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Buddhist Ethics of Violence (Buddhism)

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Jun 22nd, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2. Perhaps no topic in Buddhist studies has been more subject to projection and romanticizing than the Buddhist ethics of violence. Euro-American cultures horrified by their own violence looked to Buddhism for an alternate ideal of pacifism, and colonial and postcolonial cultures have emphasized this perception as an emblem of cultural superiority. The subject is also complicated by its political implications for the Tibetan freedom movement and the civil war in Sri Lanka. The subject is also a significant issue for India, as the idealization of King Aśoka has been central to the development and symbolization of Indian nationalism. The uncritical construction of Buddhist pacifism has been ripe for deflation, and a burst of recent studies have emphasized the darker side of Buddhist history. However, it is important to discern whether and to what degree the realities of Buddhist history are dissonant with their own higher ideals, as are all religious traditions, or are instead dissonant with Euro-American fantasies. Buddhist ethical traditions are generally rooted in Indian Buddhist texts, and those sources are emphasized here. The reader should also note that this accords with the author’s research abilities as well and should judge the work here accordingly. The subject is potentially as broad as the vast cultural, geographical, and temporal expanse of Buddhist tradition itself: students should use this bibliography as a guide to further research in the sources noted here. Those interested in applying Western ethical approaches and categories should take care to note that Buddhist studies is still in its infancy, and a vast body of literature has not been translated. Buddhist ethical thought also tends to embrace ambiguity by expressing its ethical instincts in narrative, rather than systematically distilling clarifying principles from narrative as a Western theologian might. Understanding Buddhist ethics therefore requires a high tolerance for ambiguity, which tends to be foreign to Western philosophical and academic practice.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. The following are general introductions, surveys, and collections of essays. Where appropriate, individual essays and articles are listed in the relevant sections in this bibliography. Among the collections, only Juergensmeyer and Jerryson 2010 and Zimmermann 2006 focus exclusively on Buddhist violence. Readers are advised to read sources in Jainism and Hinduism in Robinson 2003 and Houben and van Kooij 1999, as the development of Buddhist values regarding violence cannot be understood without reference to those traditions. Harvey 2000 is an ambitious general work on Buddhist ethics, and Keown 1992 is cited everywhere as an important attempt to analyze Buddhist ethics through the categories of Western philosophical ethics. Florida 2005 is an excellent general work framed by the concept of human rights that also offers important reflections on violence.
  6.  
  7. Florida, Robert. Human Rights and the World’s Major Religions. Vol. 5, The Buddhist Tradition. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. Problematizes the interpretation of Buddhist ethics as pacifist nonviolence.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
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  15.  
  16. Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. An expansive historical interpretive treatment of all Buddhist contexts and many central issues. Such a scope naturally creates opportunities for productive criticism. This is the only work of its kind and is a good place to begin for bibliographical resources and summaries of research.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
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  24.  
  25. Houben, Jan E. M., and Karel R. van Kooij, eds. Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence, and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
  26.  
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  28.  
  29. Covers Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist violence in South Asia. Individual articles are noted throughout this bibliography.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
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  33.  
  34. Juergensmeyer, Mark, and Michael Jerryson, eds. Buddhist Warfare. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. Describes historical and theoretical validations and manifestations of Buddhist violence in a broad range of contexts. Individual articles are noted throughout this bibliography.
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  40. Find this resource:
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  42.  
  43. Keown, Damien. The Nature of Buddhist Ethics. London: Macmillan, 1992.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. Keown’s work is a touchstone for those who study Buddhist ethics in the mode of Western meta-ethics.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Keown, Damien, ed. Contemporary Buddhist Ethics. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2000.
  53.  
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  55.  
  56. Contains relevant articles on euthanasia, abortion, and animal rights as contemporary issues. Individual articles are noted throughout this bibliography.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Robinson, Paul, ed. Just War in Comparative Perspective. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003.
  62.  
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  64.  
  65. Contains excellent articles on Hindu and Theravada Buddhist perspectives on just warfare. Individual articles are noted throughout this bibliography.
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. Zimmermann, Michael, ed. Buddhism and Violence. Kathmandu, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  71.  
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  73.  
  74. One of the few edited works devoted to Buddhist violence in particular. Zimmermann is a leading figure in this field. Individual articles are noted throughout this bibliography.
  75.  
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78.  
  79. Primary Sources
  80. This section is divided into three subsections on systematic thought Systematic Thought, scripture Scriptures, and narrative Narrative Literature. Buddhists of divergent philosophical schools and practice traditions have carefully treated the question of killing in systematic thought. Mahayanists allowed for the possibility of compassionate killing; however, the questions of who is qualified to perform such actions (and under what conditions) continue to be debated. Mainstream sources are generally far more reticent and reject the idea of killing with compassionate intentions. Abhidharmic sources such as the (Abhidharmakośa) Vasubandhu 1990, and The Questions of King Milinda (Rhys-Davis 1963) often contain records of alternate opinions, and cross-referencing indices are also available. Narrative, the most neglected of the three types of sources, is the most important literature for understanding Buddhist ethics. When Buddhists intend to illustrate or explain their systematic thought, they do so with stories and hypothetical cases. Narrative also allows us to see how the most broadly known and influential literature demonstrates how Buddhists understood their saints, kings, and professors as exemplars of their values. The hagiography of an ethical thinker may tell us more about the ethics of the community that cherished him than his own work does. For further references to key Pali texts, see Gethin 2004 (cited under Violence and Warfare in Principle). Most tantric scriptures have ritual practices for killing, and for abundant references, see Broido 1988 and Snellgrove 1997 (both cited under Tantra).
  81.  
  82. Systematic Thought
  83. Unquestionably the most influential ethical thinker after the Buddha was Asaṅga (see Asaṅga and Tsong-kha-pa 1986, Asaṅga 2004). The “Ethics Chapter” of his Bodhisattvabhūmi is central to Mahayana Buddhist ethical thinking and to modern reflection on classical Buddhist values. Candragomin 1985 famously and influentially summarized the “Ethics Chapter” in twenty verses. The encyclopedic Abhidharmakośa (Vasubandhu 1990) is a touchstone for mainstream abhidharmic debate and also the basis for Mahayana monastic education. It offers minute analysis of the ethical dynamics of the act of killing. Rhys-Davis 1963 gives a Theravadin validation of the royal use of torture and capital punishment. Āryadeva and Candrakīrti 2003 represents a Mādhyamika commentarial tradition that is especially important in Tibet. Bhāviveka, perhaps because he was more concerned with affirming conventional reality, offers a more conservative approach to compassionate killing that emphasizes freedom from karmic punishment, rather than merit-making (Bhāviveka 2008). Śāntideva is one of the most influential Buddhist ethical thinkers for India, Tibet, Western scholarship, and contemporary Buddhist converts. Śāntideva 1981, which contains his discussion of compassionate killing, is an important work that is badly in need of retranslation. The current translation should be read with care.
  84.  
  85. Āryadeva, and Candrakīrti. Four Illusions: Candrakīrti’s Advice to Travelers on the Bodhisattva Path. Translated by Karen C. Lang. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  86.  
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  88.  
  89. The Four Hundred Catuḥśataka of Āryadeva, with the commentary, ṭīkā, of Candrakīrti, is a key source for Tibetans. In chapter 5, Āryadeva allows for compassionate transgression, and Candrakīrti offers many examples of compassionate killing (see Jenkins 2010, cited under Royal and State Violence). Candrakīrti also rages against uncompassionate kings who would exploit such ideas (see Lang 1992, cited under Royal and State Violence).
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Asaṅga. The Universal Vehicle Discourse Literature (Mahāyāsūtrālaṃkāra) by Maitreyanātha/Āryāsaṅga together with Its Commentary (Bhāṣya) by Vasubandhu. Translated by Lozang Jamspal, R. Clark, J. Wilson, L. Zwilling, M. Sweet, and Robert A. F. Thurman. Edited by Robert A. F. Thurman. New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2004.
  95.  
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  97.  
  98. As in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, any act is possible including sex, killing, and robbery with the aim of helping beings.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Asaṅga, and Tsong-kha-pa. Asaṅga’s Chapter on Ethics with the Commentary of Tsong-kha-pa. Translated by Mark Tatz. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1986.
  104.  
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  106.  
  107. The Bodhisattvabhūmi of Asaṅga has been the touchstone for classical and modern scholarship on compassionate killing. Failure to transgress is a downfall in certain circumstances. Contains the Indian commentary of Jinaputra. Tsong-kha-pa’s commentary often identifies controversies and provides broad overviews of other commentaries.
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Bhāviveka. “Tarkajvāla.” In Bhāviveka and His Buddhist Opponents. Translated by Malcolm David Eckel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  113.  
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  115.  
  116. Contains a more reserved presentation of the allowance for compassionate killing, which does not emphasize merit-making and suggests that the bodhisattva killer momentarily experiences hell. Possibly the source for the common Tibetan idea that the compassionate killer briefly suffers in a hellish realm.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. Candragomin. Difficult Beginnings. Translated by Mark Tatz. Boston: Shambhala, 1985.
  122.  
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  124.  
  125. Candragomin wrote a highly influential verse summary of the chapter on ethics in Asaṅga’s Bodhisattvabhūmi. Tatz provides rich cross-references and commentary.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Rhys-Davis, T. W., trans. The Questions of King Milinda. New York: Dover, 1963.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. Offers a highly authoritative Theravadin argument that kings, who should punish and execute criminals, are not responsible for the death or torment of those punished; rather, the karma of such individuals is the cause.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138.  
  139. Śāntideva. Śikṣā-samuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhist Doctrine. Translated by Cecil Bendall and W. H. D. Rouse. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981.
  140.  
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  142.  
  143. This text, by one of the most influential figures in Indian, Tibetan, and Euro-American Buddhism, cites scripture and Vinaya in support of merit-making compassionate murder and euthanasia. First published in 1922. This translation can be highly misleading.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147.  
  148. Vasubandhu. Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam. 4 vols. Translated by Louis de La Vallée Poussin; translated from the French by Leo Pruden. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1990.
  149.  
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  151.  
  152. A foundational text for Mahayana as well as a touchstone for abhidharmic debate. Students should note that other important abhidharmic texts are written in direct dialogue with this text. Translation studies frequently contain cross-referencing indices. It is thus possible to cross-reference a matrix of abhidharmic literature.
  153.  
  154. Find this resource:
  155.  
  156.  
  157. Scriptures
  158. The Pali Vinaya (Horner 1938–1952) is the primary source for Theravadin monastic ethics. The Aggañña Sutta (Collins 1993) portrays the genesis of violence, crime, and punishment from poverty, as do later Mahayana texts. Bodhisattvagocara-upāyaviṣaya-vikurvaṇa-nirdeśa Sūtra (Jamspal 1991) describes when and how a Buddhist king may go to war and to what degree he may torture criminals. See also Jenkins 2010 (cited under Royal and State Violence) and Zimmermann 2006 (cited under General Overviews). Batchelor 2004 points out that the Brahmajāla Sūtra was authoritative for Chinese but not Tibetans. Its strong emphasis on vegetarianism and rejection of killing, even by mantras, gave Chinese ethics a distinctive character. The sutra “How to Kill with the Sword of Wisdom” (Chang 1983) demonstrates that an occasional feature of Mahayana ethical discourse was a denial of the victim’s existence through emptiness analysis. The Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, enormously influential in East Asian Buddhism (Yamamoto 1973–1975), often advocates killing the enemies of Buddhism. The “Ship Captain” Jātaka found in The Skill in Means (Upāyakauśalya) Sūtra (Tatz 1994) is well known throughout the Mahayana Buddhist world and is the central object of analysis for commentators on the problem of compassionate killing from ancient India to the Korean War. In a past life the Buddha compassionately kills a potential mass murderer to prevent the man from going to hell. The Sūtra of Golden Light (Emmerick 1970) held a central place in ritual practices in support of warfare from Mongolia to Japan.
  159.  
  160. Batchelor, Martine. The Path of Compassion: The Bodhisattva Precepts; the Chinese Brahma’s Net Sūtra. New York: AltaMira, 2004.
  161.  
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  163.  
  164. This authority behind distinctive East Asian approaches to Buddhist ethics emphatically insists on vegetarianism, but it also states that when wrongdoers are not punished—with compassionate intent—then a violation occurs.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
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  168.  
  169. Chang, Chen-chi, ed. “How to Kill with the Sword of Wisdom (Sutra 36).” In A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras: Selections from the Mahāratnakūta Sūtra, 41–72. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983.
  170.  
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  172.  
  173. One dimension of the Buddhist discourse on killing emphasizes the emptiness of personal existence. Here, Mañjuśrī, the celestial bodhisattva of wisdom, threatens to kill the Buddha with the sword of wisdom. Such passages should usually be taken metaphorically.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177.  
  178. Collins, Steven, ed. “The Discourse on What Is Primary (Aggañña Sutta): An Annotated Translation.” Journal Indian Philosophy 21.4 (1993): 301–393.
  179.  
  180. DOI: 10.1007/BF01089255Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181.  
  182. Describes the mythical origins of kings, violence, and punishment.
  183.  
  184. Find this resource:
  185.  
  186.  
  187. Emmerick, R. E., trans. The Sūtra of Golden Light. London: Luzac, 1970.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. “The King of sūtras which overcomes foreign armies” was chanted before battles but also implores kings not to engage in conquest. See chapter 6 in particular.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195.  
  196. Horner, I. B., trans. The Book of the Discipline. 6 vols. Sacred Books of the Buddhists 10, 11, 13, 14, 20, and 25. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938–1952.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. The Pali Vinaya is the primary authority for Theravadin monastic conduct and will be relevant to all topics of research on Buddhist ethics. Reprinted 1992–1997 (London: Pali Text Society).
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204.  
  205. Jamspal, Lozang. “The Range of the Bodhisattva: A Study of an Early Mahāyānasūtra, Āryasatyakaparivarta, Discourse of Truth Teller.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 1991.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. See pages pp. 74–436 for the translation of the Bodhisattvagocara-upāyaviṣaya-vikurvaṇa-nirdeśa Sūtra (Satyakaparivarta Sūtra).
  210.  
  211. Find this resource:
  212.  
  213.  
  214. Tatz, Mark, trans. The Skill in Means (Upāyakauśalya) Sūtra. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1994.
  215.  
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  217.  
  218. Most influential scripture in Buddhist history in regard to compassionate killing. Contains the “Ship Captain” Jātaka, in which the Buddha achieves great merit by slaying a thief about to kill five hundred merchants on his ship. Also known as the Upāyakauśalyaparipṛcchā or Jñānottarabodhisattvaparipṛcchā.
  219.  
  220. Find this resource:
  221.  
  222.  
  223. Yamamoto, Kosho, trans. Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. 3 vols. Karin Buddhological Series 5. Ube City, Japan: Karinbunko, 1973–1975.
  224.  
  225. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226.  
  227. The English is often obscure. As of 2010, undergoing retranslation by Mark Blum. Contains extraordinarily direct advocacy of violence against the enemies of Buddhism and discussions of the mass-murderer-turned-monk Aṅgulimāla and King Ajātaśatru, who killed his own father. Available online.
  228.  
  229. Find this resource:
  230.  
  231.  
  232. Narrative Literature
  233. Particular attention should be paid to the Jātaka tales (Chalmers 1990), which are the most important source for royal ethics, and researchers should continue to investigate the massive body of untranslated materials, especially in Pali and Chinese. Rather than being distilled from narrative, Buddhist principles are illustrated through narrative, thus maintaining the complex ambiguous nature of lived situations. Buddhist ethics embrace ambiguity and resist abstract simplification. Āryaśūra (Khoroche 1989) shows the Buddha modeling the ideal king in a past life by making war on demons while avoiding the destruction of innocent lives. The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (Willemen 2004) describes how a king can balance out the karmic effect of his past violence. Xuanzang, et al. 1996 and Tāranātha (Lama Chimpa 1970) are rich sources of lore about kings and saints in Buddhist history. The violence surrounding public debate deserves study. The Mahāvaṃsa (Gieger 1980) is a chronicle of the history of Sri Lanka, whose accounts of early warfare against the Tamils are central to current Sinhala ethical discourse.
  234.  
  235. Chalmers, Robert, trans. The Jātaka, or Stories from the Buddha’s Former Births. 6 vols. Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1990.
  236.  
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. Depicts the Buddha in past lives as a warhorse, battle elephant, mahout, execution elephant, and weapons master, among other things. Skillful military strategy is lauded, with an emphasis on capturing the enemy alive. See Pali Text Society numbers 55, 66, 61, 150, 182, 186, 193, 194, 202, 221, 226, 228, 229, 230, 258, 281, 282, 283, and 540. First published 1895–1907.
  240.  
  241. Find this resource:
  242.  
  243.  
  244. Gieger, Wilhelm, trans. The Mahāvaṃsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon. London: Pali Text Society, 1980.
  245.  
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247.  
  248. A general Theravadin account of the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Contains the controversial and still influential example of a Buddhist king whose guilt from having killed thousands is assuaged by the argument that non-Buddhists are no more than animals.
  249.  
  250. Find this resource:
  251.  
  252.  
  253. Khoroche, Peter, trans. Once the Buddha Was a Monkey: Ārya Śūra’s Jātakamālā. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
  254.  
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256.  
  257. Contains famous and influential stories such as the Mahayana Jātaka of the Buddha feeding himself to a hungry tigress and of the Buddha as the mighty warrior deity Indra engaging in battle with armies of “demons.”
  258.  
  259. Find this resource:
  260.  
  261.  
  262. Lama Chimpa, trans. Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. A rich source of historiography and hagiography that illustrates how Buddhists imagined their spiritual and political heroes.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270.  
  271. Willemen, Charles, trans. The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables. Translation of Tsa-pao-tsang-ching/Kṣudrakāgama. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Translation and Research, 2004.
  272.  
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. Connected to the Abhidharmahṛdayaśāstra of Sarvāstivāda, contains the story of King Kaniṣka and how kings guilty of great crimes may balance their karmic effects with those of good acts.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279.  
  280. Xuanzang, Bianji, and Jung-hsi Li. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. BDK English Tripitịaka 79. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996.
  281.  
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  283.  
  284. Contains rich lore describing how Indian Buddhists visualized the great figures of their tradition. The violence surrounding accounts of debate should be noted along with the frequency of murderous violence against great intellectuals. Kings are valorized as Dharmarājas commit mass violence against non-Buddhists.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Violence and Warfare in Principle
  290. It is important to note that the term ahiṃsā, generally translated as “nonviolence,” has rarely if ever meant this to Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus. A classic example used by Buddhists and Jains is a doctor cutting off a poisoned finger. Readers should not be surprised to find the same texts that say a king should never harm a living being also advocate harsh punishments for warfare. Punishment, sacrifice, and warfare may be beneficial and are therefore ahiṃsā, “harmless.” In the course of research, it can therefore be misleading to narrowly focus on a term like ahiṃsā. Of course, no culture has ever lived up to its highest religious ideals, and Buddhist cultures are no exception. It is important to discern when Buddhist violence is in violation of its own ideals and when it merely fails to conform to erroneous Western idealization. Schmithausen 1999, Gethin 2007, and Zimmermann 2003 are rich general studies. Gethin 2004 and Kleine 2006 are more focused on philosophical issues. Strong 1992 and Syrkin 1984 are focused on the neglected narrative literature, which may be more important than systematic philosophical discourse for the study of ethics.
  291.  
  292. Gethin, Rupert. Can Killing a Living Being Ever Be an Act of Compassion? The Analysis of the Act of Killing in the Abhidhamma and Pali Commentarie Online Journal of Buddhist Ethics 11 (2004).
  293.  
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  295.  
  296. In contrast to Mahayana and Vajrayāna Buddhism, Theravadin and Pali traditions do not allow for killing with purely auspicious intentions.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300.  
  301. Gethin, Rupert. “Buddhist Monks, Buddhist Kings, Buddhist Violence: On the Early Buddhist Attitudes to Violence.” In Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice. Edited by John Hinnells and Richard King, 62–82. New York: Routledge, 2007.
  302.  
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  304.  
  305. Excellent general survey, focused mostly on Theravadin traditions. Emphasizes the interpretation of Buddhism as pacifist.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309.  
  310. Kleine, Christoph. “Evil Monks with Good Intentions? Remarks on Buddhist Monastic Violence and its Doctrinal Background.” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 65–98. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. Analyzes violence in premodern Japanese Buddhism in the light of classical texts. Describes the stereotype of Buddhist pacifism as an “Orientalist fantasy.”
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. Schmithausen, Lambert. “Aspects of the Buddhist Attitude to War.” In Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence, and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History. Edited by Jan E. M. Houben and Karel R. van Kooij, 45–67. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
  320.  
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  322.  
  323. This broad and perceptive article treats Buddhism globally and is a good starting point for anyone first engaging the issues of Buddhism and violence.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Strong, John. The Legend and Cult of Upagupta. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
  329.  
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331.  
  332. Strong’s work illustrates the critical importance of narrative materials in which we may see the Buddha battling recalcitrant minor deities with the help of his ever-present armed bodyguard Vajrapāṇi.
  333.  
  334. Find this resource:
  335.  
  336.  
  337. Syrkin, A. “Notes on the Buddha’s Threats in the Dīgha Nikāya.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7 (1984): 147–158.
  338.  
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. Notes and analyzes the Buddha’s threats to split apart the heads of debate opponents, or to have his armed bodyguard Vajrapāṇi do so.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Zimmermann, Michael. “War.” Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 2. Edited by Robert Buswell Jr., 893–897. New York: Macmillan Reference, 2003.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. Emphasizes the pacifist aspect of Buddhist values while raising critical issues about their application and noting important exceptions. States that no historical ruler engaged in war on the pretext of spreading Buddhism and that compassion is basically incompatible with violence.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Tantra
  356. Tantric studies has significance for the understanding of all Buddhist traditions in the sense that tantric texts have generally been read against an exaggerated sense of pacifism in other Buddhist traditions. Its hyperbolic language and concern with utilizing transgression for the purpose of breaking down dualistic psychological patterns make it extremely difficult to judge when actual violence is being discussed. This has resulted in arguments that either sanitize or vilify tantric Buddhist ethics. It is important at this stage to approach such traditions with great reservations about the fact that although tantric studies has recently made great strides forward, it is still in its infancy. This might be regarded as true for Buddhist studies in a hundred years. Broido 1988 is an excellent guide to the hermeneutical complexities and to passages that offer deadly ritual technologies. Gray 2007 analyzes the tantric ethics of killing in terms of continuities and discontinuities with earlier Mahayana thought in Indian and Tibetan contexts. Linrothe 1999 shows that fierce tantric deities arose from earlier pre-tantric forms. In contrast to Gray and Linrothe, Snellgrove 1987 emphasizes strong discontinuity between earlier Buddhist ethics and those of tantric literature. Meinert 2006 elaborates on the tantric practice of compassionately directing the stream of consciousness of one’s murder victim to positive rebirths. See also Davidson 2002 (cited under India).
  357.  
  358. Broido, Michael. “Killing Lying, Stealing, and Adultery: A Problem of Interpretation in the Tantras.” In Buddhist Hermeneutics. Edited by Donald Lopez Jr., 71–118. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988.
  359.  
  360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. Although concerned mainly with hermeneutics, this is an excellent guide to Indian tantric texts on killing.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Gray, David B. Compassionate Violence? On the Ethical Implications of Tantric Buddhist Ritual. Online Journal of Buddhist Ethics 14 (2007): 240–271
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Describes the tantric ideology of violence in relation to its continuities with earlier Mahayana thought in Indian and Tibetan contexts.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. Linrothe, Rob. Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art. Boston: Shambhala, 1999.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. Richly illustrates the prevalence of horrific Buddhist protector deities long before the development of tantra. Clearly, tantric traditions spiritualized and developed deities that were already violent rather than creating them.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. Meinert, Carmen. “Between the Profane and the Sacred? On the Context of the Rite of ‘Liberation’ (sgrol ba).” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 99–130. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. “Liberation” here refers to the idea that one can ritually influence the rebirth of one’s victim, whether an agricultural animal or an enemy of Buddhism.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Snellgrove, David. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. 2 vols. Boston: Shambhala, 1987.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Presents the view that tantric traditions represented a major shift in Buddhist ethics.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Royal and State Violence
  404. This section focuses on narrative sources from Buddhist tradition that idealize or criticize Buddhist kings. The legend of the Buddhist King Aśoka is important throughout the Buddhist world, and his ancient edicts have been a touchstone for the interpretation of Buddhist values of government by modern scholars. For China and Japan, see also Warfare in Cultural and Historical Perspective. Strong 1983, Devahuti 1998, Amore 1996, and Bareau 1993 all treat narrative lore regarding famous Buddhist kings. Zimmermann 2000 and Jenkins 2010 both focus on the Satyakaparivarta Sūtra, which explains when and how Buddhist kings may go to war and to what degree they may torture and punish their subjects. Lang 1992 illustrates that Buddhist thought does, in fact, include strong social criticism.
  405.  
  406. Amore, Roy C. “Peace and Non-Violence in Buddhism.” Paper presented at the Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective International Conference, University of Toronto, May 1991. In The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective. Edited by Harvey L. Dyck, 240–259. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1996.
  407.  
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. Notes that Aśoka’s edicts warn not to rebel despite the commitment to nonviolence. Aśoka’s promotion of dharma becomes a model for later Buddhist rulers. Wars of aggression and cruel punishments were considered to be against dharma, but the government was thought to have the duty to punish criminals and rebels.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Bareau, André. “Le Bouddha et la rois.” Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient 80.1 (1993): 15–39.
  416.  
  417. DOI: 10.3406/befeo.1993.2187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Focused primarily on kings in early Buddhist texts.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Devahuti, D. Harsha: A Political Study. 3d ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. According to legend, the Buddhist King Harṣa conquered his empire with the support of Avalokiteśvara. And as many famous kings of Buddhist lore, he massacred non-Buddhist priests.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Jenkins, Stephen. “Making Merit through Warfare According to the Ārya-Bodhisattva-gocara-upāyaviṣaya-vikurvaṇa-nirdeśa Sūtra.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 59–76. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. A discussion centered around the prominent scripture otherwise known as the Satyakaparivarta Sūtra, which argues that Buddhists had strong ideological resources for the support of warfare, torture, and punishment. This text can also be read as a critique of exploitive government, unethical warfare, and excessive punishment. See also Zimmermann 2000 and Jamspal 1991 (cited under Scriptures).
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Lang, Karen. “Āryadeva and Candrakīrti on the Dharma of Kings.” Asiatische Studien 46.1 (1992): 232–243.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Shows the great Buddhist scholar Candrakīrti delivering a jeremiad against violent kings. Buddhists did engage in social criticism on a level consistent with their times.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Strong, John. The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. The definitive work on the legend of Aśoka.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Zimmerman, Michael. “A Mahāyānist Criticism of Arthaśāstra, The Chapter on Royal Ethics in the Bodhisattva-gocaropāya-viṣaya-vikurvaṇa-nirdeśa-sūtra.” Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 1999 (2000): 177–211.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. The only study based on both the Chinese and Tibetan translations. See also Jenkins 2010 and Jamspal 1991 (cited under Scriptures).
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Cultural Historical Perspective
  470. The past century has been tragically violent for Buddhist cultures of every nation. Because of the civil war, the study of violence in Sri Lanka is substantial, and the sources here should only be viewed as a beginning. India is a problematic historical context, since Buddhism disappeared from there long ago. However, work such as Davidson’s is opening up new possibilities. Davidson 2002 makes an argument also heard earlier from Hindu nationalists: the pacifism of Buddhism resulted in political weakness. Dreyfuss 1998 is especially recommended for anyone seeking a balanced view of the Tibetan tradition and should be read in any course of study or research on the topic. Victoria’s works are similarly important for re-envisioning Buddhist ethics of violence, especially in relation to the “Great Compassionate War,” World War II. Welch 1972 and Wright 1959 are excellent general works on China.
  471.  
  472. India
  473. Jaini 2001, Fitzgerald 2004, and Davidson 2002 illustrate how important the perception of Buddhist pacifism is for the general interpretation of Indian cultural history. Bodewitz 1999 and Clooney 2003 provide a context for understanding the Buddhist struggle to create a valid ethics of compassionate violence as part of a general problem in Indian thought.
  474.  
  475. Bodewitz, Henk. “Hindu Ahiṃsā and Its Roots.” In Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence, and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History. Edited Jan E. M. Houben and Karel R. Van Kooij, 17–42. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. Notes the problematic aspects of interpreting ahiṃsā as “nonviolence.” A useful article for contextualizing Indian Buddhist values.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Clooney, Francis X. “Pain but Not Harm: Some Classical Resources toward a Hindu Just War Theory.” In Just War in Comparative Perspective. Edited by Paul Robinson, 109–124. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. A valuable article for comparative perspective that problematizes the interpretation of ahiṃsā and gives the context for Buddhist critiques of animal sacrifice.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Davidson, Ronald. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. Argues that Hindus, particularly Śaivites, were able to robustly support the violence of their kings as divine erotic play, whereas Buddhists were disempowered by a fundamental conflict between their pacifist values and political reality. Hence, the demise of Buddhism in India was substantially due to its inability to ideologically compete.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501.  
  502. Fitzgerald, James L., trans. The Mahābhārata. Vol. 7, Book 11, The Book of Women; Book 12, The Book of Peace, Part One. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
  503.  
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. Fitzgerald argues that the Hindu epic’s struggle with the ethics of violence was strongly influenced by conflict with heterodox ascetic movements, such as Buddhism. The dominance of political powers, especially Aśoka, that were partial to the ethics of ahiṃsā and interfered with traditional practices of sacrifice, created a crisis for Brahminical traditions.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510.  
  511. Jaini, Padmanabh S. “The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism in India: A Study in Contrast.” In Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies. By Padmanabh S. Jaini, 139–153. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. Discusses the question of why Jainism, which also strongly abhorred violence, survived in India when Buddhism did not.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Burma and Thailand
  521. Burma and Thailand have long histories of political warfare often validated in Buddhist terms. Ling 1979 and Schober 2007 both point out the fallacy of equating Buddhism with political pacifism. Jerryson 2010 focuses on contemporary Buddhist-Muslim conflict in Thailand. Tambiah 1976 is a general study of Thailand but is also important for the way it utilizes the paradigm of Aśoka.
  522.  
  523. Jerryson, Michael. “Militarizing Buddhism: Violence in Southern Thailand.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 179–209. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  524.  
  525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. A rich description of the contemporary violence between Muslims and Buddhists, which is resulting in the fortification of monasteries and the phenomenon of “military monks.”
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531.  
  532. Ling, Trevor. Buddhism, Imperialism, and War: Burma and Thailand in Modern History. London: Allen and Unwin, 1979.
  533.  
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. Argues that the history of Burma and Thailand shows that Buddhism has not been a religion of peace and that national warfare may be regarded as a Buddhist activity.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540.  
  541. Schober, Julianne. “Buddhism, Violence, and the State in Burma (Myanmar) and Sri Lanka.” In Religion and Conflict in South and Southeast Asia. Edited by Linell E. Cady and Sheldon W. Simon, 51–69. London: Routledge, 2007.
  542.  
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Critiques the notion that religions embracing a doctrine of nonviolence are necessarily immune to it. Focuses on modern monastic political activism. Available onlineonline.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549.  
  550. Tambiah, Stanley. World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical Background. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. A monumental work that analyzes Thai polity in relation to an Aśokan paradigm.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558.  
  559. Sri Lanka
  560. The tragic ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka has challenged scholars to adopt a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the Buddhist ethics of violence. Deegalle 2006 assembles a group of the finest scholars in the world in a broad multidimensional study. Greenwald 1978, Bartholomeusz 1999, Harris 2003, Kent 2010, and Schalk 2007 all explore the uses and misuses of Buddhist ideology. Tambiah 1992 is a standard work on the role of Buddhist institutions in the development of political violence.
  561.  
  562. Bartholomeusz, Tessa. “In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999): 1–11.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. Questions the views that the Buddhist justifications of war in the civil war of Sri Lanka are not truly Buddhist or are a cultural aberration.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Deegalle, Mahinda, ed. Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka. Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism. London: Routledge, 2006.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. A rich and multifaceted collection of articles from a host of the leading Western and Sri Lankan scholars. Treats issues in the complex context of the Sri Lankan civil war in direct relation to Hindu Tamil concepts and ideals.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Greenwald, Alice “The Relic on the Spear: Historiography and the Saga of Dutthagamani.” In Religion and the Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Edited by Bardwell L. Smith, 13–35. Chambersburg, PA: Anima, 1978.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Illustrates the uses of Buddhist symbols and ideology in warfare and power politics.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Harris, Elizabeth. “Buddhism and the Justification of War: A Case Study from Sri Lanka.” In Just War in Comparative Perspective. Edited by Paul Robinson, 93–108. Burlington, VT: Aldershot, 2003.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. Describes the Buddhist justifications of war in the Sri Lankan civil war.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. Kent, Daniel. “Onward Buddhist Soldiers: Preaching to the Sri Lankan Army.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 157–178. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. Examines the role of Buddhist preaching in the wartime experience of Buddhist soldiers.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. Schalk, Peter. “Operationalizing Buddhism for Political Ends in a Martial Context in Lanka: The Case of Siṃhalatva.” In Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice. Edited by John Hinnells and Richard King, 139–153. New York: Routledge, 2007.
  608.  
  609. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  610.  
  611. Describes the Buddhist rationalizations for war in the Sri Lankan civil war.
  612.  
  613. Find this resource:
  614.  
  615.  
  616. Tambiah, Stanley. Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
  617.  
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619.  
  620. Critiques the role of Buddhist institutions in the development of political violence in Sri Lanka.
  621.  
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624.  
  625. Tibet
  626. No culture has been more subject to conflicting forms of propaganda and fantasy than Tibet. Sperling 2001 shows how nonviolence has played its role in those fantasies. Shakabpa 1967 is a frank account of recent Tibetan history that shows neither the regime of the Dalai Lamas nor the great monastic hierarchs took a pacifist approach either to one another or to the Chinese. This highlights the uniqueness of the current Dalai Lama as a world leader in nonviolence. Dreyfus 1998 is exemplary both in terms of research and of sensitivity to this highly complex issue. It is one of the most valuable works for the study of Buddhism and violence. Goldstein 1964 describes the institution of monastic punks. Maher 2010 and Schlieter 2006 look at two important historical instances where monks engaged in violence: the Fifth Dalai Lama’s war to dominate Tibet and the assassination of King Langdarma.
  627.  
  628. Dreyfus, Georges. “The Shuk-den Affair: Origins of a Controversy.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 21.2 (1998): 227–270.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. Goes beyond explaining the tragic murder of monks related to controversy over the dangerous protector deity, Shuk-den, to being a richly textured and unusually objective study of violent protector deities and the institution of the Dalai Lama from its origins to modern times. Recommended for all readers and course syllabi. Also available online.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Goldstein, Melvyn. “A Study of the Ldab ldob.” Central Asiatic Journal 1.2 (1964): 123–141.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. A case study of the tradition of monastic guardians who manifested physical force in support of Tibetan monasteries. Available online.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. Maher, Derek. “Sacralized Warfare: The Fifth Dalai Lama and the Discourse of Religious Violence.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 77–90. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. Examines the rationalizations of violence employed by the Fifth Dalai Lama in his successful campaign to politically unify Tibet under his power.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. Schlieter, Jens. “Compassionate Killing or Conflict Resolution? The Murder of King Langdarma according to Tibetan Buddhist Sources.” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 131–158. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  656.  
  657. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. Explores the famous narrative of a leading monk’s assassination of an anti-Buddhist Tibetan king.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. Shakabpa, W. D. Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1967.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. Describes Tibet’s late attempts to create a modern military and police force and the violent suppression of that effort by monastic authorities.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672.  
  673. Sperling, Elliot. “Orientalism and Aspects of Violence in the Tibetan Tradition.” In Imagining Tibet: Realities, Projections, and Fantasies. Edited by Thierry Dodin and Heinz Räther, 317–330. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. Examines pacifism as a feature of utopian Orientalist fantasies of Tibet.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681.  
  682. Tsong-kha-pa. The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment: Lam Rim Chen Mo. Vol. 1. Translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2000.
  683.  
  684. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  685.  
  686. The Lam Rim Chen Mo addresses the specific issue of compassionate killing in an authoritative way for the dominant Gelugpa tradition of Tibet. Tsong-kha-pa also demonstrates great mastery of the Indian Buddhist scriptural and commentarial literature that is extremely valuable for those studying Indian Buddhism.
  687.  
  688. Find this resource:
  689.  
  690.  
  691. China
  692. Wright 1959 and Demiéville 1973 are broad surveys that describe state and monastic warfare as well as Buddhist-inspired peasant revolts. Welch 1972 covers modern China during the Maoist period. His depiction of Buddhist efforts to validate violence is also valuable for identifying the primary texts utilized by Chinese thinkers. Yu’s more recent works expand on Welch’s efforts in describing Chinese Buddhist responses to war with the Japanese and Americans.
  693.  
  694. Demiéville, Paul. “Le Buddhisme et la Guerre.” In Choix d’études bouddhiques (1929–1970). Edited by Paul Demiéville, 347–385. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1973.
  695.  
  696. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  697.  
  698. A seminal study, originally published in 1957, with special relevance to Buddhist warfare in China and Japan. An English translation may be found in Juergensmeyer and Jerryson 2010 (cited under General Overviews).
  699.  
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702.  
  703. Welch, Holmes. Buddhism Under Mao. Harvard East Asian Series 69. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
  704.  
  705. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. Describes the uses of Buddhist values, including translation of primary texts, during the Communist Revolution and the Korean War.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711.  
  712. Wright, Arthur F. Buddhism in Chinese History. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959.
  713.  
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715.  
  716. Describes the utilization of Buddhist ideas in support of warfare, as well as the idealization of rulers as bodhisattvas and as cakravartins. Explains how Buddhist ideas of reincarnation helped soldiers overcome fears of dishonoring their family through the Confucian crime of mutilation of the body and failure to perform rituals of filial piety because of death in battle. Buddhism offered new notions of immortality and ideas of merit-making as a warrior.
  717.  
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720.  
  721. Yu, Xue. Buddhism, War, and Nationalism: Chinese Monks in the Struggle against Japanese Aggression 1831–1945. London: Routledge, 2005.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. Explores the uses of Buddhist texts and ideology to motivate violent response to the Japanese.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729.  
  730. Yu, Xue. “Buddhists in China during the Korean War (1951–1953).” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 131–156. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  731.  
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733.  
  734. Describes how, during the Korean War, Chinese Buddhists supported the co-optation and exploitation of Buddhist values to support warfare. Argues that although it may have been motivated by a desire to protect Buddhism, this exploitation ultimately led to the near disappearance of Buddhism on the mainland.
  735.  
  736. Find this resource:
  737.  
  738.  
  739. Japan
  740. Renondeau 1957 describes the monastic armies that characterized pre-Tokugawa times. Victoria 2003, Victoria 2006, and Victoria 2010 depict and critique the role played by Buddhist traditions in supporting modern warfare. (See also Nichiren 1990, Demiéville 1973 under China, and Schmithausen 1999 under Violence and Warfare in Principle.)
  741.  
  742. Nichiren. Selected Writings of Nichiren. Edited by Philip B. Yampolsky. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990.
  743.  
  744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. Nichiren’s writings are an excellent source not only for East Asian ethics of violence but also for Buddhist primary texts in general. He broadly cites passages that support violence in his concerns for both the Mongols and opposing Buddhist traditions.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750.  
  751. Renondeau, Gaston. “Histoire Des Moines Guerriers du Japon.” In Mélanges publiés par l’Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises. Vol. 1. Edited by L’Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 159–346. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1957.
  752.  
  753. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  754.  
  755. A study of the warrior monks of Japan.
  756.  
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759.  
  760. Victoria, Brian. Zen War Stories. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  761.  
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763.  
  764. Using intimate case studies and interviews, describes the personal psychology and social mechanisms of the applications of Buddhist thought and practice to the purposes of warfare.
  765.  
  766. Find this resource:
  767.  
  768.  
  769. Victoria, Brian. Zen at War. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006.
  770.  
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772.  
  773. One of the most important works on Buddhist violence. Focused on “the Great Compassionate War,” World War II.
  774.  
  775. Find this resource:
  776.  
  777.  
  778. Victoria, Brian Daizen. “A Buddhological Critique of ‘Soldier-Zen’ in Wartime Japan.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 105–130. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. A critique of the Buddhistic rationalizations of World War II and an investigation of their social origins.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786.  
  787. Euthanasia and Suicide
  788. Although early Buddhist texts generally prohibit suicide and euthanasia, there are many exceptions to both restrictions found in sacred texts and the monastic discipline. As several cases in the early literature show, monks who are afflicted with painful deadly illnesses kill themselves and yet attain nirvana at death. This would combine the categories of euthanasia and suicide. Chinese Pure Land devotees are known to have jumped off cliffs to hasten their rebirth in the world of Amitābha. Self-inflicted violence, including burning or severing limbs, complete self-immolation, and suicide as a spiritual practice, is an area that calls for further research. Delhey 2006 gives a general survey of various contexts and textual sources on suicide, including religious suicide such as self-immolation. Ratanakul 2000 shows how the introduction of modern technology, with its capacity to prolong life, has complicated the issue of euthanasia. Does simply not supporting life constitute killing? Keown 1999 is as valuable for the general ethics of killing as it is for the specific issue of euthanasia. Current studies of mainstream views are overwhelmingly focused on the easily accessible Pali literature. Further comparison to sources extant only in Chinese and Sanskrit may reveal a broader range of thought. Śāntideva’s Śikṣāsamuccaya (Śāntideva 1981, cited under Primary Sources), in defending compassionate killing, cites a mainstream source in support of animal euthanasia.
  789.  
  790. Delhey, Martin. “Views on Suicide in Buddhism: Some Remarks.” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 25–64. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  791.  
  792. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. Surveys an assortment of perspectives on suicide, including suicide as a religious practice, from mainstream and Mahayana sources up to modern voices such as Thich Nhat Hanh.
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
  797.  
  798.  
  799. Keown, Damien. “Attitudes to Euthanasia in the Vinaya and Commentary.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999): 260–270.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. Analyzes euthanasia in light of the great Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa’s thought. This is also a valuable article for the broader issue of taking life and for its broader textual references in Pali scriptures.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807.  
  808. Ratanakul, Pirit. “To Save or Let Go: Thai Buddhist Perspectives on Euthanasia.” In Contemporary Buddhist Ethics. Edited by Damien Keown, 169–182. London: Routledge, 2000.
  809.  
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811.  
  812. Illustrates how the introduction of modern medical technology has complicated the application of Buddhist ethics to death and dying. Raises the question of whether failing to prolong life amounts to a violation of the precept against killing.
  813.  
  814. Find this resource:
  815.  
  816.  
  817. Abortion
  818. From a scriptural perspective abortion is generally forbidden in Buddhism, but in practice the issue is highly complex and manifests itself in culturally unique ways. Florida 2000 is an excellent work that benefits from both Keown and Lafleur. Florida also presents a useful article on abortion in Keown 1998, which is a superb collection. Lafleur 1994 examines the popular and highly lucrative Japanese practice of offering rituals for aborted fetuses to invoke the blessings of the celestial bodhisattva Jizō. Keown 1995 is a general study of medical ethics that includes abortion and euthanasia.
  819.  
  820. Florida, Robert. “Buddhism and Abortion.” In Contemporary Buddhist Ethics. Edited by Damien Keown, 137–168. London: Routledge, 2000.
  821.  
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823.  
  824. Examines the moral status of an embryo and basic ethical views on abortion. Also explores abortion-related issues in Thailand, Japan, and Korea.
  825.  
  826. Find this resource:
  827.  
  828.  
  829. Keown, Damien, Buddhism and Bioethics. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.
  830.  
  831. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832.  
  833. A general study focused on medical ethics, including abortion, euthanasia, and issues related to animal research.
  834.  
  835. Find this resource:
  836.  
  837.  
  838. Keown, Damien, ed. Buddhism and Abortion. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1998.
  839.  
  840. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  841.  
  842. This is a rich collection of ten articles by authorities in the field of Buddhist ethics covering the issue of abortion as a theoretical issue and in multiple historical and cultural contexts.
  843.  
  844. Find this resource:
  845.  
  846.  
  847. Lafleur, William. Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
  848.  
  849. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  850.  
  851. A study of Japanese ritual practices and beliefs related to aborted fetuses.
  852.  
  853. Find this resource:
  854.  
  855.  
  856. Animal Rights and Vegetarianism
  857. Ruegg 1980 shows that vegetarianism in Buddhism is relatively rare and is especially associated with the tahtāgatagarbha doctrine and the Mahayana’s Brahmajāla Sūtra, which for China superseded the mainstream Vinaya texts that set the rule for Tibetan and abhidharmic Buddhism. Waldau 2000 offers a general treatment of the moral status of animals. Chapple 1993 explores the development of the notion of ahiṃsā and its relationship to current issues such as animal research. Shabkar 2004 is the work of a premodern vegetarianism activist in Tibet. This work is important for its understanding of the issue in the Tibetan context, its scholarly assembly of Buddhist scriptures on the subject, and the surprising sophistication of some of its arguments. Vollmer 2006 gives a fascinating look into the early Japanese practice of validating the killing of animals as compassionate and merit-making. Animal sacrifice was validated by identifying kami with celestial bodhisattvas who exercise skillful means in taking on the karmic retribution for the sacrificer’s killing and spiritually benefiting the animals. Also examines the moral ambiguities associated with political decrees against killing animals.
  858.  
  859. Chapple, Christopher Key. Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993.
  860.  
  861. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  862.  
  863. Examines the origins and development of the Indian ideal of ahiṃsā, “nonviolence,” including the broader Jain and Hindu contexts and its further meaning in East Asian Buddhism. Applies these values to current issues such as the use of animals in research.
  864.  
  865. Find this resource:
  866.  
  867.  
  868. Ruegg, D. Seyfort. “Ahiṃsā and Vegetarianism in the History of Buddhism.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula. Edited by Somaratna Balasooriya, 234–241. London: Gordon Fraser, 1980.
  869.  
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871.  
  872. Ruegg shows that vegetarianism in Buddhism is relatively rare and is especially associated with tahtāgatagarbha doctrine and Mahayana’s Brahmajāla Sūtra, which for China superseded the mainstream Vinaya texts that set the rule for Tibetan and abhidharmic Buddhism.
  873.  
  874. Find this resource:
  875.  
  876.  
  877. Shabkar. Food of Bodhisattvas: Buddhist Teachings on Abstaining from Meat. Translated by Padmakara Translation Group. Boston: Shambhala, 2004.
  878.  
  879. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  880.  
  881. Good not only for Tibetan advocacy of vegetarianism but also for Indian scriptural sources on vegetarianism. It makes early arguments based on supply and demand and environmental impact.
  882.  
  883. Find this resource:
  884.  
  885.  
  886. Vollmer, Klaus. “Buddhism and the Killing of Animals in Premodern Japan.” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 195–211. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  887.  
  888. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  889.  
  890. Excellent for general understanding of the values surrounding killing in early Japan. Decrees to abolish killing were synonymous with claims of dominion and simultaneous with the valorization of hunting.
  891.  
  892. Find this resource:
  893.  
  894.  
  895. Waldau, Paul. “Buddhism and Animal Rights.” In Contemporary Buddhist Ethics. Edited by Damien Keown, 57–80. London: Curzon, 2000.
  896.  
  897. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  898.  
  899. Waldau does not address the violence of animal sacrifice or killing animals for food, but he does usefully address the issue of the moral status of animals. The notes are a valuable guide for further exploration.
  900.  
  901. Find this resource:
  902.  
  903.  
  904. Corporal Punishment
  905. Although Buddhist textual ideals generally oppose capital punishment and mutilation and were far less harsh than Hindu Dharmaśāstras, Buddhist cultures have generally included these in practice. See Florida 2005 (cited under General Overviews), which maintains that virtually all Buddhist polities have included capital punishment. The Questions of King Milinda (Rhys-Davis 1963, cited under Systematic Thought) offers a highly authoritative Theravadin argument that kings, who should punish and mutilate criminals, are not responsible for the death or torment of those punished; rather, the victim’s karma is the cause. Wallace 2010 is an excellent case study of Mongolian practices. Shakabpa 1967 (cited under Tibet) offers similar examples of execution and amputation as punishment in Tibet. The Emperor Aśoka has been held up as a paradigm of pacifism (see Norman 1975 and Tambiah 1976), cited under Burma and Thailand, but more recent work, that of Guruge 1997 and Amore 1996 (cited under Royal and State Violence), has challenged this view. Strong 1983 (cited under Royal and State Violence) shows that even Buddhist legends of Aśoka were far less prone to romanticize him than modern scholarship. Zimmermann 2006 describes the motivations for why, and the degree to which, a king may punish, with a particular focus on the Satyakparivarta Sūtra and Candrakīrti’s commentary on Āryadeva’s Catuḥśataka.
  906.  
  907. Guruge, Ananda. “The Evolution of Emperor Aśoka’s Humanitarian Policy: Was Capital Punishment Abolished?” In Recent Researches in Buddhist Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Y. Karunadasa. Edited by A. Tilakaratna and A. Dhammajoti, 258–275. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Karunaratne, 1997.
  908.  
  909. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. Strongly argues against the interpretation that Aśoka abolished capital punishment.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915.  
  916. Norman, K. R. “Aśoka and Capital Punishment.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1975): 16–24.
  917.  
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919.  
  920. The strongest possible argument, using great philological skill, that Aśoka became opposed to all killing. Guruge 1997 offers a critique of this view. Norman’s translation is based on the view that the edicts generally abolish killing. The apparent reference to capital punishment must therefore be wrong, and unusual exegetical methods are thus validated.
  921.  
  922. Find this resource:
  923.  
  924.  
  925. Wallace, Vesna. “Legalized Violence: Punitive Measures of Buddhist Khans in Mongolia.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Michael Jerryson, 91–104. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  926.  
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928.  
  929. Illustrates the harsh penal codes of the Buddhist Khans, and the texts and ideas that were used to support them.
  930.  
  931. Find this resource:
  932.  
  933.  
  934. Zimmermann, Michael. “Only a Fool Becomes a King: Buddhist Stances on Punishment.” In Buddhism and Violence. Edited by Michael Zimmermann, 213–242. Kathmandu, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2006.
  935.  
  936. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  937.  
  938. Describes under what motivations and to what degree a king may punish, with particular focus on the Bodhisattvagocara-upāyaviṣaya-vikurvaṇa-nirdeśa Sūtra (Jamspal 1991, cited under Scriptures) and Āryadeva and Candrakīrti 2003 (see Systematic Thought).
  939.  
  940. Find this resource:
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