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Julius II (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Julius II (Giuliano della Rovere, b. 1443–d. 1513, pope 1503–1513) is best known as the “warrior pope” who used warfare to accomplish his ends of gaining control of the Papal States after the alienation of sections to Cesare Borgia, the incursions and confiscation of the Venetians, and the rebellion of local lords. His reversal of alliances in the War of the League of Cambrai (also called the War of the Holy League in its later phases [NB: once the alliances were reversed in 1509, the new papal alliance was called the Holy League and the war continued]) earned him the hatred of his former allies, the calling of a Church council to distract him, and, in the end, the reward of an expansion of the Papal States to include Reggio-Modena and Parma-Piacenza. He is thus hailed as the second founder of the Papal States. While he temporarily succeeded in driving the French from Italy, that achievement came at the price of entrenching the Spanish. While he supported Church reform in some areas, he devoted most of his attention to political issues. He also hired the leading artists of his day to glorify papal authority in Rome.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Historians such as Ivan Cloulas and Christine Shaw see Julius II as primarily the “papa terribile” who used warfare to accomplish his goals (Cloulas 1990 and Shaw 1993). Their accounts, based on archives full of diplomatic correspondence, emphasize Julius as political figure. Shaw 1993 shows that as a cardinal he did not have the overwhelming influence on his uncle, Sixtus IV, or his ally Innocent VIII that other historians assert. Rodocanachi 1928 is more interested in Julius II as a cultural figure, while Pastor 1891–1953 tries to examine all aspects of his pontificate.
  8.  
  9. Cloulas, Ivan. Jules II: Le Pape terrible. Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1990.
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  11. An archivally based study of Julius II’s relation to his uncle, Sixtus IV, his influence over Innocent VIII, his rivalry with Alexander VI, and his three illegitimate daughters. Cloulas sees Julius II as a man who frequently used force to achieve his ends of controlling the Papal States and freeing Italy of foreign powers. He also gives attention to Julius’s private life, administration, renovation of Rome, and patronage of artists and architects. Translated into Italian as Giulio II by Anna Rosa Gumina (Rome: Salerno Editrice, 1993).
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  13. Pastor, Ludwig von. The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages. 40 vols. Translated by Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, et al. London: B. Herder, 1891–1953.
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  15. Volume 6 is dedicated in good part to the pontificate of Julius II, treating him primarily as the warrior ruler of the Papal States and patron of Michelangelo and Raphael, but also as an ecclesiastical administrator. Volume 6 was originally published as Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters, Vol. 3, part 2 (Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 1895).
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  17. Rodocanachi, Emmanuel. Histoire de Rome: Le pontificat de Jules II, 1503–1513. Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1928.
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  19. A study of the pontificate, covering Julius II’s restoration of papal authority in the Papal States, his life in Rome, his court, the rival councils of Pisa and Lateran V, and his work as a legislator and patron of the arts.
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  21. Shaw, Christine. Julius II: The Warrior Pope. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
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  23. A detailed study of the career of Giuliano della Rovere (Julius II), with a fresh evaluation of his role as cardinal adviser to his uncle, Sixtus IV, and ally Innocent VIII, as an enemy of Alexander VI, and as a supporter of Pius III. Shaw concentrates on him as a political figure who used force to defend papal prerogatives and forward his efforts to free Italy of foreign control. There is little here on Julius II as head of the Church.
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  25. Primary Sources
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  27. The principal printed primary sources for Julius II are his official bulls, collected by Luigi Bilio, et al. (Julius II 1860); the diary of his master of ceremonies (Burchard 1907–1942); the reports of the Venetian ambassadors, collected in Sanuto 1879–1903 and Cessi 1932; the French reports edited by Jean Godefroy (Godefroy 1712); the Spanish reports edited by Barón de Terrateig (Terrateig 1963); and the documents related to his Lateran Council (Julius II 1990 and Minnich 1969).
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  29. Burchard, Johannes. Liber Notarum ab anno MCCCCLXXXIII usque ad annum MDVI. 2 vols. Edited by Enrico Celani. Rerum Italiarum Scriptores, Series II, Tome 32. Città del Castello, Italy: Tipi della Casa editrice S. Lapi, 1907–1942.
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  31. Burchard’s diary not only describes papal ceremonies, it is also full of anecdotes and comments on major figures of the papal court. Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere appears throughout Burchard’s diary, and Burchard continued as papal master of ceremonies once Giuliano became Pope Julius II. Portions of the diary have been translated as At the Court of the Borgia: Being an Account of the Reign of Pope Alexander VI Written by His Master of Ceremonies Johann Burchard, edited and translated by Geoffrey Parker (London: Folio Society, 1963).
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  33. Cessi, Roberto, ed. Dispacci degli ambasciatori veneziani alla corte di Roma presso Giulio II, 25 giugno 1509 – 9 gennaio 1510. Vol. 18 of Monumenti storici, R. Deputazione di storia patria per le Venezie, serie I, Documenti. Venice: R. Deputazione di Storia Patria per le Venezie, 1932.
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  35. Cessi provides transcriptions of the reports sent back to Venice by the Venetian ambassadors to the papal court at the time of the reversal of alliances that saved Venice after its defeat at Agnadello.
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  37. Godefroy, Jean, ed. Lettres du Roy Louis XII et du Cardinal Georges d’Amboise, avec plusieurs autres lettres, mémoires et instructions écrites 1504 jusque et compris 1514. 4 vols. Brussels: F. Foppens, 1712.
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  39. A collection of letters and other documents, some coming from the imperial ambassador to Rome, Alberto Pio, regarding French relations with the papacy.
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  41. Julius II. “Bullae.” In Bullarum, diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum romanorum pontificum taurinensis. Vol. 5, Eugenius IV–Leo X. Edited by Luigi Bilio, Charles Cocquelines, Francesco Gaude, and Luigi Tomassetti. Turin, Italy: Seb. Franco et Henrico Dalmazzo, 1860.
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  43. The major bulls of Julius II’s reign are transcribed and published here. Part of a 25-volume collection published between 1857 and 1872.
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  45. Julius II. “Concilium Lateranense V.” In The Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Vol. 1. Edited by Norman Tanner, translated by Peter McIlhenny, 593–655. Original text established by Giuseppe Alberigo. London: Sheed and Ward, 1990.
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  47. This critical edition of the decrees is based on a comparison of the official printed version, edited by Antonio del Monte in 1521, with that published by Gian Domenico Mansi and his successors. It is enriched by an introduction and annotations.
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  49. Minnich, Nelson H. “Concepts of Reform Proposed at the Fifth Lateran Council.” Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 7 (1969): 163–251.
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  51. Includes part of the speech (missing from the official acta) given in the name of Julius II and read by Alessandro Farnese at the beginning of the Lateran Council on 3 May 1512, in which the pope laid out the goals for the council (see pp. 237–238). The rest of the speech can be found in Mansi 32: 667B-D.
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  53. Sanuto, Marino. I diarii di Marino Sanuto (MCCCCXLVI–MDXXXIII). Edited by Rinaldo Fulin, Federico Stefani, Nicolo Barozzi, Guglielmo Berchet, and Marco Allegri. 58 vols. Venice: F. Visentini, 1879–1903.
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  55. This collection of letters and ambassadorial reports from around what was then the known world contains materials related to the whole career of Julius II.
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  57. Terrateig, Barón de (Jesús de Manglano y Cucaló de Montull). Politica en Italia del Rey Católico, 1507–1516: Correspondencia inédita con el embajador Vich. 2 Vols. Biblioteca “Reyes Católicos”: Estudios 2.12. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Patronato “Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo,” 1963.
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  59. A study with transcriptions of the correspondence between Jeronimo de Vich, the Spanish ambassador at the papal court, and King Fernando.
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  61. Julius II as Head of the Papal States
  62.  
  63. For a detailed account by contemporaries of Julius II’s campaigns to impose papal authority on rebellious vassals, see Grassi 1886 and Guicciardini 1929. Among the modern but older and still reliable studies of Julius II as head of the Papal States is Brosch 1878, which is based on printed and archival primary sources. Seneca 1962 surveys the troubled relationship between Julius II and Venice from the beginning of his pontificate. Gilbert 1980 shows how Julius II helped Agostino Chigi, the papal banker, to make a complicated loan to Venice that rescued that city in its moment of dire need following its defeat at the Battle of Agnadello.
  64.  
  65. Brosch, Moritz. Papst Julius II. und die Gründung des Kirchenstaates. Gotha, Germany: Friedrich Andreas Perthes, 1878.
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  67. Covers Giuliano’s life under his uncle, Sixtus IV; his relations with Innocent VIII and the Borgia family; the destruction of the power of Cesare Borgia and the elimination of some of the Venetian control of portions of the Papal States; joining the League of Cambrai; the interdict against Venice and the subsequent reversal of policy; the formation of the Holy League against France; and driving the French from Italy.
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  69. Gilbert, Felix. The Pope, His Banker, and Venice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
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  71. Shows how Julius II defended the rights of the Papal States to maintain their territorial integrity and to navigate the Adriatic Sea, both rights that Venice had infringed upon. By military means, diplomacy, and a crucial loan disguised as an alum contract, he successfully achieved his goals and also got Venice to accept papal appointments to its bishoprics.
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  73. Grassi, Paride de’. Le due spedizioni militari di Giulio II: tratte dal diario di Paride Grassi Bolognese. Edited by Luigi Frati. Bologna, Italy: R. Deputazione di Storia Patria per le province di Romagna, 1886.
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  75. Excepts from the diary of Paride de’ Grassi, Bishop of Pesaro, regarding the military expeditions of Julius against Giovanni II Bentivoglio of Bologna, covering 17 August 1506 to 23 March 1507 (pp. 3–176), as well as his campaign against Alfonso d’Este of Ferarra, covering 1 September 1510 to 29 June 1512 (pp. 189–335).
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  77. Guicciardini, Francesco. Storia d’Italia. 5 vols. Edited by Costantino Panigada. Bari, Italy: Laterza, 1929.
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  79. Classic account of the politics and warfare of the period by a Florentine ambassador to Spain. Libri VI–XI (vols. 2–3) address the pontificate of Julius II. Reprinted anastatically in 1967 (Bari, Italy: Gius. Laterza and Figli). For an abridged English translation, see Francesco Guicciardini’s History of Italy, translated and edited by Sidney Alexander (New York: Collier, 1969).
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  81. Seneca, Federico. Venezia e papa Giulio II. Padua, Italy: Livana Editrice, 1962.
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  83. Examines the efforts of Julius II to get Venice to restore towns and lands in the Papal States that it had expropriated during the time of Cesare Borgia, his recourse to the League of Cambrai to get his demands met, his switching the alliance once Venice was defeated, and his fear of French or Spanish domination of the Italian peninsula. Enriched with a transcription of ambassadors’ reports for the d’Este ruler and Florentine Republic from 1507–1508.
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  85. The Renovation of Rome
  86.  
  87. The transformation of the city of Rome under Julius II is examined in Partner 1976. D’Amico 1983 studies the special Roman humanism that emerged there, while Stinger 1985 claims that Julius II consciously imitated Julius Caesar. Julius II’s project to replace the Constantinian basilica of St. Peter with a new structure is studied by Bruschi 1977 and Frommel 1976. His construction and decoration of a new set of papal apartments is the subject of Shearman 1971 and Redig de Campos 1973. His construction of the Cortile del Belvedere, eventually quadrated on three sides with new wings of the papal palace and incorporating the Villa del Belvedere of Innocent VIII, is the subject of Ackerman 1954. Pfeiffer 2007 examines the theological significance of the frescoes he commissioned Michelangelo to paint on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Pfeiffer finds that when he was painting the lunettes of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo was influenced by themes on the Immaculate Conception found in a 1448 sermon of Sixtus IV and the writings of Gioacchino da Fiore. The writings of St. Paul, pseudo-Ambrose, Augustine, Gioacchino da Fiore, Egidio da Viterbo, and others are seen as the keys to interpreting the scenes of creation of the world, the creation of Adam and Eve and their Fall, and the story of Noah. The Neoplatonic symbolism Michelangelo employed in his design of the tomb of Julius II is laid out by Panofsky 1962.
  88.  
  89. Ackerman, James S. The Cortile del Belvedere. Studi e documenti per la storia del Palazzo apostolico vaticano. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1954.
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  91. Sees Julius II imitating the ancient Roman emperors in creating a palace along the lines of those on the Palatine Hill. He constructed only one of the two planned lateral corridors designed by Bramante that connected the papal palace with the Villa Belvedere and enclosed his sculpture garden.
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  93. Bruschi, Arnaldo. Bramante. London: Thames and Hudson, 1977.
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  95. Studies the original plan for St. Peter’s Basilica, which had a Greek cross structure and borrowed the design for its dome from the Pantheon. It was replaced by the Latin cross with a longitudinal nave. Translated from the Italian.
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  97. D’Amico, John F. Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Humanist and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
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  99. Through a study of the writings of curial humanists such as Paolo Cortesi, Adriano Castellesi, and Raffaele Maffei, D’Amico shows how they reconciled their intellectual interests with their Roman and curial ambience, shifting their attention from literary and historical questions to ones focused on religion and Roman culture.
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  101. Frommel, Cristoph Luitpold. “Die Peterskirche unter Papst Julius II im Licht neuer Dokumente.” Römische Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 16 (1976): 57–136.
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  103. Includes the original plans and progress on constructing the new St. Peter’s.
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  105. Panofsky, Erwin. “The Neoplatonic Movement and Michelangelo.” In Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance. By Erwin Panofsky, 129–170. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.
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  107. Traces the Neoplatonic symbolism in the five proposals for the tomb of Julius II. With minor differences, Panofsky’s interpretation is confirmed in the magisterial study of Charles de Tolnay, Michelangelo, Vol. 4, The Tomb of Julius II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954). Originally published in 1939 by Oxford University Press.
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  109. Partner, Peter. Renaissance Rome, 1500–1559: A Portrait of a Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
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  111. Partner studies the social structures of the city of Rome and how it was transformed into a rationally ordered cultural center by a series of popes who were simultaneously dealing with major challenges on many fronts, especially political, economic, and religious.
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  113. Pfeiffer, Heinrich W. The Sistine Chapel: A New Vision. Translated by Steven Lindberg. Vatican City: Musei Vaticani, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2007.
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  115. A study of the theological underpinnings and allegorical interpretations of the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, highlighting the Immaculate Conception. Michelangelo is said to have followed themes on the Immaculate Conception found in various authors. Lavishly illustrated with color photographs.
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  117. Redig de Campos, Deoclecio. Raphael in the Stanze. Translated by John Guthrie. Milan: Aldo Martello, 1973.
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  119. A reprise of Redig de Campos’s earlier study, The “Stanze” of Raphael (Rome: Edizioni del Drago, 1963), in which he examines the frescoes in the stanze della Segnatura, di Elidoro, and dell’Incendio, with color illustrations and sketches showing the measurements of the walls in each room.
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  121. Shearman, John K. “The Vatican Stanze: Functions and Decorations.” Proceedings of the British Academy 57 (1971): 369–424.
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  123. Based on primary sources, Shearman reconstructs the original functions that were carried out in the rooms of the papal private apartment (library, office where documents were signed, audience chamber to meet with ambassadors, dining room, etc.) and how they might relate to the decorations.
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  125. Stinger, Charles L. The Renaissance in Rome. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.
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  127. Examines the attitudes and values of Rome’s intellectuals and artists, including their commitment to the cultural destiny of a mythical Rome undergoing renewal and restoration. Stinger claims that Julius II consciously imitated Julius Caesar.
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  129. Papal Court under Julius II
  130.  
  131. The bureaucracy of the Curia and court of Julius II can be reconstructed with the help of Hofmann 1914, Frenz 1986, and Partner 1990. His appointments to the cardinalate and episcopacy can be found in Eubel 1923. DeSilva 2007 shows how he used ceremonies to assert his papal authority. The sermons preached in the papal chapel are studied by O’Malley 1979, while the music sung there is the subject of Ducrot 1963 and Roth 2007.
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  133. DeSilva, Jennifer Mara. “Ritual Negotiations: Paride de’ Grassi and the Office of Ceremonies under Popes Julius II and Leo X (1504–1521).” PhD diss., Department of History, University of Toronto, 2007.
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  135. Shows how de’ Grassi, in concert with the pope, used ritual to help tame the cardinals and curialists, transforming them from independent senators and autonomous bureaucrats into courtiers and servants of the papal monarch.
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  137. Ducrot, Ariane. “Historie de la Cappella Giulia au XVIe siècle, depuis sa foundation par Jules II (1513) jusqu’à sa restauration par Gregoire XIII (1578).” Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire 76 (1963): 179–240, 467–559.
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  139. Ducrot shows that Julius II endowed a choir of twelve singers to provide music for the Cappella Giulia, the della Rovere burial chapel in St. Peter’s Basilica.
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  141. Eubel, Konrad. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentioris aevi sive summorum pontificum, S.R.E. cardinalium, ecclesiarum antistitum series. Vol. 3, Saeculum XVI ab anno 1503 complectans. 2d ed. Edited by Ludwig Schmitz-Kallenberg. Münster, Germany: Libraria Regensbergiana, 1923.
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  143. Provides a listing of the popes, cardinals, and bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, with the official dates for their holding the office, based on Vatican records.
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  145. Frenz, Thomas. Die Kanzlei der Päpste der Hochrenaissance (1471–1527). Bibliothek des deutschen historischen Instituts in Rom 63. Tübingen, Germany: Max Niemeyer, 1986.
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  147. A study of the organization, structure, and personnel of the papal chancellery, including a list (alphabetically, by first name) of 2,223 officials, with brief biographical information. Supplements but does not replace Hofmann 1914.
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  149. Hofmann, Walther von. Forschungen zur Geschichte der kurialen Behörden vom Schisma bis zur Reformation. 2 vols. Rome: Verlag von Loescher, 1914.
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  151. A study of the papal curia, including its offices, practices, revenues, officials, and attempts at reform (notably Julius’s decree of 30 March 1512), together with lists of those who held each office and when. Volume 1 is titled Darstellung; Volume 2, Quellen, Listen und Exkurse. Reprinted anastatically in 1971 (Turin, Italy: Bottega d’Erasmo).
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  153. O’Malley, John W. Praise and Blame in Renaissance Rome: Rhetoric, Doctrine, and Reform in the Sacred Orators of the Papal Court, c.1450–1521. Duke Monographs in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 3. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1979.
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  155. O’Malley shows how the revival of epideictic rhetoric influenced the hundreds of sermons delivered in the papal chapel, producing a distinctive theology that emphasized the dignity of man and the necessity for peace and concord among Christians, as well as the reform of both church and society.
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  157. Partner, Peter. The Pope’s Men: The Papal Civil Service in the Renaissance. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
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  159. A study of the papal bureaucracy, its social and political context, its patronage network, its composition with talented and distinguished humanists and churchmen, its operations, its factions, and its Italianization.
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  161. Roth, Adalbert. “Il papato del Rinascimento: Rappresentazione, cerimoniale, musica.” In La papauté à la Renaissance. Edited by Florence Alazard and Frank La Brasca, 305–324. Paris: Honoré Champion Éditeur, 2007.
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  163. Examines, with particular attention to musicians, the functions of those charged with helping to conduct more than fifty ceremonies, and the personnel of those ceremonies, in the course of the liturgical year in which the pope celebrated the divine service in one of the chapels of the Apostolic Palace.
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  165. Julius II as Head of the Roman Catholic Church
  166.  
  167. The great crisis Julius II confronted as pope was the Pisan schism, when a group of dissident cardinals supported by Louis XII of France and Emperor Maximilian called a council to meet in Pisa in 1511. Ullmann 1972 studies the legal basis for their convocation of the council. The pope’s efforts to head off the schism and defeat its supporters are studied by Minnich 1984. Julius II’s principal response to the Pisan Council was the calling of his own council to meet in the Lateran Basilica. His tight control of the council and his efforts to make it ritually proper are also explored in Minnich 2007 and Minnich 2008a. That Julius II was prevented from organizing a response to the Turkish threat due to conflicts among Christian princes is documented in Setton 1984. His bull condemning simony in papal elections is the subject of Dykmans 1989. His efforts to reform religious orders are studied by Martin 1967 for the Augustinian friars and by Moorman 1968 for the Franciscan friars. As pope, he established the first bishoprics in the Spanish lands in the Caribbean, and granted to the Spanish king the right of presentation and of taxing ecclesiastical revenues in the Americas; Shiels 1961 is still useful on these issues.
  168.  
  169. Dykmans, Marc. “Le conclave sans simonie ou la bulle de Jules II sur l’election papale.” In Miscellanea Bibliothecae Apostolicae Vaticanae III, 203–255. Studi e Testi 333. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1989.
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  171. A study of the bull of Julius II dated 14 January 1506, published in Rome on 25 October 1510, and confirmed by the Fifth Lateran Council on 16 February 1513. This bull severely punished any attempts to introduce simony into the process of electing a pope.
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  173. Martin, Francis X. “The Augustinian Order on the Eve of the Reformation.” In Miscellanea Historiae Ecclesiasticae II: Congrès de Vienne, Août-Septembre 1965, 71–104. Bibliothèque de la Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, Fascicule 44. Louvain, Belgium: Publications Universitaires de Louvain, 1967.
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  175. Especially useful are pp. 82–104. Shows Julius II as a staunch supporter of Giles of Viterbo’s efforts to reform the Augustinian Order. Reworked (pp. 71–77 are replaced by three short paragraphs in the 1992 edition and there are some minor paragraphing division differences) as chapter 5 of Martin’s Friar, Reformer, and Renaissance Scholar: Life and Work of Giles of Viterbo, 1469–1532, edited by John E. Rotelle (Villanova, PA: Augustinian, 1992).
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  177. Minnich, Nelson H. “The Healing of the Pisan Schism (1511–13).” Annuariuim Historiae Conciliorum 16 (1984): 59–192.
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  179. Traces Julius II’s efforts to heal the Pisan schism by trying to resolve conflicts with Ferrara, Bologna, and France. Gives attention to ecclesiological factors. Reprinted as Study 2, with new appendices on pp. 193–197, in Minnich’s The Fifth Lateran Council (1512–17): Studies on Its Membership, Diplomacy, and Proposals for Reform (Brookfield, VT: Variorum/Ashgate, 1993).
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  181. Minnich, Nelson H. “Julius II and Leo X as Presidents of the Fifth Lateran Council.” In La papauté à la Renaissance. Edited by Alazard, Florence and Frank La Brasca, 153–166. Paris: Honoré Champion Éditeur, 2007.
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  183. Shows how Julius II maintained tight papal controls over the council.
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  185. Minnich, Nelson H. “‘Rite Convocare ac Congregare Procedereque’: The Struggle between the Council of Pisa-Milan-Ast-Lyon and Lateran V.” In Councils of the Catholic Reformation: Pisa I (1409) to Trent (1545–63). By Nelson H. Minnich. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate/Variorum, 2008a.
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  187. Looks at the efforts of Julius II; his master of ceremonies, Paride de’ Grassi; and the commission of cardinals to make the Lateran Council liturgically proper as a strategy for defeating the Pisan Council. According to de’ Grassi, this proved to be such a distraction that nothing of substance emerged from the council.
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  189. Minnich, Nelson H. “The Official Edition (1521) of the Fifth Lateran Council (1512–1517).” In Proceedings of the Twelfth International Congress of Medieval Canon Law, Washington, D.C., 1–7 August 2004. Edited by Uta-Renate Blumenthal, Kenneth Pennington, and Atria A. Larson, 965–978. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 2008b.
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  191. Studies how the official acta of the council were compiled, and evaluates the subsequent editions of the council.
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  193. Moorman, John. A History of the Franciscan Order from Its Origins to the Year 1517. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968.
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  195. Examines Julius II’s unsuccessful efforts to restore unity to the Franciscan Order by ending the division between Conventual and Observant friars. See pp. 573–576.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Setton, Kenneth. The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571). Vol. 3, The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of Julius III. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 161. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984.
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  199. Pages 10–141 cover Julius II’s military campaigns in Italy and how they relate to the Turkish threat, as well as his efforts to organize a crusade against the Turks; this crusade was promised in his election capitularies and made part of the agenda of the Lateran Council.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Shiels, W. Eugene. King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1961.
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  203. Provides an account, with translations, of important documents organizing the Catholic Church in America. See pp. 104–127.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Ullmann, Walter. “Julius II and the Schismatic Cardinals.” In Schism, Heresy, and Religious Protest: Papers Read at the Tenth Summer Meeting and the Eleventh Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society. Edited by Derek Baker, 177–193. Studies in Church History 9. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
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  207. Ullmann looks at the legal basis for the dissident cardinals’ calling of a council to meet at Pisa. He finds that they had the law on their side until Julius called his own council to meet in the Lateran Basilica in Rome.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Reputation and Iconography
  210.  
  211. The representations of Julius II in contemporary literature are studied in Fabisch 2008 and Rospocher 2007. His famous portrait by Raphael is the subject of Partridge and Starn 1980.
  212.  
  213. Fabisch, Peter. Iulius exclusus e coelis: Motive und Tendenzen gallikanischer und bibelhumanistischer Papstkritik im Umfeld des Erasmus. Reformationsgeschichte Studien und texte 152. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 2008.
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  215. Examines the motives behind the famous attack on Julius II and concludes it was not written by Erasmus but by Faustus Andrelini.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Partridge, Loren, and Randolph Starn. A Renaissance Likeness: Art and Culture in Raphael’s Julius II. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
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  219. A detailed study of the history of the life and patronage of Julius II, of papal portraiture, of what is known about the intended setting and function of Raphael’s portrait (to be hung as an ex voto in the church of S. Maria del Popolo), and how the details of the painting relate to Julius II’s self-conception.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Rospocher, Massimo. “Propaganda e opinione pubblica: Giulio II nella comunicazione politica europea.” In Annali dell’Istituto Storico Italo-Germanico in Trento 33 (2007), pp. 59-99.
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  223. Contemporary opinion about Julius II, especially among humanists and artists, praised him for his patronage, for bringing back a “golden age” and for restoring the glories of ancient Rome. Praise or criticism of him in the political sphere was closely related to his warfare activities. Print media aimed at a wide audience was used for propagandistic purposes, depending on the agenda of the political power sponsoring or tolerating the publication.
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