A.D. 1500–1700: Proceedings of an International Conference Held at King’s College, Cambridge, April 1974. Edited by R. R. Bolgar, 163–169. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
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  1323. Considers Lucan’s reputation in the 16th and 17th centuries, with attention to speeches, political motivations, and his view of poetry.
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325. Leidig, Heinz-Dieter. Das Historiengedicht in der englischen Literaturtheorie: Die Rezeption von Lucans Pharsalia von der Renaissance biz zum Ausgang des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts. Bern, Switzerland: Herbert Lang, 1975.
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327. Surveys the efforts of English Renaissance and Augustan literary theorists to confront Lucan’s Pharsalia and similar poems as “history” and as “literature.”
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329. Quint, David. Epic and Empire: Politics and Generic Form from Virgil to Milton. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. Argues that the Pharsalia and poems written in imitation of it serve as epics of the defeated and defenders of republican liberty, in contrast to the Virgilian epics of conquest and empire that take the victors’ side.
  1332. Find this resource:
  1333. Schlayer, Clotilde. Spuren Lukans in der spanischen Dichtung. Heidelberg, Germany: P. Braus, 1927.
  1334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1335. A study of Lucan’s influence in Spain, where his work received the special status of a fellow countryman; not devoted exclusively to the Renaissance, but centered there.
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337. Lucretius
  1338.  
  1339. Little known in the Middle Ages, Lucretius’s poetry was widely disseminated in the Renaissance but was regarded with suspicion in many quarters as encouraging atheism. Hadzsits 1935 and the essays in Gillespie and Hardie 2007 offer a general overview, with Prosperi 2004 providing more information on Italy. Palmer 2009 traces the oscillation in interest between Lucretius as poet and as natural philosopher during the Renaissance. See also Screech 1998, cited under Montaigne.
  1340.  
  1341. Gillespie, Stuart, and Philip Hardie, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  1342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1343. Contains essays on Lucretius’s reception in the English, French, and Italian Renaissance, as well as his influence on the later development of science and moral/political philosophy.
  1344. Find this resource:
  1345. Hadzsits, George Depue. Lucretius and His Influence. New York: Longmans, Green, 1935.
  1346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1347. An older study whose survey of Lucretius in the Renaissance (pp. 248–283) and the 17th century (pp. 284–316) is still useful as a beginning point for research.
  1348. Find this resource:
  1349. Palmer, Ada. “Reading Lucretius in the Renaissance.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2009.
  1350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351. Traces the impact of Lucretian Epicureanism on the secularization of scientific thought in the Renaissance through the examination of marginalia and editorial front matter in manuscripts and editions of De Rerum Natura produced from its rediscovery in 1417 to 1600, demonstrating a gradual decline in humanist philological and poetic activities and growing interest in questions of natural philosophy as the 17th century approached.
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353. Prosperi, Valentina. Di soavi licor gli orli del vaso: la fortuna di Lucrezio dall’Umanesimo alla Controriforma. Turin, Italy: N. Aragno, 2004.
  1354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355. Explores the role of Lucretius in Italian Renaissance culture, focusing on his place in the debates on poetic autonomy and in his influence on the poetry and literary theory of Torquato Tasso.
  1356. Find this resource:
  1357. Martial
  1358.  
  1359. Martial was valued in the Renaissance for his wit, but he also became a prime stimulus for mannerism later in the period. Sullivan 1993 provides a general introduction, with several other essays tracing Martial’s influence in different countries: Hausmann 1976 in Italy, Mehnert 1970 in France, and Whipple 1970 in England.
  1360.  
  1361. Hausmann, Frank-Rutger. “Martial in Italien.” Studi medievali 17.1 (1976): 173–218.
  1362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1363. A study of the material basis of Martial’s reception in Italy from his rediscovery in the 14th century to his entrance into print in the 15th, including contributions by such well-known humanists as Domizio Calderini and Niccolò Perotti.
  1364. Find this resource:
  1365. Mehnert, Kurt-Henning. Sal romanus und esprit français: Studien z. Martialrezeption im Frankreich d. 16. U. 17. Jahrhunderts. Bonn, Germany: Romanisches Seminar, 1970.
  1366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1367. Traces the various trends in the reception of Martial in the French Renaissance, beginning with a focus on wit and ending with Martial as a representative of mannerist style.
  1368. Find this resource:
  1369. Sullivan, J. P., ed. Martial. New York and London: Garland, 1993.
  1370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1371. A general survey of Martial’s influence, with a significant narrative overview in the introduction (pp. 9–48) and criticism of Martial by Renaissance writers (pp. 77–95).
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373. Whipple, T. K. Martial and the English Epigram from Sir Thomas Wyatt to Ben Jonson. New York: Phaeton, 1970.
  1374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1375. A history of the relation between Martial and English epigrammatists from Sir Thomas Wyatt to Ben Jonson. Reprint of the 1925 first edition.
  1376. Find this resource:
  1377. Ovid
  1378.  
  1379. A popular poet in the Middle Ages, Ovid remained influential through the Renaissance as well. Wilkinson 1955 remains the classic introduction, with the essays in Stanivukovic 2001 and Keith and Rupp 2007 applying recent theory to show the extent of Ovid’s influence. Schevill 1913 focuses on Spain, Pearcy 1984 on England, Moss 1982 on France, Guthmüller 1981 on Italy, and Moog-Grünewald 1979 on both the latter two countries. See also works cited under Milton, Petrarch, and Shakespeare.
  1380.  
  1381. Guthmüller, Bodo. Ovidio Metamorphoseos vulgare: Formen und Funktionen der volkssprachlichen Wiedergabe klassischer Dicthtung in der italienischen Renaissance. Boppard am Rhein, Germany: Ahrald Boldt Verlag, 1981.
  1382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1383. A detailed study of translations of the Metamorphoses in Italy from the 14th to the 16th centuries, moving from Ovid’s role in the Trecento communes to his place in the later courts and publishing houses.
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385. Keith, Alison, and Stephen Rupp, eds. Metamorphosis: The Changing Face of Ovid in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2007.
  1386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1387. An unusually wide-ranging volume, with essays on Ovid’s role in the early modern understanding of alchemy and witchcraft, as well as the more predictable pieces on Petrarch, Scève, Cervantes, and Góngora.
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389. Moog-Grünewald, Maria. Metamorphosen der Metamorphosen: Rezeptionsarten d. ovid. Verwandlungsgeschichten in Italien u. Frankreich im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Heidelberg, Germany: Carl Winter, 1979.
  1390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1391. A reception study focusing on three authors: Giovanni Andrea dell’Anguillara, Louis Richer, and Isaac de Benserade, allowing discussion of key themes such as the nature of translation, parody of the classics, and Ovid’s role in emblem literature.
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393. Moss, Ann. Ovid in Renaissance France: A Survey of the Latin Editions of Ovid and Commentaries Printed in France before 1600. London: Warburg Institute, 1982.
  1394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1395. A study of how French Renaissance scholars dealt with the medieval commentaries they inherited, and of how their additions and substitutions help us understand changes in attitude toward pagan literature, before the interest in textual criticism changed the focus of Ovidian studies.
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397. Pearcy, Lee T. The Mediated Muse: English Translations of Ovid, 1560–1700. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1984.
  1398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1399. Surveys Renaissance English translations of Ovid, arguing that these translations cannot be understood without knowledge of the extraliterary ideas that guided them, and that Dryden effected a shift in the theory and practice of translations from a goal of fidelity to one of style.
  1400. Find this resource:
  1401. Schevill, Rudolph. Ovid and the Renascence in Spain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1913.
  1402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1403. Surveys Ovid’s fortune in Renaissance Spain, distinguishing between a more general influence, tied to the Ars amatoria, the Remedia amoris, and the Amores, and a more direct one, owing chiefly to the Metamorphoses and Heroides. Reprinted in 1971.
  1404. Find this resource:
  1405. Stanivukovic, Goran V., ed. Ovid and the Renaissance Body. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001.
  1406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1407. Examines Renaissance reworkings of Ovidian texts in order to analyze strategies for constructing early modern epistemologies and discourses of gender, sexuality, spectatorship, and print culture.
  1408. Find this resource:
  1409. Wilkinson, L. P. “The Renaissance—Sweet Witty Soul.” In Ovid Recalled. By L. P. Wilkinson, 399–438. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
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  1411. The classic overview, still useful as an orientation to the later works in this section.
  1412. Find this resource:
  1413. Petronius
  1414.  
  1415. Like Lucretius, Petronius never became a school text, in this case because of his challenge to Renaissance sexual mores, but the Satyricon attracted steady interest from learned, open-minded readers. De la Mare 1976 shows how manuscripts can provide information about the diffusion of a text, and Richardson 1993 chronicles the philological efforts to solve the problems raised by these manuscripts. Collignon 1905 traces Petronius’s influence in France, with Stuckey 1972 extending the inquiry to England.
  1416.  
  1417. Collignon, Albert. “Pétrone en France, de l’édition princeps (1482) à la publication du fragment de Trau (1664).” In Pétrone en France. By Albert Collignon, 21–52. Paris: A. Fontemoing, 1905.
  1418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1419. Written in the 19th-century positivist tradition, laying out a succession of editions and commenting briefly on imitations, but still a valuable source of basic information.
  1420. Find this resource:
  1421. De la Mare, Albinia C. “The Return of Petronius to Italy.” In Medieval Learning and Literature: Essays Presented to Richard William Hunt. Edited by J. J. G. Alexander and M. T. Gibson, 220–254. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
  1422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1423. A study of the 15th-century manuscripts of Petronius by one of the 20th century’s great paleographers, with an eye on what they can show about diffusion and textual history in the period immediately after Petronius was discovered by Poggio Bracciolini.
  1424. Find this resource:
  1425. Richardson, Wade. Reading and Variant in Petronius: Studies in the French Humanists and Their Manuscript Sources. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993.
  1426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1427. A study of the efforts of several important scholars of the French Renaissance to make sense of the mangled text of the Satyricon, from which much can be learned about scholarly method in general as well as Petronius in particular.
  1428. Find this resource:
  1429. Stuckey, Johanna H. “Petronius the ‘Ancient’: His Reputation and Influence in Seventeenth-Century England.” Rivista di Studi Classici 20 (1972): 145–153.
  1430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1431. Traces the reputation of Petronius in England during the 17th century, with his popularity peaking during the Restoration.
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433. Plautus and Terence
  1434.  
  1435. As Duckworth 1952 and Radcliff-Umstead 1969 show, Renaissance drama depended heavily on Plautus and Terence, while Herrick 1950 traces the influence of Terence and his commentators on discussions of dramatic theory. Gil Fernández 1984 offers a case study on Terence in the Spanish Renaissance. See also Miola 1992, cited under Shakespeare.
  1436.  
  1437. Duckworth, George E. “The Influence of Plautus and Terence upon English Comedy.” In The Nature of Roman Comedy: A Study in Popular Entertainment. By George E. Duckworth, 396–433. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952.
  1438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1439. Traces the revival of Roman comedy from Italy through Europe, focusing on England.
  1440. Find this resource:
  1441. Gil Fernández, Luis. “Terencio en España: del Medioevo a la Ilustración.” In Estudios de humanismo y tradición clásica. By Luis Gil Fernández, 95–126. Madrid: Editorial de la Universidad Complutense, 1984.
  1442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1443. An overview of Terence’s place in Spanish culture, concentrating on the direct knowledge of his plays that was disseminated in the 15th century and their canonization in the school curricula of the 16th.
  1444. Find this resource:
  1445. Herrick, Marvin T. Comic Theory in the Sixteenth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1950.
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447. Shows how Terence and the Terentian commentators furnished the framework for the discussion of comedy in the 16th century.
  1448. Find this resource:
  1449. Radcliff-Umstead, Douglas. The Birth of Modern Comedy in Renaissance Italy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
  1450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1451. Shows how Italian dramatists created a vital theater from the model set by the ancient Roman playwrights.
  1452. Find this resource:
  1453. Quintilian
  1454.  
  1455. As Classen 1994 and Harding 1961 show, the Institutio oratoria played a key role in Renaissance educational theory, but Johnson 1966 and Monfasani 1992 show that Quintilian’s ideas aroused opposition as well as support.
  1456.  
  1457. Classen, C. Joachim. “Quintilian and the Revival of Learning in Italy.” Humanistica Lovaniensia 43 (1994): 77–98.
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  1459. A careful study, with extensive bibliography, that shows that the Institutio oratoria did not recover the importance it had in antiquity until the middle of the 15th century but exercised influence before that in some unexpected ways, such as in connection with early humanist commentary on Cicero’s speeches.
  1460. Find this resource:
  1461. Harding, Harold F. “Quintilian’s Witnesses.” In Historical Studies of Rhetoric and Rhetoricians. Edited by Raymond F. Howes, 90–106. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1961.
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  1463. Surveys Quintilian’s influence in England from the Renaissance to the present, noting that his work was especially influential in the Renaissance and in the 18th century.
  1464. Find this resource:
  1465. Johnson, R. “Quintilian’s Place in European Education.” In For Service to Classical Studies: Essays in Honour of Francis Letters. Edited by Maurice Kelly, 79–101. Melbourne, Australia: F. W. Cheshire, 1966.
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  1467. “The history of European education since the Renaissance has been the story, first, of Quintilian’s domination and then of reaction against it.”
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469. Monfasani, John. “Episodes of Anti-Quintilianism in the Italian Renaissance: Quarrels on the Orator as a Vir Bonus and Rhetoric as the Scientia Bene Dicendi.” Rhetorica 10 (1992): 119–138.
  1470. DOI: 10.1525/rh.1992.10.2.119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1471. An interesting example of “negative reception,” in which Quintilian’s definitions of rhetoric and the orator stimulated opposition in Italy from the early Quattrocento through the end of the Renaissance, although Quintilian’s views prevailed in the end.
  1472. Find this resource:
  1473. Seneca
  1474.  
  1475. Seneca’s tragedies are often considered unreadable now but were very influential in the Renaissance, with Braden 1985, Charlton 1946, and Jacquot 1964 offering good overviews, and several other works narrowing the focus to specific countries: Fothergill-Payne 1988 focuses on Spain, Hunter 1974 on England, and Stachel 1907 on Germany and the Netherlands. Blüher 1969 is an often-cited survey of all of Seneca’s works in Spain, and Williamson 1951 focuses on Seneca as a stylist. See also works cited in the sections on Rhetoric, Montaigne, and Shakespeare.
  1476.  
  1477. Blüher, Karl Alfred. Seneca in Spanien: Untersuchungen z. Geschichte d. Seneca-Rezeption in Spanien vom 13.–17. Jahrhundert. Munich: Francke, 1969.
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  1479. A detailed study of Seneca’s reception in Spain, beginning in the Middle Ages, working through the 15th century, and ending with long sections on Quevedo and Gracián. Spanish translation with revisions published as Séneca en España, translated by Juan Conde (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1983).
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481. Braden, Gordon. Renaissance Tragedy and the Senecan Tradition: Anger’s Privilege. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
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  1483. Develops a more sympathetic appraisal of Seneca’s influence by showing that Renaissance tragedians responded to the exaggerated sense of self in his declamatory dramas and to his Stoic philosophy.
  1484. Find this resource:
  1485. Charlton, H. B. The Senecan Tradition in Renaissance Tragedy: A Re-issue of an Essay Published in 1921. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1946.
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  1487. An older but still useful study that draws attention to the differences between Senecan tragedy in Italy and France and shows why these differences are important for English Senecan tragedy. Reprinted in 1974.
  1488. Find this resource:
  1489. Fothergill-Payne, Louise. Seneca and Celestina. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
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  1491. Presents Seneca as the main source for Celestina, showing how the play arises from a 15th-century image of Seneca that is different from the prevailing one today.
  1492. Find this resource:
  1493. Hunter, G. K. “Seneca and English Tragedy.” In Seneca. Edited by C. D. N. Costa, 166–204. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974.
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  1495. A reception study that pays unusual attention to the complexities of this kind of work, noting alternative sources and the scholarly filters through which Seneca passed on his way to English tragedy.
  1496. Find this resource:
  1497. Jacquot, Jean, ed. Les Tragédies de Sénèque et le théâtre de la Renaissance. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1964.
  1498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1499. A wide-ranging collection of essays on the influence of Seneca on Renaissance theater in England, France, Germany, Italy, the Low Countries, and Spain.
  1500. Find this resource:
  1501. Stachel, Paul. Seneca und das deutsche Renaissance-drama. Berlin: Mayer and Müller, 1907.
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  1503. A condensed version of a doctoral dissertation, covering Seneca’s role in Neo-Latin drama, first in German school plays, then in Dutch literature, then back to the German drama of the 17th century.
  1504. Find this resource:
  1505. Williamson, George. The Senecan Amble: A Study in Prose from Bacon to Collier. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
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  1507. A study of Senecan style in the 17th century in its various manifestations and its relationship to other stylistic movements of the era.
  1508. Find this resource:
  1509. Tacitus
  1510.  
  1511. Like Seneca, Tacitus was admired both for what he wrote and how he wrote it, as Burke 1969 and Mellor 1995 show. Of the many books and articles on Tacitus’s influence on Renaissance political thought, one should begin with Schellhase 1976, and there is much good information in Etter 1966, Tierno 1947–1948, and Stackelberg 1960 as well. See also Toffanin 1921, cited under Machiavelli.
  1512.  
  1513. Burke, P. “Tacitism.” In Tacitus. Edited by T. A. Dorey, 149–171. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969.
  1514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1515. Discusses admiration for Tacitus’s style, historical study, morality, and politics from 1580 to 1680.
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517. Etter, Else-Lilly. Tacitus in der Geistesgeschichte des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts. Basel, Switzerland: Helbing and Lichtenhahn, 1966.
  1518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1519. A thoughtful analysis of Tacitus commentaries from 1580 to 1650, which attempts to organize this material between the poles of two Tacituses, one a Hapsburg monarchist, the other a French antimonarchist.
  1520. Find this resource:
  1521. Mellor, Ronald, ed. Tacitus: The Classical Heritage. New York: Garland, 1995.
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  1523. Provides extracts from thirty-six Renaissance authors who wrote about Tacitus, along with a lengthy introduction showing that Tacitus’s importance lay in his moral and political vision and in his distinctive style.
  1524. Find this resource:
  1525. Schellhase, Kenneth C. Tacitus in Renaissance Political Thought. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1976.
  1526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1527. A detailed analysis of the Renaissance appropriation of Tacitus, particularly on the continent, following his appeal to the early Italian humanists in their fight against despotism, then to tyrants looking for a guide to action and to Germans attracted by the favorable depiction of their early ancestors.
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529. Stackelberg, Jürgen von. Tacitus in der Romania: Studien zur literarischen Rezeption des Tacitus in Italien und Frankreich. Tübingen, Germany: Max Niemeyer 1960.
  1530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1531. More a handbook than a synthesis, but contains a good deal of useful information on the reception of Tacitus in France and Italy.
  1532. Find this resource:
  1533. Tierno Galván, D. Enrique. “El Tacitismo en las doctrinas políticas del siglo de oro español.” Anales de la Universidad de Murcia (1947/1948): 895–975.
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  1535. A survey of Tacitus in Golden Age Spain that was heavily influenced by Giuseppe Toffannin’s Machiavelli e il “Tacitismo” (Padua, Italy: A. Draghi, 1921).
  1536. Find this resource:
  1537. Virgil
  1538.  
  1539. Along with Cicero, Virgil was the classical author that almost every educated person in the Renaissance knew well. Fagiolo 1981 offers a wide-ranging survey of Virgilian influence, with Kallendorf 1993 containing a selection of important essays. Kallendorf 1989 outlines the dominant way of reading the Aeneid in the Renaissance, with Kallendorf 2007 setting forth the opposing model. Low 1985 offers a good introduction to Renaissance approaches to the Georgics, with Patterson 1987 doing something similar for the Eclogues. See also Petrarch.
  1540.  
  1541. Fagiolo, Marcello, ed. Virgilio nell’arte e nella cultura europea. Rome: De Luca Editore, 1981.
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  1543. The catalog from the bimillenary exhibition at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Rome, surveying Virgil’s influence in Europe country by country and then offering a discussion of Virgilian themes in the various artistic genres. Thorough and extensively illustrated, with a pronounced focus on the Renaissance.
  1544. Find this resource:
  1545. Kallendorf, Craig. In Praise of Aeneas: Virgil and Epideictic Rhetoric in the Early Italian Renaissance. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1989.
  1546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1547. A discussion of the dominant mode of reading Virgil in the Renaissance, as filtered through epideictic rhetoric, from Petrarch to Landino. Spanish translation: Elogio de Eneas: Virgilio y la retórica epideíctica en el temprano renacimiento italiano, translated by Susanna Cella (Santiago, Chile: RIL Editores, 2005).
  1548. Find this resource:
  1549. Kallendorf, Craig, ed. Vergil: The Classical Heritage. New York: Garland, 1993.
  1550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1551. A selection of important essays on various aspects of Virgil’s fortuna, with an introduction that surveys earlier scholarship.
  1552. Find this resource:
  1553. Kallendorf, Craig. The Other Virgil: “Pessimistic” Readings of the Aeneid in Early Modern Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555. Traces an alternative mode of Virgilian interpretation, as resistance to the dominant political, cultural, and social forces, through a succession of early modern texts from Europe and the Americas.
  1556. Find this resource:
  1557. Low, Anthony. The Georgic Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
  1558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1559. Shows that the georgic played an important role in English poetry from 1590 to 1700, providing a counter to the prevailing courtly or aristocratic ideal, which disdained work, especially of the manual and agricultural type exalted in georgic.
  1560. Find this resource:
  1561. Patterson, Annabel. “Versions of Renaissance Humanism.” In Pastoral and Ideology, Virgil to Valéry. By Annabel Patterson, 60–132. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
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  1563. A powerful indictment of the idea that literature can be nonideological; argues instead that Virgil’s Eclogues provokes its readers into foregrounding the ideological assumptions they bring to the text.
  1564. Find this resource:
  1565. Other Latin Authors
  1566.  
  1567. Other Latin authors also played noticeable roles in the Renaissance. Chevallier 1985 sketches out the general parameters of Caesarian reception, with Kewes 2002 focusing on English drama and Temple 2006 on Roman architecture; see also Montaigne. Gaisser 2008 offers a masterful overview of Apuleius in the Renaissance, with D’Amico 1984 being a widely cited study of Apuleius’s style. Other Latin authors also attracted attention, with Kallendorf and Kallendorf 2000 studying Statius in Spain, Nauert 1979 tracking the changing roles of Pliny from literary text to natural philosophy, and Zissos 2006 surveying the reception of Valerius Flaccus.
  1568.  
  1569. Chevallier, Raymond, ed. Présence de César: Actes du colloque des 9–11 décembre 1983; Hommage au doyen Michel Rambaud. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1985.
  1570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1571. A large essay collection, half of which is devoted to Caesar in the Renaissance, with articles ranging from his influence on Machiavelli and Montaigne to his appearance in medals and tapestries of the period.
  1572. Find this resource:
  1573. D’Amico, John F. “The Progress of Renaissance Latin Prose: The Case of Apuleianism.” Renaissance Quarterly 37 (1984): 351–392.
  1574. DOI: 10.2307/2860955Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1575. Reviews the major schools of Latin prose composition (the eclectic, the strict imitative, and the archaizing), with an emphasis on the archaizing, to show why some Italian humanists followed uncommon models such as Apuleius in their writing.
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577. Gaisser, Julia Haig. The Fortunes of Apuleius and The Golden Ass: A Study in Transmission and Reception. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
  1578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1579. Examines the causes and mechanisms of the survival of the only complete Latin novel to have come down from antiquity, along with how it was read and interpreted through the 16th century.
  1580. Find this resource:
  1581. Kallendorf, Hilaire, and Craig Kallendorf. “Conversations with the Dead: Quevedo and Statius, Annotation and Imitation.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 63 (2000): 131–168.
  1582. DOI: 10.2307/751524Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1583. A study of Quevedo’s copy of the Aldine Statius, now at Princeton, showing how the annotations to this book represent the first step in the process by which Quevedo composed his own silvas.
  1584. Find this resource:
  1585. Kewes, Paulina. “Julius Caesar in Jacobean England.” Seventeenth Century 17 (2002): 155–186.
  1586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1587. Explores the representations of Caesar in early 17th-century drama and historiography in the context of Jacobean politics and political thought, especially of James I’s readiness to present himself as a latter-day Julius Caesar.
  1588. Find this resource:
  1589. Nauert, Charles G., Jr. “Humanists, Scientists, and Pliny: Changing Approaches to a Classical Author.” American Historical Review 84 (1979): 72–85.
  1590. DOI: 10.2307/1855660Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591. Traces a series of changes in the way Pliny was read and valued in the Renaissance, from a literary and textual focus of nonscientist editors and commentators to a source for truth about the natural world that was open to challenge on the basis of observation.
  1592. Find this resource:
  1593. Temple, Nicholas. “Julius II as Second Caesar.” In Julius Caesar in Western Culture. Edited by Maria Wyke, 110–127. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
  1594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1595. Examines how urban and architectural projects during the pontificate of Julius II (1503–1513) were influenced by the pope’s position as a “second Caesar.”
  1596. Find this resource:
  1597. Zissos, Andrew. “Reception of Valerius Flaccus’ Argonautica.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 13 (2006): 165–185.
  1598. DOI: 10.1007/BF02856291Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1599. Following its recovery by Poggio, Valerius Flaccus’s epic became fashionable, supplying the subject for Renaissance artists and an intertext for sustained engagements by writers such as Camões.
  1600. Find this resource:
  1601. Some Key Renaissance Authors
  1602.  
  1603. Several canonical Renaissance authors nurtured a special relationship with the classics through their careers. Petrarch’s affection for the classics provided a key stimulus for both scholarship and imaginative literature for the period, while the importance of Greek and Latin literature in the writings of Jonson and Milton has long been acknowledged. For other writers, however, the connections are more complicated: Montaigne claimed a mistrust for humanism, while Cervantes and Shakespeare have often been viewed as popular writers at odds with the learned tradition, yet recent scholarship has emphasized the classical strains in their work as well.
  1604.  
  1605. Cervantes
  1606.  
  1607. The prevailing approach to Cervantes still downplays the importance of the classics in his writing, but Marasso 1943 challenges this approach, De Armas 1998 reinforces the challenge, and Barnés Vázquez 2009 has recently provided full-scale documentation for the argument that Greek and Roman literature offers an essential intertext for Don Quixote. Forcione 1970 offers a nuanced analysis, insisting on the importance of the classics for Cervantes while at the same time analyzing his ambivalence toward them.
  1608.  
  1609. Barnés Vázquez, Antonio. “Yo he leído en Virgilio”: La tradición clásica en el Quijote. Vigo, Spain: Editorial Academia del Hispanismo, 2009.
  1610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1611. Acknowledges that Cervantes was not a professional humanist but shows that Don Quixote is saturated with references to Greek and Roman literature, a fact that affects everything from Cervantes’s use of satire to his efforts to position his novel in relation to Aristotelian literary categories.
  1612. Find this resource:
  1613. De Armas, Frederick A. Cervantes, Raphael, and the Classics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  1614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1615. Argues that, notwithstanding his reputation as a popular writer, Cervantes was seriously engaged with Greek and Latin literature, especially as mediated through the art of Raphael.
  1616. Find this resource:
  1617. Forcione, Alban K. Cervantes, Aristotle, and the Persiles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.
  1618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1619. A detailed study of Cervantes’s dialogue with Aristotle in his prose epic, showing that in the final analysis Cervantes’s relationship to classical teaching remains ambivalent.
  1620. Find this resource:
  1621. Marasso, Arturo. Cervantes: La invención del Quijote. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Biblioteca Nueva, 1943.
  1622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1623. A classic study that locates Cervantes’s inventive use of the classics, focusing on Virgil but with suggestive sections on Aristophanes, Quintilian, Pliny, Horace, and Aristotle as well.
  1624. Find this resource:
  1625. Jonson
  1626.  
  1627. Beginning in his own day, Jonson was seen as a learned poet, with Maus 1984 laying out the general framework here. Other books take up various related issues: Duncan 1979 studies Jonson and Lucian, Evans 1992 focuses on Jonson’s ties to ancient politics, Peterson 1981 examines the epideictic tradition, and Trimpi 1962 looks at Jonson’s style and its classical sources. McEuen 1968 extends the discussion to Jonson’s followers.
  1628.  
  1629. Duncan, Douglas. Ben Jonson and the Lucianic Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
  1630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1631. Argues that Jonson’s middle comedies utilize the satiric techniques of Lucian, which Jonson found there and in writers in the Lucianic tradition such as More and Erasmus.
  1632. Find this resource:
  1633. Evans, Robert C. Jonson, Lipsius, and the Politics of Renaissance Stoicism. Wakefield, NH: Longwood Academic, 1992.
  1634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1635. A study of Jonson’s marginalia in his copy of Lipsius’s Politics, itself a compendium of maxims taken from Greek and Latin writers, thus connecting Jonson’s political thought to the ancient world.
  1636. Find this resource:
  1637. McEuen, Kathryn Anderson. Classical Influence upon the Tribe of Ben: A Study of Classical Elements in the Non-dramatic Poetry of Ben Jonson and his Circle. New York: Octagon, 1968.
  1638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1639. Shows the extent and nature of the influence of classical poets on the nondramatic verse of a group of 17th-century English poets who self-consciously associated themselves with Jonson, the “Tribe of Ben.” Reprint of the 1939 first edition.
  1640. Find this resource:
  1641. Maus, Katharine Eisaman. Ben Jonson and the Roman Frame of Mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
  1642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1643. Explores Jonson’s affinity for the Roman moralists, his favorite classical authors, and the consequences of that affinity for his writing.
  1644. Find this resource:
  1645. Peterson, Richard S. Imitation and Praise in the Poems of Ben Jonson. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
  1646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1647. A study of Jonson’s celebratory poems and the way in which the imitation of classical authors fuses with the language of praise.
  1648. Find this resource:
  1649. Trimpi, Wesley. Ben Jonson’s Poems: A Study of the Plain Style. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962.
  1650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1651. Considers “the tradition of the classical plain style in antiquity and its adaptation by Jonson and the men he admired to the poetic and rhetorical controversies of the Renaissance.”
  1652. Find this resource:
  1653. Machiavelli
  1654.  
  1655. Machiavelli began as a republican who found many of his key ideas in Aristotle, Livy, and Sallust, as Mansfield 1979, Martelli 1998, Osmond 1993, and Pocock 1975 show, although Toffanin 1921 analyzes his movement from there to Tacitus and a recognition of the benefits of absolutism. Sasso 1987–1997 offers a nice overview of Machiavelli’s classicism, while Sullivan 1996 views the Rome of antiquity in relation to the Rome of Machiavelli’s time.
  1656.  
  1657. Mansfield, Harvey C., Jr. Machiavelli’s New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979.
  1658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1659. A chapter-by-chapter commentary on the Discourses on Livy, showing how Machiavelli used his work on Livy to present himself as the founder of a new, modern political philosophy. Reprinted in 2001.
  1660. Find this resource:
  1661. Martelli, Mario. Machiavelli e gli storici antichi: Osservazioni su alcuni luoghi dei Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio. Rome: Salerno, 1998.
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  1663. A good overview, discussing Machiavelli’s use of the various ancient historians, but difficult to find outside of Italy.
  1664. Find this resource:
  1665. Osmond, Patricia J. “Sallust and Machiavelli: From Civic Humanism to Political Prudence.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 23 (1993): 407–438.
  1666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1667. An interesting article by an expert on the reception of Sallust, discussing Machiavelli’s appropriation of the Roman historian in light of his political theory.
  1668. Find this resource:
  1669. Pocock, J. G. A. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
  1670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1671. An influential book that traces the influence of classical ideas about the republic, especially as found in Aristotle, through Machiavelli to later political theorists with similar ideas.
  1672. Find this resource:
  1673. Sasso, Gennaro. Machiavelli e gli antichi e altri saggi. 4 vols. Milan: Ricciardi, 1987–1997.
  1674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1675. An excellent introduction for those who can read Italian, broadly covering Machiavelli’s relationship to his ancient sources.
  1676. Find this resource:
  1677. Sullivan, Vickie B. Machiavelli’s Three Romes: Religion, Human Liberty, and Politics Reformed. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996.
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  1679. A nice study of what Rome meant for Machiavelli, placing classical culture next to the other influences on his life and thought.
  1680. Find this resource:
  1681. Toffanin, Giuseppe. Machiavelli e il “tacitismo”: La “politica storica” al tempo della Controriforma. Padua, Italy: A. Draghi, 1921.
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  1683. A classic study that traces Machiavelli’s movement from Livy and republicanism to Tacitus and absolutism, developed in relation to the broad cultural currents of the day. Reprinted in 1972.
  1684. Find this resource:
  1685. Milton
  1686.  
  1687. Milton’s affections for the classics went back to his days in school, as Clark 1948 shows, with Osgood 1900 demonstrating how classical mythology pervades his poetry. Since its initial appearance, Paradise Lost has been read in relation to classical epic, with Blessington 1979 and Martindale 2002 offering good assessments of how this relationship is understood now. Harding 1962 and Porter 1993 extend the discussion to some nonepic intertexts, and DuRocher 1985 focuses on Milton’s debt to Ovid.
  1688.  
  1689. Blessington, Francis C. Paradise Lost and the Classical Epic. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.
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  1691. An exploration of Milton’s various methods for invoking classical parallels and how the synthesis of pagan and Christian relates to the meaning of Paradise Lost.
  1692. Find this resource:
  1693. Clark, Donald Lemen. John Milton at St. Paul’s School: A Study of Ancient Rhetoric in English Renaissance Education. New York: Columbia University Press, 1948.
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  1695. A reconstruction of the course of study Milton probably followed, the textbooks he used, and the classical authors he imitated in his school themes.
  1696. Find this resource:
  1697. DuRocher, Richard J. Milton and Ovid. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.
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  1699. A thoughtful analysis of the combative imitation by which Milton draws extensively on Ovidian change to generate much of the dynamism in the characterization, treatment of heroism, and epic narration of Paradise Lost.
  1700. Find this resource:
  1701. Harding, Davis P. The Club of Hercules: Studies in the Classical Background of Paradise Lost. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1962.
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  1703. Suggests how Milton used Greek and Latin literature in various ways in Paradise Lost.
  1704. Find this resource:
  1705. Martindale, Charles. John Milton and the Transformation of Ancient Epic. 2d ed. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical, 2002.
  1706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1707. Starting from the premise that “Paradise Lost is still more radically like a classical epic than anything else in English or indeed in any other modern language” (p. 47), Martindale traces Milton’s debt to Homer, Virgil, Ovid, and Lucan. First edition published in 1986.
  1708. Find this resource:
  1709. Osgood, Charles Grosvenor. The Classical Mythology of Milton’s English Poems. New York: Henry Holt, 1900.
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  1711. A catalogue of mythological figures mentioned by Milton, with information about them that can be used to further the reader’s appreciation of the poems. Reprinted in 1964.
  1712. Find this resource:
  1713. Porter, William M. Reading the Classics and Paradise Lost. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.
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  1715. A reengagement with Milton and his classical sources that focuses on a handful of “critical allusions” in which Milton’s reference is unfairly critical of its classical intertext, stimulating the reader to defend the classical original.
  1716. Find this resource:
  1717. Montaigne
  1718.  
  1719. Montaigne may well have been exploring his inner self in writing his Essays, but he did so in constant dialogue with the classical tradition, as Gray 1991 and Schaefer 2001 show. Other studies focus on the individual writers Montaigne defines himself in relation to: Green 1975 on Cicero, Hill Hay 1938 on Seneca, Konstantinovic 1989 on Plutarch, Mackenzie 2006 on Caesar, and Screech 1998 on Lucretius.
  1720.  
  1721. Gray, Floyd. Montaigne bilingue: Le latin des Essais. Paris: H. Champion, 1991.
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  1723. An interesting study of the function of citations of Latin authors in the Essays, which prove to be a key means by which he expresses himself in his writings.
  1724. Find this resource:
  1725. Green, Jeffrey Martin. “Montaigne’s Critique of Cicero.” Journal of the History of Ideas 36 (1975): 595–612.
  1726. DOI: 10.2307/2708991Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1727. Argues that Montaigne’s rejection of the general Renaissance adulation for Cicero was tied up with his quest for self-knowledge, which accorded poorly with the humanist conventions that Cicero fostered.
  1728. Find this resource:
  1729. Hill Hay, Camilla. Montaigne: Lecteur et imitateur de Sénèque. Poitiers, France: Société Française d’Imprimerie et de Librairie, 1938.
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  1731. Concludes that the influence of Seneca’s philosophy on Montaigne is sporadic, but that his stylistic influence continues throughout Montaigne’s work.
  1732. Find this resource:
  1733. Konstantinovic, Isabelle. Montaigne et Plutarque. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1989.
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  1735. An exhaustive study of Montaigne’s appropriations from Plutarch, with each usage identified and analyzed.
  1736. Find this resource:
  1737. Mackenzie, Louisa. “Imitation Gone Wrong: The ‘Pestilentially Ambitious’ Figure of Julius Caesar in Michel de Montaigne’s Essais.” In Julius Caesar in Western Culture. Edited by Maria Wyke, 131–147. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
  1738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1739. Explores the complex position of Caesar in the Essays as an admirable military and literary example who is also an execrable political leader and human being: exemplar and anti-exemplar.
  1740. Find this resource:
  1741. Schaefer, David Lewis. “Montaigne and the Classical Tradition.” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 8 (2001): 179–194.
  1742. DOI: 10.1007/BF02701805Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1743. Argues that Montaigne’s Essays constitute one of the principal means by which knowledge of the classical tradition was spread through late Renaissance Europe, but in a new form that would synthesize philosophic rationality with a secularized form of Christian compassion that would promote the well-being of the multitude.
  1744. Find this resource:
  1745. Screech, M. A. Montaigne’s Annotated Copy of Lucretius: A Transcription and Study of the Manuscript, Notes, and Pen-Marks. Geneva, Switzerland: Librairie Droz, 1998.
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  1747. An edition of Montaigne’s annotations to Lucretius, along with a discussion of their importance.
  1748. Find this resource:
  1749. Petrarch
  1750.  
  1751. Petrarch’s affinity for the classics is well known and undisputed, although the tension between this world and Christianity is one that he also bequeathed to the Renaissance. The classic study remains Nolhac 1907, with Sturm-Maddox 1985 arguing that the classics (Ovid in particular) are as important in Petrarch’s vernacular poetry as they are for his Latin works. Alessio, et al. 1985 synthesizes what is known about Petrarch’s copy of Virgil, one of his favorite books, and Mazzocco 1977 extends the analysis to Petrarch’s antiquarianism.
  1752.  
  1753. Alessio, Gian Carlo, Giuseppe Billanovich, and Violetta de Angelis. “L’alba del Petrarca filologo: Il Virgilio Ambrosiano.” Studi Petrarcheschi 11 (1985): 15–82.
  1754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1755. The definitive study of a key document in the classical tradition in the Renaissance, Petrarch’s copy of Virgil, annotated in his own hand and decorated with important illuminations by Simone Martini.
  1756. Find this resource:
  1757. Mazzocco, Angelo. “The Antiquarianism of Francesco Petrarca.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 7 (1977): 203–224.
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  1759. Argues that Petrarch constitutes the major link between classical and Renaissance antiquarianism, thereby paving the way for the work of later, better-known antiquarians such as Biondo Flavio.
  1760. Find this resource:
  1761. Nolhac, Pierre de. Pétrarque et l’humanisme. 2 vols. Paris: H. Champion, 1907.
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  1763. The classic study of Petrarch’s relationship to the classics, working systematically through which authors Petrarch knew and how they were used in his work. Reprinted in 1965.
  1764. Find this resource:
  1765. Sturm-Maddox, Sara. Petrarch’s Metamorphoses: Text and Subtext in the Rime Sparse. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985.
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  1767. A reading of the Canzoniere that shows how Petrarch begins with the Ovidian story of Daphne’s transformation into a laurel tree as a way to develop an ever-widening range of associations focused around Laura.
  1768. Find this resource:
  1769. Shakespeare
  1770.  
  1771. Shakespeare was often contrasted with Ben Jonson in his own day as the popular poet versus the learned one, but a hundred years of scholarship has established that his work, too, cannot be separated from its classical sources. Velz 1968 surveys the earlier material, with Baldwin 1944 remaining the classic starting place for work in this area, to be supplemented by the essays in Martindale and Taylor 2004. Other works focus on Shakespeare’s relationship to one or two authors: Miola 1992 on Seneca, Miola 1994 on Plautus and Terence, and Bate 1993 and Taylor 2000 on Ovid. Miles 1996 studies Shakespeare’s affinity for Stoic thought, while James 1997 shows how he uses the Troy myth to position himself within the political discourse of his time.
  1772.  
  1773. Baldwin, Thomas W. William Shakspere’s Small Latine and Lesse Greeke. 2 vols. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1944.
  1774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1775. The classic study of Shakespeare’s knowledge of classical literature.
  1776. Find this resource:
  1777. Bate, Jonathan. Shakespeare and Ovid. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993.
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  1779. Examines Ovid’s presence in the full range of Shakespeare’s works, showing that Ovid was a major influence in Shakespeare’s representations of myth, sexuality, and metamorphosis.
  1780. Find this resource:
  1781. James, Heather. Shakespeare’s Troy: Drama, Politics, and the Translation of Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  1782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1783. Demonstrates that Shakespeare used the Troy legend to develop a national myth, one that differed in interesting ways from the official Tudor and Stuart ideology.
  1784. Find this resource:
  1785. Martindale, Charles, and A. B. Taylor, eds. Shakespeare and the Classics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  1786. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511483769Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1787. A collection of essays that demonstrates how Shakespeare used a variety of classical books to explore such crucial areas of human experience as love, politics, ethics, and history.
  1788. Find this resource:
  1789. Miles, Geoffrey. Shakespeare and the Constant Romans. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
  1790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1791. An analysis of Stoic steadfastness and constancy as it appears in Shakespeare’s plays, taking full account of the complexities of its meanings and origins.
  1792. Find this resource:
  1793. Miola, Robert S. Shakespeare and Classical Tragedy: The Influence of Seneca. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.
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  1795. Discusses the importance of Senecan revenge, tyranny, and furor in the tragedies of Shakespeare, with extensions into Shakespeare’s immediate predecessors and Seneca’s place in comedy and tragicomedy.
  1796. Find this resource:
  1797. Miola, Robert S. Shakespeare and Classical Comedy: The Influence of Plautus and Terence. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
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  1799. A detailed intertextual study, contributing to our understanding of both Shakespeare’s sources and of the general development of the theater in Europe.
  1800. Find this resource:
  1801. Taylor, A. B., ed. Shakespeare’s Ovid: The Metamorphoses in the Plays and Poems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  1803. A comprehensive examination of Shakespeare’s use of Ovid throughout his career, with forays into Ovid’s role in early Elizabethan literature and 20th-century criticism in the field.
  1804. Find this resource:
  1805. Velz, John W. Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition: A Critical Guide to Commentary, 1660–1960. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1968.
  1806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1807. A valuable guide to earlier material on Shakespeare’s use of the classics.
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