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Genetics, Environment and Crime (Criminology)

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Jan 23rd, 2017
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  1. ntroduction
  2.  
  3. The field of criminology has been guided by theories that emphasize the role of social factors such as delinquent peers, subcultures, and parental socialization in the explanation of crime and criminality. These theories, and the empirical research used to test them, have highlighted the importance that certain environments play in the etiology of antisocial behaviors. For the latter half of the 20th century, however, mainstream criminological theories have opposed the possibility that biological and genetic factors could also contribute to criminal involvement. Most theories, for example, sidestep the effects of genes, and those that do discuss genes typically downplay their significance. As a result, biology and genetics have essentially been “cut out” of criminology. Recently, however, there has been a slight shift in this trend, with a small pool of criminological research beginning to reveal the importance of genetic factors in understanding the foundations of different types of antisocial behaviors. This line of inquiry is a far cry from the outdated nature versus nurture debate that pitted environmental explanations against genetic explanations. More contemporary criminological research examining the effects of genes on various aspects of antisocial behavior draws attention to the complex ways in which genes and environments interact to contribute to human behavior in general, and to antisocial behavior in particular. No longer is it tenable to characterize genetic research as being deterministic, because there is now a solid knowledge base revealing the mutual interdependence of genes and the environment. Seen in this way, modern-day genetic criminological research is highly interdisciplinary, as reflected in the label “biosocial criminology.”
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Since the late 1990s, a tremendous amount of articles, books, and book chapters have explored the biosocial underpinnings to crime, delinquency, and other forms of antisocial behavior. Still, most criminology undergraduate and graduate students rarely, if ever, are exposed to the biosocial perspective during their coursework. Wright, et al. 2008b examines this issue by analyzing data revealing the degree to which genetic research has penetrated the discipline of criminology. Fortunately, there are a number of published works that provide accessible overviews of the biosocial perspective. Perhaps the most influential book on biosocial criminology is Raine 1993. A wave of additional books and articles have also provided overviews of biosocial criminology, including Beaver 2009, Fishbein, 2001, Rowe, 2002, Walsh 2002, and Wright, et al. 2008a. These books are designed for beginners, and they are thus relatively free of technical jargon. Instead, they explain the basic concepts related to the biological sciences in very clear and concise terms. Written from a biosocial perspective, Rowe 1994 provides an in-depth discussion of how family-based research is methodologically flawed and how the influence that families have on human development is grossly overestimated. These books are accessible to undergraduate and graduate students as well as researchers who are beginning to learn about the biosocial perspective. Walsh and Beaver 2009 contains original essays dealing with different aspects of biosocial criminology.
  8.  
  9. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Biosocial criminology: A primer. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
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  11. Provides an overview of the biosocial criminological perspective that is accessible to both undergraduate and graduate students.
  12. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Biosocial criminology: A primer. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Fishbein, Diana. 2001. Biobehavioral perspectives in criminology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
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  16. Discusses the major issues and concepts related to biosocial criminology and applies a biosocial framework to the explanation of criminal behavior.
  17. Fishbein, Diana. 2001. Biobehavioral perspectives in criminology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Raine, Adrian. 1993. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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  21. A classic book that examines a range of biosocial factors, including neurotransmitters, genetics, and hormones, and how they are related to criminal behavior.
  22. Raine, Adrian. 1993. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Rowe, David C. 1994. The limits of family influence: Genes, experience, and behavior. New York: Guilford.
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  26. A very influential and important book that examines the role of the family in the development of behaviors. Uses an interdisciplinary approach to showcase the limits of standard social science research that fails to control for genetic factors.
  27. Rowe, David C. 1994. The limits of family influence: Genes, experience, and behavior. New York: Guilford.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Rowe, David C. 2002. Biology and crime. Los Angeles: Roxbury.
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  31. Appropriate for both undergraduate and graduate students, this book provides an introduction to the study of crime and criminals from a biosocial perspective.
  32. Rowe, David C. 2002. Biology and crime. Los Angeles: Roxbury.
  33. Find this resource:
  34. Walsh, Anthony. 2002. Biosocial criminology: Introduction and integration. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
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  36. Explains the basic concepts of biosocial criminology and shows how biosocial concepts can be integrated into existing sociologically oriented criminological theories.
  37. Walsh, Anthony. 2002. Biosocial criminology: Introduction and integration. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
  38. Find this resource:
  39. Walsh, Anthony, and Kevin M. Beaver, eds. 2009. Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. New York: Routledge.
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  41. Contains a range of original chapters written by leading biosocial criminologists and dealing with issues related to genetics, the neurosciences, and evolutionary psychology.
  42. Walsh, Anthony, and Kevin M. Beaver, eds. 2009. Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. New York: Routledge.
  43. Find this resource:
  44. Wright, John Paul, Stephen G. Tibbetts, and Leah E. Daigle. 2008a. Criminals in the making: Criminality across the life course. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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  46. Uses an interdisciplinary perspective to examine the biological, genetic, and environmental factors that influence the development of criminality and criminals.
  47. Wright, John Paul, Stephen G. Tibbetts, and Leah E. Daigle. 2008a. Criminals in the making: Criminality across the life course. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2008b. Lombroso’s legacy: The miseducation of criminologists. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 19.3: 325–338.
  50. DOI: 10.1080/10511250802476137Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. Empirically examines the extent to which biology is integrated into the graduate curriculum and mainstream criminological journals.
  52. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2008b. Lombroso’s legacy: The miseducation of criminologists. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 19.3: 325–338.
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  54. Behavioral Genetics
  55.  
  56. Behavioral genetics research examines the relative influence that genetic and environmental factors have on behavioral phenotypes, including those that are directly applicable to criminology, such as impulsivity or aggressiveness. To do so, samples of kinship pairs, especially twin pairs, are employed as a way to quantify the relative influences of genes and the environment. Plomin, et al. 2008 is a classic book about behavioral genetics, while Beaver, et al. 2008 shows how behavioral genetic methods can be applied to issues directly related to criminology. These studies, however, represent only a few of the hundreds of behavioral genetic studies that have examined relative genetic and environmental effects on antisocial behaviors. Ferguson 2010, Mason and Frick 1994, Miles and Carey 1997, and Rhee and Waldman 2002 are all meta-analyses that examine the heritability of antisocial behaviors by analyzing studies of twins and adoptees. Moffitt 2005 provides an overview of the current state of behavioral genetic research as it relates to psychopathology. This work also summarizes the behavioral genetic literature examining antisocial behaviors and estimates the extent to which genetic factors play a role in the development of various psychopathologies. Behavioral genetic research also makes the distinction between shared environments (environmental factors that are similar between siblings) and nonshared environments (environmental factors that are unique to each sibling). Plomin and Daniels 1987 discusses the differences between these two types of environments and the research relating to shared/nonshared environments. Beaver 2008 examines the role of nonshared environmental factors in the prediction of outcomes of interest to criminologists.
  57.  
  58. Beaver, Kevin M. 2008. Nonshared environmental influences on adolescent delinquent involvement and adult criminal behavior. Criminology 46.2 (May): 341–370.
  59. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00112.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  60. Employs a study of monozygotic twin difference scores to examine the various nonshared environmental factors that contribute to delinquent involvement and criminal behavior.
  61. Beaver, Kevin M. 2008. Nonshared environmental influences on adolescent delinquent involvement and adult criminal behavior. Criminology 46.2 (May): 341–370.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2008. Genetic influences on the stability of low self-control: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins. Journal of Criminal Justice 36.6 (November–December): 478–485.
  64. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.09.006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  65. Uses a behavioral genetic research design to test Gottfredson and Hirschi’s hypothesis that genetic factors are unrelated to the development of self-control and to stability in self-control over the life course.
  66. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2008. Genetic influences on the stability of low self-control: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins. Journal of Criminal Justice 36.6 (November–December): 478–485.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. Ferguson, Christopher J. 2010. Genetic contributions to antisocial personality and behavior: A meta-analytic review from an evolutionary perspective. Journal of Social Psychology 150.2: 1–21.
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  70. A meta-analytic review of behavioral genetic studies examining the heritability of antisocial personality disorder and behavior.
  71. Ferguson, Christopher J. 2010. Genetic contributions to antisocial personality and behavior: A meta-analytic review from an evolutionary perspective. Journal of Social Psychology 150.2: 1–21.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Mason, Dehryl A., and Paul J. Frick. 1994. The heritability of antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 16.4 (December): 301–323.
  74. DOI: 10.1007/BF02239409Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Presents the results of a meta-analysis of twelve twin and adoption studies that examined the heritability of antisocial behaviors.
  76. Mason, Dehryl A., and Paul J. Frick. 1994. The heritability of antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 16.4 (December): 301–323.
  77. Find this resource:
  78. Miles, Donna R., and Gregory Carey. 1997. Genetic and environmental architecture of human aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72.1 (January): 207–217.
  79. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.207Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80. A meta-analysis of twenty-four studies that examined the heritability of personality measures of aggression.
  81. Miles, Donna R., and Gregory Carey. 1997. Genetic and environmental architecture of human aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72.1 (January): 207–217.
  82. Find this resource:
  83. Moffitt, Terrie E. 2005. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin 131.4 (July): 533–554.
  84. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.533Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85. Presents an extensive overview of the current state of behavioral genetics as it applies to developmental psychopathology. Discusses the empirical research bearing on the heritability of antisocial behaviors and provides suggestions for future research.
  86. Moffitt, Terrie E. 2005. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin 131.4 (July): 533–554.
  87. Find this resource:
  88. Plomin, Robert, and Denise Daniels. 1987. Why are children in the same family so different from one another? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:1–60.
  89. DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X00055941Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  90. An influential study that examines nonshared environmental factors responsible for why children from the same family turn out to be different.
  91. Plomin, Robert, and Denise Daniels. 1987. Why are children in the same family so different from one another? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:1–60.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Plomin, Robert, John C. DeFries, Gerald E. McClearn, and Peter McGuffin. 2008. Behavioral genetics. 5th ed. New York: Worth.
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  95. A seminal book that discusses the issues, concepts, and research related to behavioral genetics, including the results of behavioral genetic studies and the application of behavioral genetic methodologies to research questions.
  96. Plomin, Robert, John C. DeFries, Gerald E. McClearn, and Peter McGuffin. 2008. Behavioral genetics. 5th ed. New York: Worth.
  97. Find this resource:
  98. Rhee, Soo Hyun, and Irwin D. Waldman. 2002. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin 128:490–529.
  99. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.490Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  100. Presents the results of a meta-analysis that examined fifty-one twin and adoption studies that had examined genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behaviors.
  101. Rhee, Soo Hyun, and Irwin D. Waldman. 2002. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin 128:490–529.
  102. Find this resource:
  103. Molecular Genetics
  104.  
  105. An impressive amount of behavioral genetic research has revealed that genetic factors account for approximately 50 percent of the variance in measures of antisocial behaviors. As a result, and with the mapping of the human genome, researchers have begun to examine the specific genes that might contribute to the development of crime and criminality. Although this line of research is still very new, a number of genes have been linked to various forms antisocial behaviors. Because most criminologists know virtually nothing about genetics, and given the complexity of the field, much of the molecular genetic research is inaccessible to them. Fortunately, Carey 2003 is geared to social scientists (including criminologists) and explains genes and how they work. Beaver 2009, Ferguson and Beaver 2009, and Morley and Hall 2003 provide overviews of molecular genetic research as it relates to criminal behaviors. Direct tests of the link between certain genes and antisocial behaviors are provided in Beaver, et al. 2007 and Guo, et al. 2007.
  106.  
  107. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Molecular genetics and crime. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 50–72. New York: Routledge.
  108. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109. Provides an introduction to molecular genetics and then discusses the various genetic polymorphisms that have been tied to crime and other antisocial behaviors.
  110. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Molecular genetics and crime. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 50–72. New York: Routledge.
  111. Find this resource:
  112. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, Anthony Walsh, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2007. A gene × gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial behavior in males. Behavioral and Brain Functions 3:30.
  113. DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-3-30Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  114. Analyzes a sample of males to examine the interaction between two dopaminergic genes in the prediction of antisocial behaviors.
  115. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, Anthony Walsh, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2007. A gene × gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial behavior in males. Behavioral and Brain Functions 3:30.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Carey, Gregory. 2003. Human genetics for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Presents an in-depth discussion and explanation of human genetics that is suitable for undergraduate students, graduate students, and social scientists.
  120. Carey, Gregory. 2003. Human genetics for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  121. Find this resource:
  122. Ferguson, Christopher J., and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior 14.5 (September–October): 286–294.
  123. DOI: 10.1016/j.avb.2009.03.005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124. Provides a summary of the genes that have been linked to violence, aggression, and criminal behavior.
  125. Ferguson, Christopher J., and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior 14.5 (September–October): 286–294.
  126. Find this resource:
  127. Guo, Guang, Michael E. Roettger, and Jean C. Shih. 2007. Contributions of the DAT1 and DRD2 genes to serious and violent delinquency among adolescents and young adults. Human Genetics 121.1 (March): 125–136.
  128. DOI: 10.1007/s00439-006-0244-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. Analyzes data drawn from a longitudinal sample of youths to examine the association between polymorphisms in the DAT1 and DRD2 genes and delinquency.
  130. Guo, Guang, Michael E. Roettger, and Jean C. Shih. 2007. Contributions of the DAT1 and DRD2 genes to serious and violent delinquency among adolescents and young adults. Human Genetics 121.1 (March): 125–136.
  131. Find this resource:
  132. Morley, Kathryn I., and Wayne D. Hall. 2003. Is there a genetic susceptibility to engage in criminal acts? Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 263:1–6.
  133. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  134. Explores the various genetic polymorphisms that are considered candidate genes for criminal involvement. Available online.
  135. Morley, Kathryn I., and Wayne D. Hall. 2003. Is there a genetic susceptibility to engage in criminal acts? Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 263:1–6.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Gene-Environment Interplay
  138.  
  139. Many criminologists interpret genetic research through a highly outdated lens, believing that biosocial criminologists hypothesize that genes are the sole contributors of crime. Nothing, however, could be further from the truth. Contemporary biosocial criminology highlights the mutual interdependence between genes and the environment, a phenomenon known as gene-environment interplay. In general, there are two main types of gene-environment interplay: gene-environment interactions and gene-environment correlations. Rutter 2006 discusses the various types of gene-environment interplay in detail. Broadly speaking, gene-environment interactions capture the process by which genes only have effects when they are paired to certain environments, and vice versa. Beaver 2008, Beaver, et al. 2009, Caspi, et al. 2002, and Kim-Cohen, et al. 2006 provide direct tests of gene-environment interactions in the prediction of antisocial behaviors. Gene-environment correlations capture the process by which genetic factors are involved in selecting, shaping, and modifying the environment. The logic of gene-environment correlations is discussed extensively in Scarr and McCartney 1983. Empirical tests of gene-environment correlations in the criminological literature are rare, but Beaver, et al. 2008 and Cleveland, et al. 2005 are two examples. In the past couple of years, there has been some evidence emerging indicating that epigenetics may be a third type of gene-environment interplay. Walsh 2009 introduces epigenetics and then reviews the epigenetic research and shows how it can be applied to criminology.
  140.  
  141. Beaver, Kevin M. 2008. The interaction between genetic risk and childhood sexual abuse in the prediction of adolescent violent behavior. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 20.4: 426–443.
  142. DOI: 10.1177/1079063208325204Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Examines the interaction between a genetic risk index and childhood sexual abuse in the prediction of violent behavior committed by a sample of adolescents.
  144. Beaver, Kevin M. 2008. The interaction between genetic risk and childhood sexual abuse in the prediction of adolescent violent behavior. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 20.4: 426–443.
  145. Find this resource:
  146. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Matt DeLisi. 2008. Delinquent peer group formation: Evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Journal of Genetic Psychology 169.3: 227–244.
  147. DOI: 10.3200/GNTP.169.3.227-244Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148. Reveals that delinquent peer formation is partially governed by a polymorphism in a dopamine transporter gene (DAT1).
  149. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Matt DeLisi. 2008. Delinquent peer group formation: Evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Journal of Genetic Psychology 169.3: 227–244.
  150. Find this resource:
  151. Beaver, Kevin M., Marie Ratchford, and Christopher J. Ferguson. 2009. Evidence of genetic and environmental effects on the development of low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36.11: 1158–1172.
  152. DOI: 10.1177/0093854809342859Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153. Analyzes data from a sample of adolescents and adults to show that levels of low self-control are partially the result of an interaction between a polymorphism in a serotonin transporter gene and exposure to delinquent peers.
  154. Beaver, Kevin M., Marie Ratchford, and Christopher J. Ferguson. 2009. Evidence of genetic and environmental effects on the development of low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36.11: 1158–1172.
  155. Find this resource:
  156. Caspi, Avshalom, Joseph McClay, Terrie E. Moffitt, Jonathan Mill, Judy Martin, Ian W. Craig, Alan Taylor, and Richie Poulton. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297.5582 (August): 851–854.
  157. DOI: 10.1126/science.1072290Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  158. A highly influential studying showing an interaction between a measured gene (e.g., MAOA) and a measured environment (e.g., childhood maltreatment) in the prediction of an antisocial behavioral phenotype (e.g., antisocial behavior).
  159. Caspi, Avshalom, Joseph McClay, Terrie E. Moffitt, Jonathan Mill, Judy Martin, Ian W. Craig, Alan Taylor, and Richie Poulton. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297.5582 (August): 851–854.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Cleveland, H. Harrington, Richard P. Wiebe, and David C. Rowe. 2005. Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: A behavioral-genetic evaluation. Journal of Genetic Psychology 166.2 (June): 153–169.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. Employs a behavioral-genetic analysis to estimate the degree to which genetic factors are involved in structuring exposure to substance-using peers.
  164. Cleveland, H. Harrington, Richard P. Wiebe, and David C. Rowe. 2005. Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: A behavioral-genetic evaluation. Journal of Genetic Psychology 166.2 (June): 153–169.
  165. Find this resource:
  166. Kim-Cohen, J., A. Caspi, A. Taylor, B. Williams, R. Newcombe, I. W. Craig, and T. E. Moffitt. 2006. MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry 11.10 (October): 903–913.
  167. DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001851Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  168. Tests for an interaction between MAOA genotype and maltreatment in the prediction of psychopathology. Also conducts a meta-analysis of the literature that has examined the gene-environment interaction between MAOA and maltreatment as it relates to psychopathology.
  169. Kim-Cohen, J., A. Caspi, A. Taylor, B. Williams, R. Newcombe, I. W. Craig, and T. E. Moffitt. 2006. MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry 11.10 (October): 903–913.
  170. Find this resource:
  171. Rutter, Michael. 2006. Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  172. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  173. Discusses the ways in which genes and the environment combine together in the etiology of behavioral phenotypes.
  174. Rutter, Michael. 2006. Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  175. Find this resource:
  176. Scarr, Sandra, and Kathleen McCartney. 1983. How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development 54.2 (April): 424–435.
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  178. Examines how genotype can affect, modify, and alter the environments that humans experience.
  179. Scarr, Sandra, and Kathleen McCartney. 1983. How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development 54.2 (April): 424–435.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Walsh, Anthony. 2009. Criminal behavior from heritability to epigenetics: How genetics clarifies the role of the environment. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 29–49. New York: Routledge.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Presents an overview of epigenetics and discusses how epigenetics might be applied to the study of criminal behavior.
  184. Walsh, Anthony. 2009. Criminal behavior from heritability to epigenetics: How genetics clarifies the role of the environment. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 29–49. New York: Routledge.
  185. Find this resource:
  186. Evolutionary Psychology
  187.  
  188. Evolutionary psychology has emerged as an influential perspective from which to examine human behaviors, personality traits, and other phenotypes. In contrast to genetic research, which focuses on variation in human phenotypes, evolutionary psychological research relies on evolutionary explanations to identify and explain the origins of human universals, such as aggression. This perspective is gaining traction, although it still remains on the fringes of criminology. Nonetheless, there are a number of published works that deal directly with the application of evolutionary psychology to antisocial behaviors. One of the more influential statements on this topic is Daly and Wilson 1988. Barkow, et al. 1992 and Duntley and Shackelford 2008 are edited books that contain a series of chapters written by some of the leading experts on the evolution of human behavior. Buss 1994 and Wright 1994 provide excellent overviews of evolutionary psychology. Campbell, et al. 2001 employs an evolutionary framework to explain female violence, and Ellis and Walsh 1997 discusses the ways in which concepts drawn from evolutionary psychology can be integrated into criminological research. Kanazawa and Still 2000 notes how evolutionary concepts can be used to explain the well-known age-crime curve. Beaver, et al. 2008 provides an empirical examination of an evolutionary psychological explanation for crime.
  189.  
  190. Barkow, Jerome H., Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, eds. 1992. The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  192. One of the classic books on evolutionary psychology. Contains readings by some of the leading experts examining issues related to evolutionary psychology.
  193. Barkow, Jerome H., Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, eds. 1992. The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  194. Find this resource:
  195. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Anthony Walsh. 2008. A gene-based evolutionary explanation for the association between criminal involvement and number of sex partners. Biodemography and Social Biology 54.1: 47–55.
  196. DOI: 10.1080/19485565.2008.9989131Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  197. Analyzes genotypic data to examine whether a gene (e.g., DAT1) that is associated with criminal involvement is also associated with number of sex partners.
  198. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Anthony Walsh. 2008. A gene-based evolutionary explanation for the association between criminal involvement and number of sex partners. Biodemography and Social Biology 54.1: 47–55.
  199. Find this resource:
  200. Buss, David M. 1994. The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. New York: Basic Books.
  201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202. Provides a detailed treatment of the basic principles of evolutionary psychology and how this perspective can be applied to the study of human mating and sexuality.
  203. Buss, David M. 1994. The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. New York: Basic Books.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Campbell, Anne, Steven Muncer, and Daniel Bibel. 2001. Women and crime: An evolutionary approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior 6.5 (September): 481–497.
  206. DOI: 10.1016/S1359-1789(00)00019-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Uses concepts and logic drawn from evolutionary psychology to explain why females commit crimes.
  208. Campbell, Anne, Steven Muncer, and Daniel Bibel. 2001. Women and crime: An evolutionary approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior 6.5 (September): 481–497.
  209. Find this resource:
  210. Daly, Martin, and Margo Wilson. 1988. Homicide. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
  211. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  212. Considered to be one of the classic statements on evolutionary psychology. Introduces evolutionary psychology and shows how it can be applied to the study of homicide.
  213. Daly, Martin, and Margo Wilson. 1988. Homicide. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
  214. Find this resource:
  215. Duntley, Joshua D., and Todd K. Shackelford, eds. 2008. Evolutionary forensic psychology: Darwinian foundations of crime and law. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  216. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  217. A collection of fourteen chapters exploring some of the more pressing issues related to evolutionary psychology, crime, and the legal system.
  218. Duntley, Joshua D., and Todd K. Shackelford, eds. 2008. Evolutionary forensic psychology: Darwinian foundations of crime and law. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  219. Find this resource:
  220. Ellis, Lee, and Anthony Walsh. 1997. Gene-based evolutionary theories in criminology. Criminology 35.2: 229–276.
  221. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1997.tb00876.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  222. Presents a review of evolutionary theories and how they can be applied to the field of criminology. Required reading for anyone interested in understanding how evolutionary perspectives can be applied to explain criminal involvement.
  223. Ellis, Lee, and Anthony Walsh. 1997. Gene-based evolutionary theories in criminology. Criminology 35.2: 229–276.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Kanazawa, Satoshi, and Mary C. Still. 2000. Why men commit crimes (and why they desist). Sociological Theory 18.3: 434–447.
  226. DOI: 10.1111/0735-2751.00110Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Applies an evolutionary psychology perspective to explain why criminal involvement is widespread during adolescence and why crime is relatively rare in adulthood.
  228. Kanazawa, Satoshi, and Mary C. Still. 2000. Why men commit crimes (and why they desist). Sociological Theory 18.3: 434–447.
  229. Find this resource:
  230. Wright, Robert. 1994. The moral animal: The new science of evolutionary psychology. New York: Pantheon.
  231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  232. One of the most influential statements on evolutionary psychology and its application to a wide range of human behaviors.
  233. Wright, Robert. 1994. The moral animal: The new science of evolutionary psychology. New York: Pantheon.
  234. Find this resource:
  235. The Neurosciences
  236.  
  237. The 1990s were considered the “decade of the brain,” largely because of the research linking variations in brain structure and brain functioning to a wide range of different human emotions, behaviors, diseases, and personality traits. This line of research also produced a good deal of evidence linking the activities of specific regions of the brain to the propensity for aggression, violence, impulsivity, and antisocial phenotypes in general. An overview of the association between the brain and antisocial behavior is available in Fallon 2006. Blair, et al. 2005 provides an explanation of psychopathy that focuses on the brain, especially the amygdala, while DeLisi, et al. 2009 discusses the various ways that the amygdala is related to violence in general. Meyer-Lindenberg, et al. 2006 is a genetic-imaging study examining whether certain genotypes that have been linked to antisocial behaviors are related to structural and functional differences in the brain. Collins 2004 examines whether variation in levels of neurotransmitters over the life course could explain variation in criminal involvement over the life course. Beaver, et al. 2007 discusses the way in which neuroscience research could be applied to criminological theory. Raine, et al. 1997, Raine, et al. 2000, and Raine, et al. 2003 empirically examine the association between neurological structure and functioning and various types of violence and aggression.
  238.  
  239. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Matt DeLisi. 2007. Self-control as an executive function: Reformulating Gottfredson and Hirschi’s parental socialization thesis. Criminal Justice and Behavior 34.10: 1345–1361.
  240. DOI: 10.1177/0093854807302049Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. Argues that self-control should be conceptualized as an executive function that is housed in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Analyzes data to provide some empirical support for this hypothesis.
  242. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, and Matt DeLisi. 2007. Self-control as an executive function: Reformulating Gottfredson and Hirschi’s parental socialization thesis. Criminal Justice and Behavior 34.10: 1345–1361.
  243. Find this resource:
  244. Blair, James, Derek Mitchell, and Karina Blair. 2005. The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  245. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246. Argues that psychopathy is the result of a deficiency in emotional learning that is caused by abnormalities in the brain, especially the amygdala.
  247. Blair, James, Derek Mitchell, and Karina Blair. 2005. The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Collins, Raymond E. 2004. Onset and desistance in criminal careers: Neurobiology and the age-crime relationship. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 39.3: 1–19.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Reviews research indicating that the age-crime curve could be explained by changes in levels of neurotransmitters over the life course.
  252. Collins, Raymond E. 2004. Onset and desistance in criminal careers: Neurobiology and the age-crime relationship. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 39.3: 1–19.
  253. Find this resource:
  254. DeLisi, Matt, Zachary R. Umphress, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2009. The criminology of the amygdala. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36.11: 1241–1252.
  255. DOI: 10.1177/0093854809343119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256. Presents an overview of the amygdala, including its functionality and research examining how it is linked to criminal and delinquent behaviors.
  257. DeLisi, Matt, Zachary R. Umphress, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2009. The criminology of the amygdala. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36.11: 1241–1252.
  258. Find this resource:
  259. Fallon, James H. 2006. Neuroanatomical background to understanding the brain of the young psychopath. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 3:340–367.
  260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  261. Describes the various regions of the brain that have been linked to violent psychopathology. Excellent overview of the brain for those who do not have a strong background in neuroscience. Available online.
  262. Fallon, James H. 2006. Neuroanatomical background to understanding the brain of the young psychopath. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 3:340–367.
  263. Find this resource:
  264. Meyer-Lindenberg, Andreas, Joshua W. Buckholtz, Bhaskar Kolachana, Ahmad R. Hariri, Lukas Pezawas, Giuseppe Blasi, Ashley Wabnitz, Robyn Honea, Beth Verchinski, Joseph H. Callicott, Michael Egan, Venkata Mattay, and Daniel R. Weinberger. 2006. Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.16: 6269–6274.
  265. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0511311103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  266. Explores the ways in which MAOA genotype affects neural mechanisms that have been linked to violence and aggression.
  267. Meyer-Lindenberg, Andreas, Joshua W. Buckholtz, Bhaskar Kolachana, Ahmad R. Hariri, Lukas Pezawas, Giuseppe Blasi, Ashley Wabnitz, Robyn Honea, Beth Verchinski, Joseph H. Callicott, Michael Egan, Venkata Mattay, and Daniel R. Weinberger. 2006. Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.16: 6269–6274.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Raine, Adrian, Monte Buchsbaum, and Lori LaCasse. 1997. Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42.6: 495–508.
  270. DOI: 10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00362-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Examines subcortical brain functioning in a sample of murderers and a control sample matched on age and sex. Provided some of the first empirical evidence linking variation in brain functioning to murder.
  272. Raine, Adrian, Monte Buchsbaum, and Lori LaCasse. 1997. Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42.6: 495–508.
  273. Find this resource:
  274. Raine, Adrian, Todd Lencz, Susan Bihrle, Lori LaCasse, and Patrick Colletti. 2000. Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 57:119–127.
  275. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  276. Investigates whether there are any structural brain deficits in persons diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. Available online.
  277. Raine, Adrian, Todd Lencz, Susan Bihrle, Lori LaCasse, and Patrick Colletti. 2000. Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 57:119–127.
  278. Find this resource:
  279. Raine, Adrian, Todd Lencz, Kristen Taylor, Joseph B. Hellige, Susan Bihrle, Lori LaCasse, Mimi Lee, Sharon Ishikawa, and Patrick Colletti. 2003. Corpus callosum abnormalities in psychopathic antisocial individuals. Archives of General Psychiatry 60.11: 1134–1142.
  280. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.11.1134Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281. Tests for abnormalities in various brain structures in a sample of males with antisocial personality disorder who also scored high on psychopathy and a sample of matched controls.
  282. Raine, Adrian, Todd Lencz, Kristen Taylor, Joseph B. Hellige, Susan Bihrle, Lori LaCasse, Mimi Lee, Sharon Ishikawa, and Patrick Colletti. 2003. Corpus callosum abnormalities in psychopathic antisocial individuals. Archives of General Psychiatry 60.11: 1134–1142.
  283. Find this resource:
  284. Biosocial Methodologies
  285.  
  286. Being able to test the merits of genetic explanations to criminal behavior is at the center of the biosocial perspective. Testing biosocial hypotheses, however, necessitates the use of certain types of data and certain types of quantitative techniques. Most of these data and techniques are not typically used by criminologists. A number of publications are available to criminologists to provide them with an overview of biosocial methodologies, as well as a more advanced discussion of these types of methodologies. Neale, et al. 2008 and Neale and Cardon 1992 provide a very sophisticated discussion of genetic methodologies, while Purcell 2002 and Purcell and Koenen 2005 discuss various issues related to genetic methodologies. Moffitt, et al. 2006 explains the research strategies that can be used when examining gene-environment interactions. DeFries and Fulker 1985, Labuda and DeFries 1990, and Rodgers and Kohler 2005 discuss a widely used regression technique, known as DeFries-Fulker (DF) analysis, that can be used to estimate genetic and environmental influences on antisocial phenotypes. Additional biosocial methodologies are discussed and applied in Beaver, et al. 2009.
  287.  
  288. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2009. Gene-environment interplay and delinquent involvement: Evidence of direct, indirect, and interactive effects. Journal of Adolescent Research 24.2: 147–168.
  289. DOI: 10.1177/0743558408329952Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290. Employs a previously developed method for modeling gene-environment interplay and applies it to the study of crime and delinquency.
  291. Beaver, Kevin M., John Paul Wright, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2009. Gene-environment interplay and delinquent involvement: Evidence of direct, indirect, and interactive effects. Journal of Adolescent Research 24.2: 147–168.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. DeFries, J. C., and D. W. Fulker. 1985. Multiple regression analysis of twin data. Behavior Genetics 15.5 (September): 467–473.
  294. DOI: 10.1007/BF01066239Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Develops a regression-based approach to estimate the genetic and environmental effects on outcome measures when analyzing twin data.
  296. DeFries, J. C., and D. W. Fulker. 1985. Multiple regression analysis of twin data. Behavior Genetics 15.5 (September): 467–473.
  297. Find this resource:
  298. Labuda, Michele C., and John C. DeFries. 1990. Genetic etiology of reading disability: Evidence from a twin study. In Perspectives on dyslexia. Vol. 1, Neurology, neuropsychology, and genetics. Edited by George T. Pavlides, 47–76. New York: Wiley.
  299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300. Expands the DF model so that it can estimate the effects of gene-environment interactions with a measured environmental factor.
  301. Labuda, Michele C., and John C. DeFries. 1990. Genetic etiology of reading disability: Evidence from a twin study. In Perspectives on dyslexia. Vol. 1, Neurology, neuropsychology, and genetics. Edited by George T. Pavlides, 47–76. New York: Wiley.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. Moffitt, Terrie E., Avshalom Caspi, and Michael Rutter. 2006. Measured gene-environment interactions in psychopathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science 1.1: 5–27.
  304. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00002.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305. Provides a comprehensive exploration of how gene-environment research is conducted, including how to search for putative genes and environments. Available online.
  306. Moffitt, Terrie E., Avshalom Caspi, and Michael Rutter. 2006. Measured gene-environment interactions in psychopathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science 1.1: 5–27.
  307. Find this resource:
  308. Neale, Benjamin M., Manuel A. R. Ferreira, Sarah E. Medland, and Danielle Posthuma, eds. 2008. Statistical genetics: Gene mapping through linkage and association. New York: Taylor & Francis.
  309. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  310. Provides a comprehensive overview of the statistical techniques that can be used to examine genotypic data.
  311. Neale, Benjamin M., Manuel A. R. Ferreira, Sarah E. Medland, and Danielle Posthuma, eds. 2008. Statistical genetics: Gene mapping through linkage and association. New York: Taylor & Francis.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Neale, Michael C., and Lon. R. Cardon. 1992. Methodology of genetic studies of twins and families. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Provides an extensive explanation of the various methodological approaches that can be used with sibling-based samples to examine the genetic and environmental underpinnings to virtually any phenotype.
  316. Neale, Michael C., and Lon. R. Cardon. 1992. Methodology of genetic studies of twins and families. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
  317. Find this resource:
  318. Purcell, Shaun. 2002. Variance components models for gene-environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research 5.6 (December): 554–571.
  319. DOI: 10.1375/136905202762342026Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320. Explains the ways in which biometric models can estimate and test for gene-environment interactions.
  321. Purcell, Shaun. 2002. Variance components models for gene-environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research 5.6 (December): 554–571.
  322. Find this resource:
  323. Purcell, Shaun, and Karestan C. Koenen. 2005. Environmental mediation and the twin design. Behavior Genetics 35.4 (July): 491–498.
  324. DOI: 10.1007/s10519-004-1484-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325. Discusses various behavior genetic twin designs and argues that they are ill-equipped to examine environmental mediation.
  326. Purcell, Shaun, and Karestan C. Koenen. 2005. Environmental mediation and the twin design. Behavior Genetics 35.4 (July): 491–498.
  327. Find this resource:
  328. Rodgers, Joseph Lee, and Hans-Peter Kohler. 2005. Reformulating and simplifying the DF analysis model. Behavior Genetics 35.2 (March): 211–217.
  329. DOI: 10.1007/s10519-004-1020-ySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  330. Provides a discussion of the DF model and ways that it should be reformulated and simplified.
  331. Rodgers, Joseph Lee, and Hans-Peter Kohler. 2005. Reformulating and simplifying the DF analysis model. Behavior Genetics 35.2 (March): 211–217.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Biosocial Theories
  334.  
  335. Criminology is inundated with all different types of theories explaining why crime occurs and the various factors that contribute to the development of delinquency. Given that biosocial criminology is still very much in its early years, there is not a proliferation of biosocial theoretical perspectives. Nonetheless, a number of biosocial theories are beginning to emerge and there are some existing general theories that can be loosely tied to the biosocial perspective. Perhaps the most influential biosocial theory is Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy that discusses the biosocial factors that produce adolescence-limited offenders and life-course-persistent offenders (see Moffitt 1993). Ellis 2005 and Robinson and Beaver 2009 also set forth theoretical perspectives designed to account for criminal involvement by using a biosocial framework. In the 1990s, Judith Harris created a highly controversial theory, arguing that parental socialization has no long-term effects on personality (see Harris 1995 and Harris 1998). This theory has a direct application to criminological research and studies, and both Wright and Beaver 2005 and Wright, et al. 2008 explore the merits of Harris’s theory.
  336.  
  337. Ellis, Lee. 2005. A theory explaining biological correlates of criminality. European Journal of Criminology 2.3: 287–315.
  338. DOI: 10.1177/1477370805054098Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Develops a biosocial theory of criminal behavior that places a great deal of emphasis on the role of male sex hormones in the creation of competitive/victimizing behavior. Available online.
  340. Ellis, Lee. 2005. A theory explaining biological correlates of criminality. European Journal of Criminology 2.3: 287–315.
  341. Find this resource:
  342. Harris, Judith Rich. 1995. Where is the child’s environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review 102.3: 458–489.
  343. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.102.3.458Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344. Develops a highly controversial theory that argues that parental socialization has no effect on a child’s personality, but instead focuses on the importance of genetics and peer socialization influences. Available online.
  345. Harris, Judith Rich. 1995. Where is the child’s environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review 102.3: 458–489.
  346. Find this resource:
  347. Harris, Judith Rich. 1998. The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349. A runner-up for the Pulitzer Prize, this book advances a group-based theory of socialization that argues that genes and peers determine human personality. More controversially, this book puts forth the provocative claim that parental socialization has no long-term effect on human personality.
  350. Harris, Judith Rich. 1998. The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.
  351. Find this resource:
  352. Moffitt, Terrie E. 1993. Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review 100.4: 674–701.
  353. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354. Sets forth one of the most influential theories of criminal behavior, which focuses on the intersection of biological factors (e.g., biological maturity and neuropsychological deficits) and environmental factors (e.g., societal restraints and an adverse-rearing environment) to explain different types of offenders. Available online.
  355. Moffitt, Terrie E. 1993. Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review 100.4: 674–701.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Robinson, Matthew B., and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Why crime? An interdisciplinary approach to explaining criminal behavior. 2d ed. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Reviews the literature on all of the environmental, biological, and genetic factors that are related to crime, and then presents an interdisciplinary explanation of criminal behavior.
  360. Robinson, Matthew B., and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Why crime? An interdisciplinary approach to explaining criminal behavior. 2d ed. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
  361. Find this resource:
  362. Wright, John Paul, and Kevin M. Beaver. 2005. Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control. Criminology 43.4: 1169–1202.
  363. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2005.00036.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364. Examines the merits of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control versus Judith Rich Harris’s group socialization theory. Results suggest that parents have no effect on their child’s level of self-control after removing genetic influences.
  365. Wright, John Paul, and Kevin M. Beaver. 2005. Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control. Criminology 43.4: 1169–1202.
  366. Find this resource:
  367. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2008. Evidence of negligible parenting influences on self-control, delinquent peers, and delinquency in a sample of twins. Justice Quarterly 25.3 (September): 544–569.
  368. DOI: 10.1080/07418820701864599Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369. Analyzes a sample of adolescents to test Harris’s hypothesis that, after controlling for genetic factors, parental socialization does not have a significant effect on personality.
  370. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2008. Evidence of negligible parenting influences on self-control, delinquent peers, and delinquency in a sample of twins. Justice Quarterly 25.3 (September): 544–569.
  371. Find this resource:
  372. Applications and Policy Implications
  373.  
  374. Opponents of biosocial criminological research often argue that such research could only have inhumane and oppressive policy implications. The argument proceeds as follows: since DNA is immutable, then genetic effects are also immutable. As a result, the only way to deal with crime (if it is genetically influenced) is by incarcerating criminals for very long periods of time, or by subjecting criminals to forced sterilization. This line of reasoning, however, is unfounded. While it is certainly true that DNA is virtually unalterable, it is not true that genetic effects are unalterable. Genetic effects are modifiable by the presence or absence of certain environmental factors that can either suppress or activate gene expressions. Some criminologists have used this logic to explore the potential ways in which genetic research could actually be used in progressive ways to reduce antisocial behaviors and recidivism. There have also been discussions about how genes and biology could be used in prevention and intervention efforts. Fishbein 2000a and Fishbein 2000b, for example, discuss how biosocial research can be used as guide for preventing, reducing, and treating crime and antisocial behaviors. Beauchaine, et al. 2008 examines ten ways that biological research can be used to guide and inform prevention efforts, and Brennan 1999 notes the potential usefulness of biosocial research in the juvenile justice system. Robinson 2009 elaborates on these prior works and show how certain biosocial factors, such as nutrition, could affect prevention and intervention efforts. Ellis 2008 shows how an evolutionary framework can be used to prevent and reduce crime. Bakermans-Kranenburg, et al. 2008 tests the possibility that genes may be able to be used to increase the effectiveness of certain programs.
  375.  
  376. Bakermans-Kranenburg, Marian J., Marinus H. van IJzendoorn, Femke T. A. Pijlman, Judi Mesman, and Femmie Juffer. 2008. Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers’ externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology 44.1: 293–300.
  377. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.293Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378. Randomized experiment showing that intervention efforts to change children’s externalizing behavioral problems are moderated by DRD4 genotype.
  379. Bakermans-Kranenburg, Marian J., Marinus H. van IJzendoorn, Femke T. A. Pijlman, Judi Mesman, and Femmie Juffer. 2008. Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers’ externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology 44.1: 293–300.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Beauchaine, Theodore P., Emily Neuhaus, Sharon L. Brenner, and Lisa Gatzke-Kopp. 2008. Ten good reasons to consider biological processes in prevention and intervention research. Development and Psychopathology 20:745–774.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Discusses the various ways that biological and genetic research can inform and guide the prevention and treatment of psychopathology.
  384. Beauchaine, Theodore P., Emily Neuhaus, Sharon L. Brenner, and Lisa Gatzke-Kopp. 2008. Ten good reasons to consider biological processes in prevention and intervention research. Development and Psychopathology 20:745–774.
  385. Find this resource:
  386. Brennan, Patricia A. 1999. Biosocial risk factors and juvenile violence. Federal Probation 63.2: 58–60.
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388. Investigates how biological risk factors may be useful in the prevention and treatment of juvenile offenders.
  389. Brennan, Patricia A. 1999. Biosocial risk factors and juvenile violence. Federal Probation 63.2: 58–60.
  390. Find this resource:
  391. Ellis, Lee. 2008. Reducing crime evolutionarily. In Evolutionary forensic psychology: Darwinian foundations of crime and law. Edited by Joshua D. Duntley and Todd K. Shackelford, 249–267. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  392. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  393. Provides a framework for using biosocial and evolutionary research findings and logic to reduce crime.
  394. Ellis, Lee. 2008. Reducing crime evolutionarily. In Evolutionary forensic psychology: Darwinian foundations of crime and law. Edited by Joshua D. Duntley and Todd K. Shackelford, 249–267. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  395. Find this resource:
  396. Fishbein, Diana, ed. 2000a. Science, treatment, and prevention of antisocial behaviors. Vol. 1, Application to the criminal justice system. Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute.
  397. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  398. This edited volume uses an interdisciplinary approach to discuss specific modalities that can be employed to prevent and treat crime and criminal behavior.
  399. Fishbein, Diana, ed. 2000a. Science, treatment, and prevention of antisocial behaviors. Vol. 1, Application to the criminal justice system. Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Fishbein, Diana. 2000b. The importance of neurobiological research to the prevention of psychopathology. Prevention Science 1.2: 89–106
  402. DOI: 10.1023/A:1010090114858Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Examines the various ways that neurobiological research can be used as a springboard to prevent and treat various forms of psychopathology.
  404. Fishbein, Diana. 2000b. The importance of neurobiological research to the prevention of psychopathology. Prevention Science 1.2: 89–106
  405. Find this resource:
  406. Robinson, Matthew. 2009. No longer taboo: Crime prevention implications of biosocial criminology. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 243–263. New York: Routledge.
  407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408. Uses an interdisciplinary approach to examine the ways in which biological and environmental factors may improve the effectiveness of prevention and rehabilitation programs.
  409. Robinson, Matthew. 2009. No longer taboo: Crime prevention implications of biosocial criminology. In Biosocial criminology: New directions in theory and research. Edited by Anthony Walsh and Kevin M. Beaver, 243–263. New York: Routledge.
  410. Find this resource:
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