Lesson 11

》Lesson 11《
*Directing
   -Process where managers instruct, guide, and monitor employees' performances
   -Imposing protocols & measures to be followed

*Leadership
   -Process of social influence that enables a person to encourage others
   -Nature of the relationship between manager and subordinates

*Motivation
    -Psychological process of directing behavior
    -Determines the person's willingness to use their ability to the utmost in performing a task

   >Elements in the Process of Motivation:
      ○Motive - Arouses an individual to behave in a certain way
      ○Behavior - Compromised of actions aimed at accomplishing a motive or need
      ○Goal - Achievement of a motive

   >Motivational Process:
      ○Motive - Identifies the needs
         |    - Either primary or secondary needs
         V
      ○Behavior - Searches for ways to fulfill needs
         |      - Selecrs a way to fulfill needs
         V      - Performs to satisfy
      ○Goal -

>Theories of Motivation:
   ○Maslow's Hierarchy Needs
      -Developed by Abraham Maslow
      -Most widely recognized theory of motivation
      -Specifies an individual's fundamental needs:
           a.) First 2 levels: deficiency or lower level needs
                -Essential for person's survival
                -Includes Psychological needs & safety and security needsģ
           b.) Other basic needs: Growth or higher-level needs
                -Includes love belongingness (relationship woth family, friends, and peers), need for esteem (self-worth & self-respect), and need for self-actualization (one's true potential)

Maslow' Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Fulfillment Needs:
○Self-Actualization - Achieving one's full potential, including creative activities

Psychological Needs:
○Esteem Needs - Prestige, feeling of accomplishment
○Belongingness & Love Needs - Intimate relationships, friends

Basic Needs:
○Safety Needs - Security, safety
○Physiological Needs - Food, water, warmth, rest

   ○Alderfer's ERG Theory
      -ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) Theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer (1969)
      -Primarily based on Maslow's Hierarchy
      -Existence needs are compromised of physiological & safety needs
      -Relatedness compromised of combined love & belongingness
      -Growth needs include self-esteem & self-actualization
      -Doesn't require lower-level needs to be satisfied before higher-level ones
      -Person's prioritization on their needs may change

ERG Theory of Motivation

Growth:
○Self-Actualization & Self-Esteem

Relatedness:
○Self-Esteem & Social

Existence:
○Safety
○Physiological

   ○McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
      -Developed by David McClelland
      -Known as Achievement Motivation Theory
      -Learned needs: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
      -Present in a person that through experiences there'll be a dominant motivator
      -Need for Achievement - strong desire to accomplish challenging goals
      -Need for Affiliation - Prefer to be in other's company
      -Need for Power - Want to control & influence others

 McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

nACH (Need for Achievement)
HIGH (Hope for Success [HS])
-Must win at any cost
-Must be on top & recwive credit
LOW (Fear of Failure [FF])
-Fears failure
-Avoids responsibility

nAFF (Need for Affiliation)
HIGH (Harmony [No Disagreement])
-Demand blind loyalty & harmony
-Doesn't tolerate disagreement
LOW (Social Distance)
-Remains aloof
-Maintains social distance

nPOW (Need for Power)
HIGH (Control)
-Desires control of everyone & everything
-Exaggerates own position & resources
LOW (Dependence)
-Dependent/subordinate
-Minimizes own position & resources

   ○Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
      -Proposed by Frederick Herzberg
      -Employee satisfaction is defined by: Motivators & Hygiene
      -Changes between the two will bring satisfaction or dissatisfaction
      -Noted that satisfaction & dissatisfaction are independent conditions, meaning that management shouldn't assume that the increase of satisfaction is due to elimination of factors that bring dissatisfaction

Job Dissatisfaction - Influenced by Hygiene Factors:
●Rules & Policies
●Salaries & Benefits
●Relationship with Coworkers & Superiors
●Work Conditions
●Quality of Supervisors

Job Satisfaction - Influenced by Motivator Factors:
●Job itself
●Recognition
●Personal Growth
●Opportunity for Advancement
●Responsibility
●Employment Status

   ○Adam's Equity Theory
      -Developes by John Stacey Adams
       -Proposed that the employees are motivated when treated fairly
       -Employees seek to maintain fairness regarding their personal inputs & outputs in comparison to others
       -Input includes all job contributions, outputs include positive & negative outcomes from inputs
       -There's equity if employee perceives that they're provided the same amount of inputs & gain inputs equally

   ○Vroom's Expectancy Theory
     -Developed by Victor Vroom
     -Explains that employees are motivated to work when they expect to achieve something
          a.) Expectancy - belief that exerting effort will lead to the attainment of goals
          b.) Instrumentality - belief that achieving a desires performance level will lead to a particular level
          c.) Valence - degree an employee values the expected outcome or reward

      -There's low motivation if there's low expectancy, and vice versa

>Leadership Theories & Styles:
   ○Great Man Theory
      -Proposed by Thomas Carlyle
      -Assumption that leaders are born with innate qualities
      -Renowned leaders are destined to lead
      -Greatly influenced by status
      -Believed that only educated & well-bred men are capable of becoming heroes
      -Discounted the role of lower classes & women in history

   ○Trait Theory
      -Focuses on innate attributes & characteristics that person possesses
      -Believes that leaders possess certain posirive traits that enable them to become a leader
      -Developed by studying successful leaders & compiling a list of their common traits
      -Ralph Stodgill, idenrified key leadership traits & skills (1970)

*Behaviorist Theories
   -Places emphasis on the behavior of leaders rather than innate qualities
   -Patterns of behaviors of leaders are observed and notable actions & behaviors are described

   ○Theory X & Theory Y
      -Popular behaviorist theory by Douglas Mcgregor
      -Describes 2 approaches or models of motivation & leadership in the workplace
        *Theory X - Assumes that workers inherently dislike work and will avoid it as much as posible therefore mamager must emphasis external motivation that includes detailed guidelines, threat of punishment, promise of reward & strict supervision
        *Theory Y - Assumes that workers take the initiative in their work and view it as a pleasant & prodictive endeavor, leadership is democratic & participative

   ○Leadership Grid
      -Conceptualized by management theorists Robert Blake & Jane Mouton
      -Defines leadership as balancing between 2 fundamental concerns: Concern for People & Results

>5 Leadership Styles:
   1.) Authoritatian Leaders (High Results, Low People)
        -Task-oriented & push their people to work
        -Very strict with schedules & expect their people to follow them without question
   2.) Country Club Leaders (Low Results, High People)
        -Use power of rewards to maintain discipline & motivate their subordinates
   3.) Impoverish Leaders (Low Results, Low People)
        -Delegate tasks & leave their subordinates unsupervised
   4.) Team Leaders (High Results, High People)
        -Considered as role models of good management
   5.) Middle of the Road Leaders (Medium Results, Medium People)
        -Seek compromise between production & people concerns and maintain the status quo in the company

*Participative Leadership
   •Kurt Lewin - German-American psychologist, developed a framework focused on a leader's decision-making style
   -Emphasizes leaders' role and other participants (Subordinates, peers, superiors, and other stakeholders) in decision making

>Leadership Styles based on their Decision-making Practices ?Lewin):
   1.) Autocratic Leaders - Take sole charge in decision-making and don't consult with other members
   2.) Democratic Leaders - Allow team members to provide inputs before making a decision
   3.) Laissez-faire Leaders - Don't interfere in decision-making and allow members to make most of the decisions

>Additional Leadership Styles in Decision-Making (Renisis Likert):
   1.) Exploitative Authorative Leaders - Have low concern for people and use threats to make workers comply with orders
   2.) Benevolent Authorative Leaders - Express concern for people, uses rewards to encourage worker compliance & good performance
   3.) Consultative Leaders - Make a concious effort to listen to subordinates' ideas
   4.) Participative Leaders - Maximize the participation of subordinates in decision-making
                             - Involve people from all levels

*Leadership Continuum
   -Believed that leadership styles may vaey along a continuum from autocratic to democratic
   -Suggests that when one moves away from an extremely autocratic leadership style, subordinates have increased participation in decision-making

   >4 Leader Styles (Continuum):
      1.) Autocratic Leaders - Take charge of decision making and relay deicisions made to their subordinates (Telling Style)
      2.) Persuasive Leaders - Make decisions for the group without consultation
                             - Make the effort to persuade members to accept the decision (Selling Style)
      3.) Consultative Leaders - Confer with members who propose possible solutions or alternatives (Consulting Style)
      4.) Democratic Leaders - Present the problem to group members and involve them in decision-making (Joining Style)

*Situational Leadership
   -Considers that leadership styles are specific to a particular situation, and leaders adapt their actions & behavior to whatever situation they're in

   >Approaches in Situational Leadership Shares 6 Common Variables:
     1.) Subordinate Efforr - Worker motivation & actual effort spent
     2.) Subordinate Ability & Role Clarity - Extent a worker knows what to do & how to do it
     3.) Organization of the Work - Structure of work & utilization of sources
     4.) Cooperation & Cohesiveness - How well participants work together as a group
     5.) Resource & Support - Availability of tools, materials, and people
     6.) External Coordination - Need to collaborate with other groups

*Hersey-Blanchard Leadership Theory
   -Developed by Paul Hersey & Ken Blanchard
   -Focuses on the direction & emotional support a leader provides their followers
   >Considers 3 Elements:
     1.) Task Behavior - Leader assigns the duties & functions of members
     2.) Relationship Behavior - Leader opens the lines of communication between themselves and other members
     3.) Maturity & Competence - Leader shows willingness to take responsibility for leading the group's members
                               - Workers: Capability to get the job done
   >Leadership Styles from this Model:
     1.) Directing - Leader directs & gives clear instructions
                   - Good for followers with low competence
     2.) Coaching - Leader is always open to two-way communication not continually motivates employees
                  - Good for followers with moderate competence
     3.) Supporting - Leader & members support each other
                    - There's active participation among workers who are moderately competent
     4.) Delegating - Leader has highly competent followers
                    - Followers are highly motivated & take responsibility for accomplishing the assigned task

*Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
   -Describes the way leaders support their followers in achieving their goals
   >Leadership Styles (Robert House):
     1.) Supportive Leadership - Leader supports a friendly environment by looking after their subordinates' welfare
     2.) Directive Leadership - Leader communicates to the members of the goals, expectations, and assigns clear tasks
     3.) Participative Leadership - Leader consults with their followers & considers their ideas in decision-making
     4.) Achievement-oriented Leadership - Leader trusts their worker's capabilities and set challenging goals to motivate them to perform at their optimal levels

*John Adair's Action-Centered Leadership Model
   1.) (Achieving) Task - Includes defining the task, making plans, allocating resources, and assigjing specific tasks
                        - Direct the job to be done (Talk Structuring)
   2.) (Build & Maintain) Team - Entails maintaining discipline, building team spirit, and motivating members
                               - Coordinate & foster the work team as a whole
   3.) (Develop) Individuals - Includes attending to personal problems, recognizing and using indivodual abilitiea and developing group memebers
                             - Support & review the indovodual people doing it

*Contigency Theory
   -Refinement of situational leadership
   -Requires leaders to analyze a situation and identify the variables that would determine the most effective leadership style that'll address the situation
     *Fred Fiedler's Contigency Theory - Emphasizes that there's no particular leadership that's the best

   >Factors that Determine Managerial Task's Nature (Fiedler):
     1.) Leader-member Relations - How well the manager & employees get clean and the trust & confidence the latter places on the former
     2.) Task Structure - How well the workers know how to accomplish the task
                        - Is job highly structured, fairly unstructured, or somehwere in between
     3.) Position Power - Amount of power a manager has in directing workers and giving rewards & punishment

*Transactional Theory
   -Considers the relationship between followers & leaders as key to achieving goals
   -Leaders give equal treatment & due recognition to their members
   -First described by Max Weber (1947), further expanded by Bernard Bass (1981)
   -Preferred by most managers because it focuses on the base management process of plannin, organizing, and controlling
   -Involves motivating & directing subordinates by appealing to their self-interest
   -Emphasizes the concept of change & believes that leaders are tasked to provide direction & implement changes through performance & attainment of goals
   -Leader-member exchange leadership theory describes how leaders maintain their positions through a series of agreements with members
     *Leader-member relationships - established & nurtured in a process that starts with role-taking
     *Routinization - Social exchanges between the leader & member established & finalized in the last phase
     *James Burns - first introduced the concept of "transforming leadership"
                  - defines as leadership with a moral dimension, where leader & followers engage each other & bring each other to greater levels of aspiration
     *Bernard Bass - In his book Leadership & Performance Beyond Expectations (1985), developed the concept of "transforming leadership" where leader transforms the followers
     *The Transformational Leader (1986)
        -Noel Tichy & Mary Anne Devanna described the hybrid nature of transformational leadership that ot's not primarily due to charisma but a product of a behavioral process that managers can learn & apply
        -Recent studies by Bernard Bass & Bruce Avolio siggest that this is the closest leadership type of people when describing their ideal leader
   1.) Expand a follower's portfolio of needs
   2.) Transform a follower's self-interest
   3.) Increase the confidence of followers
   4.) Elevate followers' expectations

*Leader's Behavior
   ○Idealized Behavior (Living one's ideals)
     -Talks about their most important values & beliefs
     -Specifies the importance of having a strong sense of purpose
     -Considers moral & ethical consequences of decisions
   ○Inspirational Motivation (Inspiring Others)
     -Talks optimistically about the future
     -Talks enthusiastically about what needs to be done
     -Articulates a compelling vision of the future
     -Expresses confidence that goals wil be achieved
     -Takes a stand on controversial issues
   ○Idealized Consideration (Coaching & Development)
     -Spends time teaching & coaching
     -Treats others as individuals & not just group members
     -Considers individuals as having distinct needs, abilities, and aspirations
     -Helps others develop their strengths
     -Listens attentively to other's concerns to promote self-developments
   ○Idealized Attributes (Respect, Trust, and Faith)
     -Inspires others to take pride in being associated with the group
     -Goes beyond self-interest in working for the good of the group
     -Acta in ways that merit respect from others

>Communication Process:
   1.) Input - Content of the messsage
   2.) Sender - Encodws or sends the message
   3.) Code - Symbol system, known to both sender & receiver, that constructs meaning
   4.) Channel - Means which sender relays the message to the receiver
   5.) Noise - Any distortion or interference during the communication process
             - Can be psychological (bias, assumptions, ideas), pshyiological (state of health of receiver or sender), physical (distractions, background noise), and semantic (usw of specialized language or jargon)
   6.) Receiver - Decodes or receives the message
   7.) Output - Content of the message as decoded by the receiver
   8.) Response - Reaction of the reciever to the message
   9.) Feedback - Part of the receiver's response that's transmitted back to the sender

>Barriers to Effective Workplace Communication:
   1.) Physical Barriers
        -Areas that bar people from entering like closed office doors
   2.) Perceptual Barriers
        -Problem arises when people have different perspectives about their situation
          ○Perception - How people look at things
   3.) Emotional Barriers
        -Consist of fear, mistrust, and suspicion
        -Prevent people from expressing their true feelings, resulting in employees not being open with each other
   4.) Cultural Barriers
        -Cultural differences among groups may male communication difficult
   5.) Language Barriers
        -Difference in words, expressions, and gestures hamper communication
        -Difficulty is experienced by multinational companies
   6.) Gender Barriers
        -Distinctions in the speech patterns of men & women
   7.) Interpersonal Barriers
        -Interpersonal relationships & personal attitudes can be barriera as some individuals are uncomfortable with itneracting with others

*Diversity - Important issue in management as it's key in establishing business relations, satisfying customer needs, and ensuring the organozation moves as one in realizing goals

*Cultural Change - Continuous process and that corporate culture is considered effective

>Components of an effective Corporatw Culture:
   •Vision
   •Values
   •Practices
   •People
   •Narrative
   •Place

*Values - Depict the behavior & mindset needed to achieve the company's vision

*Alvin Toffler - In The Third Wave (1980), discussed the global changes that human society has undergone throughout history

*Information Age
   -Alvin calls modern times this
   -Characterized by fast paced technological developments & emergence of an information-based environment

   >Characterisrics Organization should Possess:
     a.) Flexibility - Ability to adjust & reinvent to cope with a fast-changing environment
     b.) Creativity - Using imagination in implementing innovationa while remaining committed to a vision
     c.) Innovation - Ability to take risks & adopt new perspectives regarding attitudes, values, and behavior

>Stages:
   ●1400s - 1800s (Mercantilism & Colonization)
      -1400s, Ancient kingdoms began to embark on regional & global trade relations
      -17th & 18th century, Europe's most powerful countries wmbarkwd on colonization ventures which rwsiltwd in the establishment of economic, political, and cultural relarions between West and the rest of the world
   ●20th Century (Establishment of Multinational Companies)
      -1900s, multinational companies were established and bought their products & services to the global market
   ●21st Century (Prevalent Globalization)

>Types of Global Managers:
   ○Expatriate - Foreigners whose long-term services are acquired by a local company; they're brought for their extensive experience jn overseeinf company operations
   ○Frequent Flyer - Deal with short-term projects to foreign countries
                   - Typically require a moderate understanding of local cultures but they should be well-versed in global issues and should be multilingual & able to quickly familiarize themselves with general aspects of local cultures
   ○Virrual Manager - Oversees a project remotely and whose work is usually technical in nature
                    - Must be familiar with various communication tools

>Multicultural Competencies:
   1.) Global managers should possess multicultural communication skills
   2.) Should cultivate relationships with people of different cultures
   3.) Should exercise flexibility
   4.) Should have a more contemporary or cosmopolitan view of rhe world
   5.) Should quicklt adjust to a certain culture
   6.) Should know how to build multicultural teams

○Filipino society is hierarchical & family-oriented
○Personal honor & hiya are strongly held Filipino values