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The Kurds

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The twenty-five to thirty million Kurds straddling the mountainous borders where Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria converge in the Middle East constitute the largest nation in the world without its own independent state. The Kurds are a largely Sunni Muslim, Indo-European-speaking people. Thus they are quite distinct ethnically from the Turks and Arabs but are related to the Iranians, with whom they share the Newroz (New Year) holiday at the beginning of spring. No precise figures for the Kurdish population exist, because most Kurds tend to exaggerate their numbers, while the states they live in undercount them for political reasons. In addition, a significant number of Kurds have partially or fully assimilated into the larger Arab, Turkish, or Iranian populations surrounding them. Although a large majority within this geographical area, often called Kurdistan, the Kurds have been gerrymandered into being mere minorities within the existing states where they live. The desire of many Kurds for statehood, or at least cultural autonomy, has led to an almost continuous series of Kurdish revolts since the creation of the modern Middle East state system following World War I and constitutes the Kurdish problem or question. On the other hand, the states the Kurds live in still greatly fear Kurdish autonomy as a threat to their territorial integrity. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the Kurdish problem has become increasingly important in Middle Eastern and even international politics for two fundamental reasons. First, the wars against Saddam Hussein in 1991 and 2003 resulted in the creation of a virtually independent Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in a federal Iraq. This KRG has inspired the Kurds elsewhere to seek cultural, social, and even political autonomy if not independence. Second, Turkey’s application for admission into the European Union (EU) also has brought the Kurdish issue to the attention of Europe. Since the Kurds sit on a great deal of the Middle East’s oil and possibly even more important water resources, the Kurdish issue probably will become increasingly more salient in the coming years.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. There are several excellent overviews of the Kurds. Van Bruinessen 1992 and McDowall 1996 are the best analyses in English. Meiselas 2008 compiles a most useful collection of often-rare photographs, and useful commentaries are in van Bruinessen 1992. Izady 1992 and Jwaideh 2006 are helpful overviews. Thomas Bois and Vladimir Minorsky have published a definitive overview in the new edition of The Encyclopedia of Islam (Bois and Minorsky 1986). Randal 1997 is an excellent and more popular study. Abbas Vali has edited seven most useful chapters on the origins of Kurdish nationalism (see Vali 2003, cited under Historical Background). Michael Gunter has published two editions of his Historical Dictionary of the Kurds (Gunter 2011).
  8.  
  9. Bois, Thomas, and Vladimir Minorsky. “Kurds, Kurdistan.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, 438–486. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
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  11. This is a sophisticated encyclopedic analysis of the Kurds by two famous leading experts: a Catholic priest and a Russian intelligence agent. Discusses the territorial extent of Kurdistan, population, geography, history, society, religion, language, folklore, and literature.
  12. Bois, Thomas, and Vladimir Minorsky. “Kurds, Kurdistan.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, 438–486. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Gunter, Michael. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2011.
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  16. Consists of a dictionary or modest encyclopedia of three hundred entries dealing with the Kurds, a large bibliography, and an opening essay on the Kurds. The first edition was published in 2004.
  17. Gunter, Michael. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2011.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Izady, Mehrdad. The Kurds: A Concise Handbook. Washington, DC: Crane Russak, 1992.
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  21. A learned survey of many different aspects of the Kurds, but Izady exaggerates how much the Kurds have done.
  22. Izady, Mehrdad. The Kurds: A Concise Handbook. Washington, DC: Crane Russak, 1992.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Jwaideh, Wadie. The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2006.
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  26. A seminal study of the earlier phases of modern Kurdish nationalism up to 1959. Contains seldom seen illustrations. Subsequent accounts owe a great deal to this work.
  27. Jwaideh, Wadie. The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2006.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: Tauris, 1996.
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  31. Along with the van Bruinessen 1992 sociological/anthropological study, the definitive historical/political analysis of the Kurdish experience in the 19th and 20th centuries.
  32. McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: Tauris, 1996.
  33. Find this resource:
  34. Meiselas, Susan. Kurdistan: In the Shadow of History. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
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  36. In a certain modest sense, Meiselas’s compilation serves in lieu of a Kurdish national archival collection of photographic resources along with primary source material from oral histories, diaries, letters, newspapers, memoirs, and British and American government documents. She published her first edition of this volume in 1997.
  37. Meiselas, Susan. Kurdistan: In the Shadow of History. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
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  39. Randal, Jonathan C. After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness? My Encounters with Kurdistan. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997.
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  41. Arguably the best popular study of the Kurds up to the end of the 20th century.
  42. Randal, Jonathan C. After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness? My Encounters with Kurdistan. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997.
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  44. van Bruinessen, Martin. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structure of Kurdistan. London: Zed, 1992.
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  46. Arguably the definitive study in English on the Kurds. Largely a sociological/anthropological treatise but also with excellent historical and political analysis.
  47. van Bruinessen, Martin. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structure of Kurdistan. London: Zed, 1992.
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  49. Reference Resources
  50.  
  51. Lokman I. Meho has produced two excellent bibliographies of Kurdish studies in Meho 1997 and Meho and Maglaughlin 2001, but due to their publication dates, they do not consider the explosion of subsequent works. Chyet 2003 has compiled the definitive Kurdish (Kurmanji)-English dictionary and English-Kurdish vocabulary. Although websites are ephemeral compared to hard bibliographic sources and in addition are more lacking in quality control, many of them are still quite excellent and of course are being used more often. Kurdish Media, Kurdish Aspect, the Institut Kurde de Paris, and the newsletter of the Mezopotamian Development Society are four of the best, providing frequent news updates as well as a wealth of background data. Mention must be made of the Centre for Kurdish Studies in the United Kingdom. This is the first academic program devoted to Kurdish studies in the West. Gareth R. V. Stansfield and his colleagues have done a great deal for Kurdish studies. The Kurdish Library has an impressive collection and plans to digitize in a few years. The Institut Kurde de Paris maintains the largest Kurdish library in the West and is also arguably the oldest such organization in existence in the West.
  52.  
  53. Centre for Kurdish Studies. University of Exeter.
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  55. This is the only university program in the West that grants BA, MA, and PhD academic degrees in Kurdish studies. Christine Allison is the director, Hashem Ahmadzadeh is the codirector, and Gareth Stansfield is one of its most prominent members.
  56. Centre for Kurdish Studies. University of Exeter.
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Chyet, Michael L. Kurdish-English Dictionary: Ferhenga Kurmanci-Inglizi. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
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  60. Containing 847 pages, this erudite work is the definitive Kurdish (Kurmanji)-English dictionary and English-Kurdish vocabulary.
  61. Chyet, Michael L. Kurdish-English Dictionary: Ferhenga Kurmanci-Inglizi. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Gunter, Michael. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2010.
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  65. Contains a large bibliography broken down into many different categories. The first edition was published in 2004.
  66. Gunter, Michael. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2010.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. Institut Kurde de Paris.
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  70. The Institut Kurde de Paris maintains the largest Kurdish library in the West and is also arguably the oldest such organization in existence in the West. Kendal Nezan is its longtime director.
  71. Institut Kurde de Paris.
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  73. Kurdish Aspect.
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  75. This website provides useful, almost daily updates of news items concerning the Kurds.
  76. Kurdish Aspect.
  77. Find this resource:
  78. Kurdish Library. Stockholm, Sweden.
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  80. This online independent library collects, preserves, and distributes Kurdish literature.
  81. Kurdish Library. Stockholm, Sweden.
  82. Find this resource:
  83. Kurdish Media.
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  85. Maintained by Rebwar Fatah, this is arguably the leading Kurdish website and provides almost daily updates concerning Kurdish news.
  86. Kurdish Media.
  87. Find this resource:
  88. Meho, Lokman I. The Kurds and Kurdistan: A Selective and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997.
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  90. This annotated bibliography contains 814 mainly historical and political entries in English published largely after World War II.
  91. Meho, Lokman I. The Kurds and Kurdistan: A Selective and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Meho, Lokman I., and Kelly L. Maglaughlin. Kurdish Culture and Society: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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  95. This annotated bibliography lists 931 entries in such areas as anthropology, archaeology, art, communication, demography, description and travel, economy, education, ethnicity, folklore, health conditions, journalism, language, literature, migration, music, religion, social structure and organization, urbanization, and women. Approximately 60 percent of the entries are in English, 15 percent in Arabic, 15 percent in French, 5 percent in German, and the remaining 5 percent in other languages, including Russian.
  96. Meho, Lokman I., and Kelly L. Maglaughlin. Kurdish Culture and Society: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
  97. Find this resource:
  98. MESOP Newsletter Daily.
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  100. Hans Branscheidt maintains this excellent and frequent newsletter covering the entire Kurdish experience.
  101. MESOP Newsletter Daily.
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  103. Historical Background
  104.  
  105. The origin of the Kurds is uncertain, although some scholars believe them to be the descendants of various Indo-European tribes that settled in the area approximately four thousand years ago. The Kurds themselves claim to be the descendants of the Medes, who helped overthrow the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE. Many believe that the Kardouchoi, mentioned in his Anabasis by Xenophon as having given his ten thousand men a mauling as they retreated from Persia in 401 BCE, were the ancestors of the Kurds. In the 7th century the conquering Arabs applied the name “Kurds” to the mountainous people they Islamicized in the region, and history also records that the famous Saladin (Salah al-Din), who fought chivalrously and successfully against the Christian Crusaders and Richard the Lionheart, was a Kurd. Given the general nature of many works on the Kurds, their classification into separate categories proved difficult and in the end sometimes arbitrary. Some of the best historical work on particular states or other topics appears in works listed in General Overviews. Minorsky 1986 and Minorsky 1927 are probably the best in the category of general history. The edited volume Chaliand 1993 contains separate chapters on the Kurds in each of the separate states they inhabit. Abbas Vali has edited an excellent collection of essays exploring the historical and theoretical debates on the origins of the Kurds (Vali 2003). Ahmed and Gunter 2007 offers more broadly based chapters on the evolution of Kurdish nationalism. Strohmeier 2003 is a study of the attempt to create a Kurdish nationalism during the first decades of the 20th century.
  106.  
  107. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A., and Michael M. Gunter, eds. The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
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  109. Contains chapters on the modern origins of Kurdish nationalism; the impact of Islam on Kurdish identity; Kurdish nationalism in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria during the 20th century; and the role of political parties in developing Kurdish nationalism.
  110. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A., and Michael M. Gunter, eds. The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  111. Find this resource:
  112. Chaliand, Gerard, ed. A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
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  114. This classic collection contains chapters on the Kurds in the Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and the Soviet Union. Earlier edition, London: Zed, 1980.
  115. Chaliand, Gerard, ed. A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Minorsky, Vladimir F. “Kurds.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 2. Edited by M. Th. Houtsma, et al., 1132–1155. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1927.
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  119. This lengthy essay still gives many detailed insights on the early history of the Kurds.
  120. Minorsky, Vladimir F. “Kurds.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 2. Edited by M. Th. Houtsma, et al., 1132–1155. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1927.
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  122. Minorsky, Vladimir F. “Kurds, Kurdistan: Origins and Pre-Islamic History and the Islamic Period up to 1920.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam. New ed. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, 447–464. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
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  124. Minorsky was a famous Russian scholar and intelligence agent who died in 1966 but whose work still sheds valuable light on the early history of the Kurds in general.
  125. Minorsky, Vladimir F. “Kurds, Kurdistan: Origins and Pre-Islamic History and the Islamic Period up to 1920.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam. New ed. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, 447–464. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
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  127. Strohmeier, Martin. Crucial Images in the Presentation of a Kurdish National Identity: Heroes and Patriots, Traitors, and Foes. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  129. A groundbreaking analysis of the Kurdish attempt to build Kurdish nationalism early in the 20th century.
  130. Strohmeier, Martin. Crucial Images in the Presentation of a Kurdish National Identity: Heroes and Patriots, Traitors, and Foes. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  132. Vali, Abbas, ed. Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2003.
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  134. Explores the historical and theoretical debates on the origins and structure of Kurdish nationalism.
  135. Vali, Abbas, ed. Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2003.
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  137. Iran
  138.  
  139. Although twice as many Kurds live in Iran as live in Iraq, the Kurdish national movement in Iran historically enjoyed much less success due in part to the relatively greater long-term strength of the Iranian governments. Entessar 2010 provides a very accessible survey of this situation. More recently of course the Kurds in Iran have not benefited from the positive developments their conationals have in Iraq and Turkey. Unlike the Arabs and the Turks, the Persians are closely related to the Kurds. This ethnic affinity at times has probably served to moderate Kurdish national demands in Iran. This, however, did not prevent Ismail Agha Simko from leading major Kurdish revolts in the 1920s that only ended when the Iranian government treacherously assassinated him under false pretenses of negotiation in 1930. Van Bruinessen 1983 examines Kurdish tribes in Iran against the background of Simko’s career. This Iranian technique of solving its Kurdish problem by assassination was used again on 13 July 1989, when Iranian agents assassinated the leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, in Vienna, Austria, while supposedly negotiating with him. The erudite Ghassemlou also wrote one of the most useful chapters on Kurdistan in Iran in Ghassemlou 1993. Vali 1995 is a penetrating theoretical essay on Kurdish history in Iran. Despite these problems, the Iranian Kurds are famous among their Kurdish brethren for having established the only Kurdish state in the 20th century, the short-lived Democratic (Mahabad) Republic of Kurdistan (January–December 1946). When this rump Kurdish state was destroyed, however, its president, Qazi Muhammad, was summarily hanged on 31 March 1947, a blow from which the Iranian Kurds still have not completely recovered. Eagleton 1963, Izady 1997, and Roosevelt 1947 specifically deal with the Mahabad Republic.
  140.  
  141. Eagleton, William. The Kurdish Republic of 1946. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
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  143. This knowledgeable US diplomat has written the classic analysis of the famous Mahabad Republic in Iran immediately after World War II.
  144. Eagleton, William. The Kurdish Republic of 1946. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
  145. Find this resource:
  146. Entessar, Nader. “The Kurdish Dilemma in Iran.” In Kurdish Politics in the Middle East. By Nader Entessar, 15–66. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2010.
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  148. The author is arguably the most knowledgeable US scholar on the Kurdish problem in Iran. This is one chapter in his book on the Kurdish problem in general.
  149. Entessar, Nader. “The Kurdish Dilemma in Iran.” In Kurdish Politics in the Middle East. By Nader Entessar, 15–66. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2010.
  150. Find this resource:
  151. Ghassemlou, Abdul Rahman. “Kurdistan in Iran.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 95–121. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
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  153. Ghassemlou was not only the famous leader of the Iranian Kurds assassinated by Iran in 1989 but also a scholar who wrote what remains one of the leading analyses of the Kurds in Iran up to the mid-1970s.
  154. Ghassemlou, Abdul Rahman. “Kurdistan in Iran.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 95–121. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
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  156. Izady, Mehrdad, ed. Special Issue: The Republic of Kurdistan: Fifty Years Later. International Journal of Kurdish Studies 11.1–2 (1997).
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  158. Izady is a leading US Kurdish scholar who for many years edited this journal, which published this special issue with numerous articles on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Mahabad Republic. The late Vera Beaudin Saeedpour was also the longtime editor of this journal on Kurdish studies.
  159. Izady, Mehrdad, ed. Special Issue: The Republic of Kurdistan: Fifty Years Later. International Journal of Kurdish Studies 11.1–2 (1997).
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  161. Roosevelt, Archie, Jr., “The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad.” Middle East Journal 1 (July 1947): 247–269.
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  163. A US intelligence agent and descendant of the famous Roosevelt presidents of the United States published this article on the Mahabad Republic in Iran in the first volume of this leading journal.
  164. Roosevelt, Archie, Jr., “The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad.” Middle East Journal 1 (July 1947): 247–269.
  165. Find this resource:
  166. Vali, Abbas. “The Making of Kurdish Identity in Iran.” Critique: Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East 7 (Fall 1995): 1–22.
  167. DOI: 10.1080/10669929508720071Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  168. A theoretical analysis of Kurdish history in Iran by a leading British Kurdish scholar.
  169. Vali, Abbas. “The Making of Kurdish Identity in Iran.” Critique: Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East 7 (Fall 1995): 1–22.
  170. Find this resource:
  171. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Kurdish Tribes and the State of Iran: The Case of Simko’s Revolt.” In The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan. Edited by Richard Tapper, 364–400. London: St. Martin’s, 1983.
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  173. This is a good analysis of Kurdish tribes in Iran against the background of Simko’s famous revolts in the 1920s.
  174. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Kurdish Tribes and the State of Iran: The Case of Simko’s Revolt.” In The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan. Edited by Richard Tapper, 364–400. London: St. Martin’s, 1983.
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  176. Iraq
  177.  
  178. The Kurds in Iraq have been in an almost constant state of revolt ever since Great Britain artificially created Iraq—according to the Sykes-Picot Agreement of World War I—out of the former Ottoman vilayets (provinces) of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. Edmonds 1957 is a massive study and is the definitive analysis of these earlier years. Beck 1981 analyzes the Mosul dispute after World War I, which eventually resulted in the vilayet, with its Kurdish population, being awarded to Iraq. Bengio 2005 and Vanly 1980 are shorter articles on the history of the Iraqi Kurds. Ath-Thawra 1974, from the central organ of the governing Baath Party in Iraq from 1968 to 2003, is the official and highly critical Iraqi position on the Kurds. The Arab scholar Saʾad Jawad has written a more balanced account in Jawad 1981. Schmidt 1964 is a popular firsthand account of the author’s adventures in Iraqi Kurdistan against the background of its history. Stansfield and Resool 2007 analyzes the resurgence of Kurdish nationalism after the defeat of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975.
  179.  
  180. Ath-Thawra. Settlement of the Kurdish Problem in Iraq: Discussion and Documents on the Peaceful and Democratic Settlement of the Problem. Baghdad: Ath-Thawra, 1974.
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  182. An earlier official Iraqi government analysis of the Kurdish problem in Iraq. Sees the Kurds as mere bandits. Ath-Thawra translates as Central Organ of the Baath Party.
  183. Ath-Thawra. Settlement of the Kurdish Problem in Iraq: Discussion and Documents on the Peaceful and Democratic Settlement of the Problem. Baghdad: Ath-Thawra, 1974.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Beck, Peter J. “A Tedious and Perilous Controversy: Britain and the Settlement of the Mosul Dispute, 1918–1926.” Middle Eastern Studies 17 (April 1981): 256–276.
  186. DOI: 10.1080/00263208108700471Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This is the definitive analysis of the Mosul dispute after World War I, which gave what became Iraqi Kurdistan to Iraq instead of Turkey.
  188. Beck, Peter J. “A Tedious and Perilous Controversy: Britain and the Settlement of the Mosul Dispute, 1918–1926.” Middle Eastern Studies 17 (April 1981): 256–276.
  189. Find this resource:
  190. Bengio, Ofra. “Autonomy in Kurdistan in Historical Perspective.” In The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, John McGary, and Khaled Salih, 173–185. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
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  192. This leading Israeli scholar of the Kurds has written an insightful analysis on the Iraqi Kurdish historical situation.
  193. Bengio, Ofra. “Autonomy in Kurdistan in Historical Perspective.” In The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, John McGary, and Khaled Salih, 173–185. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  194. Find this resource:
  195. Edmonds, Cecil John. Kurds, Turks, and Arabs: Politics, Travel, and Research in North-Eastern Iraq, 1919–1925. London: Oxford University Press, 1957.
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  197. One of the British political officers in Iraq in the 1920s has written a lengthy and detailed analysis that arguably remains the definitive earlier analysis on Iraqi Kurdistan.
  198. Edmonds, Cecil John. Kurds, Turks, and Arabs: Politics, Travel, and Research in North-Eastern Iraq, 1919–1925. London: Oxford University Press, 1957.
  199. Find this resource:
  200. Jawad, Saʾad. Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958–1970. London: Ithaca, 1981.
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  202. An Arab scholar has produced a fair analysis of the Kurdish problem in Iraq up to 1970.
  203. Jawad, Saʾad. Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958–1970. London: Ithaca, 1981.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Schmidt, Dana Adams. Journey among Brave Men. Boston: Little, Brown, 1964.
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  207. A popular earlier analysis written by a US intelligence agent who had firsthand experience in the area. Contains an interesting description of his meeting with the legendary Mulla Mustafa Barzani.
  208. Schmidt, Dana Adams. Journey among Brave Men. Boston: Little, Brown, 1964.
  209. Find this resource:
  210. Stansfield, Gareth, and Shorsh Haji Resool. “The Tortured Resurgence of Kurdish Nationalism in Iraq, 1975–1991.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 98–122. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
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  212. An analysis by two scholars with firsthand knowledge about what they write. Illustrates how Iraqi Kurdish nationalism is in many ways a reaction to the policies of other states.
  213. Stansfield, Gareth, and Shorsh Haji Resool. “The Tortured Resurgence of Kurdish Nationalism in Iraq, 1975–1991.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 98–122. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  214. Find this resource:
  215. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “Kurdistan in Iraq.” In People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 153–210. London: Zed, 1980.
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  217. An excellent earlier analysis by a Kurdish authority who survived an Iraqi assassination attempt and is considered by many to be the dean of Iraqi Kurdish studies.
  218. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “Kurdistan in Iraq.” In People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 153–210. London: Zed, 1980.
  219. Find this resource:
  220. Turkey
  221.  
  222. During World War I point number twelve of US President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points declared that the non-Turkish minorities of the Ottoman Empire should be granted the right of “autonomous development.” Nevertheless, the Kurds supported the Ottomans in World War I and Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) during the Turkish War of Independence following that conflict. Olson 1991 analyzes five stages in the development of Kurdish nationalism in Turkey. Klein 2007 rethinks some of the traditional ideas concerning Kurdish nationalism and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Nezan 1993b surveys the Kurdish situation in the Ottoman Empire, while Ozoglu 2004 argues that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to the rise of Kurdish nationalism rather than the other way around, as many might argue. Turkey’s quick revival under Ataturk—ironically enough with considerable Kurdish help, as the Turks played well on the theme of Islamic unity—helped prevent Kurdish autonomy or even independence. The Treaty of Lausanne in July 1923 recognized the modern Republic of Turkey without any special provisions for the Turkish Kurds. Ataturk’s creation of a secular and purely Turkish state led to the first of three great Kurdish revolts, the unsuccessful rising in 1925 of Sheikh Said, the hereditary chief of the powerful Naqshbandi Sufi Islamic order. Olson 1989 is a perceptive study of the Sheikh Said rebellion. Mango 1999 analyzes Ataturk’s overall attitude toward the Kurds. Cagaptay 2004 discusses the attitudes of Turkish nationalism toward the minorities in Turkey during the 1930s. Nezan 1993a is a very readable account of Kurdistan in Turkey but only up to 1908.
  223.  
  224. Cagaptay, Soner. “Race, Assimilation, and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s.” Middle Eastern Studies 40 (May 2004): 86–101.
  225. DOI: 10.1080/0026320042000213474Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226. A well-written analysis of earlier Turkish policies toward the country’s minorities from the Turkish point of view.
  227. Cagaptay, Soner. “Race, Assimilation, and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s.” Middle Eastern Studies 40 (May 2004): 86–101.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Klein, Janet. “Kurdish Nationalists and Non-Nationalist Kurdists: Rethinking Minority Nationalism and the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1909.” Nations and Nationalism 13 (January 2007): 135–153.
  230. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00281.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. A rethinking of traditional ideas regarding Kurdish nationalism and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
  232. Klein, Janet. “Kurdish Nationalists and Non-Nationalist Kurdists: Rethinking Minority Nationalism and the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1909.” Nations and Nationalism 13 (January 2007): 135–153.
  233. Find this resource:
  234. Mango, Andrew. “Ataturk and the Kurds.” Middle Eastern Studies 35 (October 1999): 1–25.
  235. DOI: 10.1080/00263209908701284Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236. An analysis of Ataturk’s attitude toward the Kurds from the author of the definitive biography of Ataturk, the founder of modern Turkey.
  237. Mango, Andrew. “Ataturk and the Kurds.” Middle Eastern Studies 35 (October 1999): 1–25.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Nezan, Kendal. “Kurdistan in Turkey.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 38–94. New York: Olive Branch, 1993a.
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. A detailed analysis of the Kurds in modern Turkey but only up to 1980.
  242. Nezan, Kendal. “Kurdistan in Turkey.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 38–94. New York: Olive Branch, 1993a.
  243. Find this resource:
  244. Nezan, Kendal. “The Kurds under the Ottoman Empire.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 11–37. New York: Olive Branch, 1993b.
  245. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246. Still an excellent survey of the Kurds during the days of the Ottoman Empire by one of the leading Kurdish critiques of modern Turkey.
  247. Nezan, Kendal. “The Kurds under the Ottoman Empire.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 11–37. New York: Olive Branch, 1993b.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Olson, Robert. The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1880–1925. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. The definitive analysis of the famous Sheikh Said rebellion in Turkey in 1925. Based on a wealth of primary documents.
  252. Olson, Robert. The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1880–1925. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
  253. Find this resource:
  254. Olson, Robert. “Five Stages of Kurdish Nationalism, 1880–1980.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 12.2 (1991): 392–410.
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256. An excellent analysis of various stages in the development of Kurdish nationalism in Turkey from 1880 to 1980.
  257. Olson, Robert. “Five Stages of Kurdish Nationalism, 1880–1980.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 12.2 (1991): 392–410.
  258. Find this resource:
  259. Ozoglu, Hakan. Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  261. Argues persuasively that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to the rise of Kurdish nationalism rather than the other way around. Based on a wealth of primary documents.
  262. Ozoglu, Hakan. Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  263. Find this resource:
  264. Politics
  265.  
  266. Although a large majority within the geographical area of the Middle East often called Kurdistan, the Kurds have been gerrymandered into being mere minorities within the existing states where they live. As noted, the desire of many Kurds for statehood, or at least cultural autonomy, has led to an almost continuous series of Kurdish revolts since the creation of the modern Middle East state system following World War I and constitutes the Kurdish problem or question. On the other hand, the states in which the Kurds live still greatly fear Kurdish autonomy as a threat to their territorial integrity. Van Bruinessen 2000 is a useful collection of articles dealing with various aspects of the Kurdish political situation, as is Jabar and Dawod 2006. Houston 2008 presents a sophisticated analysis of various heuristic historiographic interpretations of Kurdish history and politics regarding the crafting of Kurdish nationalism and the overall modernization process. Natali 2005 is a sophisticated scholarly analysis of Kurdayeti (Kurdish nationalism) that reveals that there is nothing natural about Kurdish national identity or political behavior or the relationships between the Kurds and their central governments. Romano 2006 is a sophisticated scholarly analysis of the Kurdish nationalist movements in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq through the lens of social movement theory. Ahmed and Gunter 2005 assembles a series of articles exploring the Kurdish situation following the US war that overthrew Saddam Hussein in 2003. Gunter 2008 analyzes how the US war to overthrow Saddam Hussein in Iraq and Turkey’s European Union (EU) candidacy have resulted in the most positive situation for the Kurds in modern times. Lowe and Stansfield 2010 brings together leading scholars to analyze critical aspects of Kurdish politics in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey and to examine how these intertwine with wider regional and international concerns.
  267.  
  268. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A., and Michael M. Gunter, eds. The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  270. The Iraq War that overthrew Saddam Hussein in 2003 greatly altered the political situation in the Middle East, especially regarding the Kurds. This edited work contains many chapters exploring this situation for the Kurds and the various states involved, including especially Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria.
  271. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A., and Michael M. Gunter, eds. The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. An analysis of how the war that overthrew Saddam Hussein in Iraq in 2003 and Turkey’s EU candidacy have resulted in the most positive situation for the Kurds in modern times. Also contains a short chapter on the Kurdish situation in Iran and Syria, where the situation is not as positive for the Kurds.
  276. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  277. Find this resource:
  278. Houston, Christopher. Kurdistan: Crafting of National Selves. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008.
  279. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280. A sophisticated analysis of various heuristic historiographic interpretations of Kurdish history and politics regarding the crafting of Kurdish nationalism and the overall modernization process, which the author somewhat problematically terms “Kemalism.” Largely deals with Turkey and Iran and only a little with Iraq.
  281. Houston, Christopher. Kurdistan: Crafting of National Selves. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008.
  282. Find this resource:
  283. Jabar, Faleh A., and Hosham Dawod, eds. The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. London: Saqi, 2006.
  284. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. An excellent collection of articles dealing with Kurdish nationalism, society, language, culture, and history of the Kurds in Iraq before and after the war that overthrew Saddam Hussein in 2003.
  286. Jabar, Faleh A., and Hosham Dawod, eds. The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. London: Saqi, 2006.
  287. Find this resource:
  288. Lowe, Robert, and Gareth Stansfield. The Kurdish Policy Imperative. London: Chatham House, 2010.
  289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290. This edited collection of articles brings together leading scholars to analyze critical aspects of Kurdish politics in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey and examines how these intertwine with wider regional and international concerns.
  291. Lowe, Robert, and Gareth Stansfield. The Kurdish Policy Imperative. London: Chatham House, 2010.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Natali, Denise. The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A sophisticated scholarly analysis of Kurdayeti (Kurdish nationalism) that, contrary to popular theories, reveals that there is nothing natural about Kurdish national identity or political behavior or the relationships between the Kurds and their central governments.
  296. Natali, Denise. The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.
  297. Find this resource:
  298. Romano, David. The Kurdish Nationalist Movement: Opportunity, Mobilization, and Identity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  299. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511616440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300. A sophisticated scholarly analysis of the Kurdish nationalist movements in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq through the lens of social movement theory, considering in particular politicosocial structures, resource mobilization strategies, and cultural identity.
  301. Romano, David. The Kurdish Nationalist Movement: Opportunity, Mobilization, and Identity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. van Bruinessen, Martin. Kurdish Ethno-Nationalism versus Nation-Building States. Istanbul: Isis, 2000.
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305. A useful collection of articles written by one of the foremost academic authorities on the Kurds. Deals with various aspects of the Kurdish political situation.
  306. van Bruinessen, Martin. Kurdish Ethno-Nationalism versus Nation-Building States. Istanbul: Isis, 2000.
  307. Find this resource:
  308. Iran
  309.  
  310. Iran received large numbers of Kurdish refugees from Iraq after the failed Iraqi Kurdish revolts in 1975 and 1991. Unlike the Azeris, however, the Kurds have been barred from high levels of power in Iran. The Kurdistan Democratic Party Iran’s (KDPI) revolt against Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini’s new government was completely smashed by 1981. Armed KDPI remnants, however, continued to shelter in northern Iraq. Their goal and rallying cry was “autonomy for Kurdistan, democracy for Iran.” Fighting, however, broke out between the more moderate KDPI and the more radical Marxist Komala in 1985. Hundreds died in this intra-Kurdish bloodletting. Further divisions occurred among the Iranian Kurds in 2006. The Iranian Kurds have not supported Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, as Iran has executed numerous Kurdish dissidents. Koohi-Kamali 2003 shows how economic and social changes enabled a transition from tribal to national identity among the Kurds of Iran in the 20th century. Yildiz and Taysi 2007 offers a historical overview of Iran’s policy toward its Kurds, critiques Iran’s human rights record, and considers Iran’s relationship with its neighbors and the West. Entessar 2007 analyzes the opportunities and constraints facing the Kurds in Iran since the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy in 1979. Prunhuber 2009 analyzes Iran’s treacherous assassination of the Iranian Kurdish leader Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou. The splintered KDPI continues to shelter in the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) just west of Sulaymaniya. Komala also maintains an armed militia in the area. Since the mid-2000s the Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK), an Iranian Kurdish party closely related to the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), has carried out attacks against Iran from its bases in the Kandil Mountains just across the border from Iran, a situation Renard 2008 analyzes.
  311.  
  312. Entessar, Nader. “The Kurdish National Movement in Iran since the Islamic Revolution of 1979.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 260–275. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  313. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  314. Analyzes the opportunities and constraints facing the Kurds in Iran since the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and the establishment of the Islamic Republic. Shows how the establishment of a strong and centralized Islamic state clashed with the goals of autonomy-seeking Kurds.
  315. Entessar, Nader. “The Kurdish National Movement in Iran since the Islamic Revolution of 1979.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 260–275. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Koohi-Kamali, Farideh. The Political Development of the Kurds in Iran: Pastoral Nationalism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  318. DOI: 10.1057/9780230535725Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Shows how economic and social changes enabled a transition from tribal to national identity among the Kurds of Iran during the 20th century.
  320. Koohi-Kamali, Farideh. The Political Development of the Kurds in Iran: Pastoral Nationalism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  321. Find this resource:
  322. Prunhuber, Carol. The Passion and Death of Rahman the Kurd: Dreaming Kurdistan. New York: iUniverse, 2009.
  323. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  324. This is a thorough and readable account of the Iranian Kurdish leader Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou’s life, his treacherous assassination by Iranian agents in Vienna, Austria, on 13 July 1989, and the failure of the Austrian police to bring his killers to justice.
  325. Prunhuber, Carol. The Passion and Death of Rahman the Kurd: Dreaming Kurdistan. New York: iUniverse, 2009.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Renard, Thomas. “PJAK in Northern Iraq: Tangled Interests and Proxy Wars.” Terrorism Monitor 6.10 (15 May 2008).
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329. Delves into the intricacies of the low-level guerrilla war the PJAK is waging against Iran.
  330. Renard, Thomas. “PJAK in Northern Iraq: Tangled Interests and Proxy Wars.” Terrorism Monitor 6.10 (15 May 2008).
  331. Find this resource:
  332. Yildiz, Kerim, and Tanyel B. Taysi. The Kurds in Iran: The Past, Present, and Future. London: Pluto, 2007.
  333. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334. Offers a historical overview of Iran’s development since World War I and the emergent state policy toward its Kurdish population, critiques Iran’s human rights record, and addresses Iran’s relationship with its neighbors and the West and the implications of Ahmadinejad’s rise to power.
  335. Yildiz, Kerim, and Tanyel B. Taysi. The Kurds in Iran: The Past, Present, and Future. London: Pluto, 2007.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Iraq
  338.  
  339. Ghareeb 1981 is the classic study of the Iraqi Kurds up to the demise of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975 and continues to 1980. Makiya 1993 provides a trenchant description of Saddam Hussein’s horrific tyranny. Stansfield 2003 is an excellent analysis of the structure and modes of decision making in the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) up to 2002. O’Leary, et al. 2005 contributes an outstanding collection of articles dealing with the politics of the Iraqi Kurds’ future constitutional options with an emphasis on the federalism option. Galbraith 2005 is a very skeptical look at the future of Iraq and the Kurds’ participation in it. Natali 2010 is a short, sophisticated analysis that shows that the type of foreign aid received by the KRG largely has determined its political, economic, and social structure. Olson 2005 describes the competition between nationalism and capitalism and the processes of state formation in Kurdistan-Iraq, including how they were affected by the US invasion of Iraq in 2003–2005 and the roles of Turkey, Syria, and Iran. Gunter 2008 illustrates how the US war that overthrew Saddam Hussein in 2003 had the fortuitous side effect of helping create the KRG.
  340.  
  341. Galbraith, Peter W. “Kurdistan in a Federal Iraq.” In The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, John McGary, and Khaled Salih, 268–281. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. A very skeptical look at the future of Iraq from a well-placed former US diplomat.
  344. Galbraith, Peter W. “Kurdistan in a Federal Iraq.” In The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, John McGary, and Khaled Salih, 268–281. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  345. Find this resource:
  346. Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981.
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348. The classic study of the Iraqi Kurds up to the demise of Mulla Mustafa Barzani.
  349. Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981.
  350. Find this resource:
  351. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  352. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  353. Illustrates how the US war that overthrew Saddam Hussein in 2003 had the fortuitous side effect of helping create the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), a federal state within Iraq. Analyzes the changing political dynamics within the KRG.
  354. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  355. Find this resource:
  356. Makiya, Kanan. Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World. New York: Norton, 1993.
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358. An excellent analysis of Saddam Hussein’s cruelty and the Arab world’s silence toward it with much on the Anfal campaign that killed as many as 180,000 Kurds in the late 1980s.
  359. Makiya, Kanan. Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World. New York: Norton, 1993.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Natali, Denise. The Kurdish Quasi-State: Development and Dependency in Post–Gulf War Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2010.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. A short, sophisticated analysis that argues that the type of foreign aid received by the Iraqi Kurds largely has determined what kind of political, economic, and social entity they have been able to construct.
  364. Natali, Denise. The Kurdish Quasi-State: Development and Dependency in Post–Gulf War Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2010.
  365. Find this resource:
  366. O’Leary, Brendan, John McGarry, and Khaled Salih, eds. The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368. An outstanding collection of articles dealing with the politics of the Iraqi Kurds’ future constitutional options against the background of an Iraqi state marred by the legacies of forced ethnic assimilation and genocide. Excellent analyses of federalism and how it might apply to the Kurds.
  369. O’Leary, Brendan, John McGarry, and Khaled Salih, eds. The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
  370. Find this resource:
  371. Olson, Robert. The Goat and the Butcher: Nationalism and State Formation in Kurdistan-Iraq since the Iraqi War. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. Describes the competition between nationalism (the goat) and capitalism (the butcher) and the processes of state formation in Kurdistan-Iraq, including how they were affected by the US invasion of Iraq in 2003–2005 and the roles of Turkey, Syria, and Iran.
  374. Olson, Robert. The Goat and the Butcher: Nationalism and State Formation in Kurdistan-Iraq since the Iraqi War. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  375. Find this resource:
  376. Stansfield, Gareth. Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Development and Emergent Democracy. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378. An excellent analysis of the structure and modes of decision making in the KRG by the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) up to 2002 by a scholar with firsthand knowledge.
  379. Stansfield, Gareth. Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Development and Emergent Democracy. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Lebanon
  382.  
  383. Few are aware of the Kurdish ethnic minority living in Lebanon, second in size only to the Armenian ethnic minority in that state notoriously divided by sectarian hostilities. Meho and Kawtharani 2005 provides a rare look at the Kurdish situation in Lebanon.
  384.  
  385. Meho, Lokman I., and Farah W. Kawtharani. “The Kurdish Community in Lebanon and Their Future Prospects.” In The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 248–275. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Kurds make up the second largest ethnic minority group in Lebanon, and this chapter shows the many internal divisions among the little-known Kurdish minority in that state.
  388. Meho, Lokman I., and Farah W. Kawtharani. “The Kurdish Community in Lebanon and Their Future Prospects.” In The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 248–275. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  389. Find this resource:
  390. Soviet Union, Russia
  391.  
  392. Mostly obscure, the Kurdish minority in the former Soviet Union is concentrated in Armenia and Azerbaijan but was once permitted to have its own autonomous region (Lachin or Red Kurdistan) in Joseph Stalin’s Communist empire. Other Soviet Kurds were exiled to central Asia. There is a long and distinguished tradition of Russian study of the Kurds. Population estimates range from 100,000 to more than a million. Nezan 1993 and Vanly 1992 are both dated but still useful analyses of the Kurdish experience in the former Soviet Union.
  393.  
  394. Nezan, Kendal. “Kurdistan in the Soviet Union.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 202–210. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396. A dated but still useful look at the much-ignored population and history and the economic, social, and cultural life of the Kurds living in Russia.
  397. Nezan, Kendal. “Kurdistan in the Soviet Union.” In A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan. Edited by Gerard Chaliand, 202–210. New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
  398. Find this resource:
  399. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “The Kurds in the Soviet Union.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 193–218. London: Routledge, 1992.
  400. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  401. A dated but useful analysis of the Kurds in Russia by arguably the foremost ethnic Kurdish scholar of the 20th century.
  402. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “The Kurds in the Soviet Union.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 193–218. London: Routledge, 1992.
  403. Find this resource:
  404. Syria
  405.  
  406. The Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria where they number more than a million. They are concentrated in three noncontiguous parts of the country and have suffered much oppression. Vanly 2002 contains excerpts from Muhammed Talab Hilal’s secret unpublished book on the Syrian government’s plans to disperse and marginalize its Kurdish population in the 1960s. More recently, Yildiz 2005 emphasizes Syria’s policies toward the civil, political, and cultural rights of the Kurds. Tejel 2008 studies the history, politics, and social situation of the Kurds in Syria. Lowe 2007 shows how the formerly “hidden” Kurds of Syria have begun to emerge after the football shootings in Qamishli in March 2004. Galie and Yildiz 2005 illustrates the negative impact of Syria’s development policies on the most disadvantaged groups in Syria, such as women, the Kurds, and internally displaced persons (IDPs). Ironically, Syria at times has supported Kurdish movements in Iraq and Turkey, probably as a tool against those two states. Since the Iraq War began in 2003, the Syrian Kurds have become slightly more tolerated by the Syrian regime.
  407.  
  408. Galie, Alessandra, and Kerim Yildiz. Development in Syria: A Gender and Minority Perspective. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
  409. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  410. Illustrates the negative impact of Syria’s development policies, such as the Attawra Dam, on the most disadvantaged groups, including women, minorities such as the Kurds, and IDPs.
  411. Galie, Alessandra, and Kerim Yildiz. Development in Syria: A Gender and Minority Perspective. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Lowe, Robert. “Kurdish Nationalism in Syria.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 287–308. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Shows how the formerly “hidden” Kurds of Syria have begun to emerge after the football shootings in Qamishli in March 2004 and the dramatic upsurge of Kurdish national feeling that resulted.
  416. Lowe, Robert. “Kurdish Nationalism in Syria.” In The Evolution of Kurdish Nationalism. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 287–308. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007.
  417. Find this resource:
  418. Tejel, Jordi. Syria’s Kurds: History, Politics, and Society. London: Routledge, 2008.
  419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  420. A timely study of the history, politics, and social situation of the Kurds in Syria.
  421. Tejel, Jordi. Syria’s Kurds: History, Politics, and Society. London: Routledge, 2008.
  422. Find this resource:
  423. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “The Oppression of the Kurdish People in Syria.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 49–61. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  424. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  425. An able analysis of the Kurds in Syria with excerpts from Muhammed Talab Hilal’s secret unpublished book on the Syrian government’s plans to disperse and marginalize its Kurdish population in the 1960s.
  426. Vanly, Ismet Cheriff. “The Oppression of the Kurdish People in Syria.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 49–61. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  427. Find this resource:
  428. Yildiz, Kerim. The Kurds in Syria: The Forgotten People. London: Pluto, 2005.
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430. A solid analysis of the Kurds in Syria with emphasis on the government’s policies and the civil, political, and cultural rights of the Kurds.
  431. Yildiz, Kerim. The Kurds in Syria: The Forgotten People. London: Pluto, 2005.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Turkey
  434.  
  435. Beginning in the 1970s an increasingly significant portion of Turkey’s population of ethnic Kurds has actively demanded cultural, linguistic, and political rights. Until the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, the government ruthlessly suppressed these demands for fear they would lead to the breakup of the state itself. Indeed, the 1982 Turkish constitution contains a number of specific provisions that seek to limit even speaking or writing in Kurdish. This official refusal to brook any moderate Kurdish opposition helped encourage extremism and the creation on 27 November 1978 of the Partiya Karkaren Kurdistan (PKK) or Kurdistan Workers’ Party headed by Abdullah (Apo) Ocalan. In August 1984 the PKK officially launched an insurgency that by the end of 2010 had resulted in more than forty thousand deaths, the partial or complete destruction of as many as three thousand villages, and the internal displacement of some three million people. Barkey and Fuller 1998 analyzes the origin of the Kurdish problem, the birth of the PKK, and Turkey’s response up to 1998. Gunter 1997 analyzes Turkey’s authoritarian tradition, the PKK’s development, and foreign factors up to 1997. Kirisci and Winrow 1997 presents a well-written Turkish analysis from the end of the Ottoman Empire up to 1997. White 2000 is a sophisticated treatise on the PKK that examines its transformation from a primitive rebellion to a true revolutionary movement. Marcus 2007 offers a well-written journalistic analysis of the PKK and its ruthless leader Abdullah Ocalan. Ozcan 2006 presents a sophisticated analysis of the philosophy of Abdullah Ocalan; the successes and failures of the PKK; and the PKK’s philosophy of recruitment, organization, and use of violence. Casier and Jongerden 2011 contributes a collection of scholarly articles examining such pressing issues facing Turkey as political Islam and Kurdish and Turkish nationalisms. The EU Turkey Civic Commission is a nongovernmental organization that lobbies the European Union (EU) to admit Turkey when it meets EU membership criteria as a way to help solve the Kurdish problem in Turkey. EU Turkey Civic Commission 2007 contains numerous articles regarding this situation. Watts 2010 examines how pro-Kurdish political parties in Turkey are using the legal system to promote their potent Kurdish national agenda despite a repressive state response.
  436.  
  437. Barkey, Henri J., and Graham E. Fuller. Turkey’s Kurdish Question. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. This is an excellent but somewhat dated analysis of the origin of the Kurdish problem, the birth of the PKK, and the Turkish response domestically and in foreign policy with suggestions for a solution by recognizing Kurdish identity within the existing confines of Turkish territorial integrity.
  440. Barkey, Henri J., and Graham E. Fuller. Turkey’s Kurdish Question. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.
  441. Find this resource:
  442. Casier, Marlies, and Joost Jongerden, eds. Nationalisms and Politics in Turkey: Political Islam, Kemalism, and the Kurdish Issue. London: Routledge, 2011.
  443. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  444. Collection of scholarly articles examining such pressing issues facing Turkey as political Islam and Kurdish and Turkish nationalisms.
  445. Casier, Marlies, and Joost Jongerden, eds. Nationalisms and Politics in Turkey: Political Islam, Kemalism, and the Kurdish Issue. London: Routledge, 2011.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. EU Turkey Civic Commission. Third International Conference on the EU, Turkey, and the Kurds: European Parliament, Brussels, 16th–17th October 2006. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007.
  448. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  449. The EU Turkey Civic Commission is a nongovernmental organization that lobbies the EU to admit Turkey when it meets EU criteria as a way to help solve the Kurdish problem in that state. This volume contains articles analyzing how Turkey’s EU accession process influences the Kurdish problem in Turkey.
  450. EU Turkey Civic Commission. Third International Conference on the EU, Turkey, and the Kurds: European Parliament, Brussels, 16th–17th October 2006. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007.
  451. Find this resource:
  452. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds and the Future of Turkey. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
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  454. Analyzes the authoritarian tradition in Turkey, the development of the PKK, and foreign factors up to 1997.
  455. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds and the Future of Turkey. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Kirisci, Kemal, and Gareth M. Winrow. The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict. London: Frank Cass, 1997.
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  459. A well-written Turkish analysis of the Kurdish question in Turkey from the end of the Ottoman Empire to 1997. The authors discuss the theoretical literature on what constitutes a nation, ethnic group, and minority and how this applies to the Kurds.
  460. Kirisci, Kemal, and Gareth M. Winrow. The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict. London: Frank Cass, 1997.
  461. Find this resource:
  462. Marcus, Aliza. Blood and Belief: The PKK and the Kurdish Fight for Independence. New York: New York University Press, 2007.
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  464. An excellent journalistic analysis of the PKK and its ruthless leader Abdullah Ocalan up to 2007.
  465. Marcus, Aliza. Blood and Belief: The PKK and the Kurdish Fight for Independence. New York: New York University Press, 2007.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. Ozcan, Ali Kemal. Turkey’s Kurds: A Theoretical Analysis of the PKK and Abdullah Ocalan. New York: Routledge, 2006.
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  469. A sophisticated analysis of the philosophy of Abdullah Ocalan; the successes and failures of the PKK; the PKK’s philosophy of recruitment, organization, and use of violence; and the development of Kurdish nationalism in Turkey.
  470. Ozcan, Ali Kemal. Turkey’s Kurds: A Theoretical Analysis of the PKK and Abdullah Ocalan. New York: Routledge, 2006.
  471. Find this resource:
  472. Watts, Nicole F. Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010.
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  474. Examines how pro-Kurdish political parties in Turkey, while sharing many of the goals of the violent PKK, are using the legal political system to promote their highly contentious Kurdish national agenda in the face of a violent, repressive state.
  475. Watts, Nicole F. Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. White, Paul. Primitive Rebels or Revolutionary Modernizers? The Kurdish National Movement in Turkey. London: Zed, 2000.
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  479. A sophisticated treatise on the PKK that examines the transformation of what Eric Hobsbawm has termed “primitive rebels” into a true revolutionary movement.
  480. White, Paul. Primitive Rebels or Revolutionary Modernizers? The Kurdish National Movement in Turkey. London: Zed, 2000.
  481. Find this resource:
  482. Human Rights
  483.  
  484. Human rights are international legal liberties and privileges possessed by individuals simply by virtue of being persons or human beings. The Charter of the United Nations opened an entirely new chapter for human rights that has potential relevance for the Kurds. Article 1, for example, includes as a purpose of the world organization “promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.” Amnesty International is a private nongovernmental organization (NGO) that works to prevent some of the gravest violations by governments of people’s fundamental human rights. Its main foci are freeing all prisoners of conscience; ensuring fair and prompt trials for political prisoners; and abolishing the death penalty, torture, and other cruel treatment of prisoners. Thus the Amnesty International (as well as other specific reports) serves an important role in supporting human rights for the Kurds. Ralph Fertig is a retired US judge who has written about how many of the acts of the Turkish military in dealing with the Kurds violate international humanitarian law (Fertig 2000). Human Rights Watch is another private NGO that conducts regular systematic investigations of human rights abuses all over the world both by governments and by rebel groups. As such, the Human Rights Watch World Report has long played a very important role in publicizing human rights abuses against the Kurds. The Kurdish Human Rights Project (KHRP) is a Kurdish advocacy organization founded in 1992 and based in London that monitors human rights abuses against Kurds, particularly within Turkey. It is often a successful participant in cases involving Kurds brought to the European Court of Human Rights. The reports of Kurdish Human Rights Project 2007– (as well as numerous focused reports) publicize human rights abuses against the Kurds in the Kurdish regions of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and the Caucasus. In addition, the Kurdish Human Rights Project Legal Review contains legal developments and news, articles, and pertinent cases decided by the European Court of Human Rights concerning the Kurds. Paech 2000 illustrates how international law should apply to the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) struggle in Turkey, the legal status of its members, and especially the accusation of terrorism. The US Department of State is required by US law to issue a country report of the status of human rights in states around the world (see US Department of State 1979–). Thus its annual country report publicizes human rights abuses against the Kurds in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and elsewhere.
  485.  
  486. Amnesty International. Amnesty International Annual Report. London: Amnesty International, 1976–.
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488. Details human rights abuses around the world, including against the Kurds.
  489. Amnesty International. Amnesty International Annual Report. London: Amnesty International, 1976–.
  490. Find this resource:
  491. Fertig, Ralph. “International and U.S. Laws and the Kurdish Question.” In The Kurdish Question and International Law. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 75–80. Oakton, VA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2000.
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493. Expounds upon how the Turkish military violates international humanitarian law in its dealings with the Kurds.
  494. Fertig, Ralph. “International and U.S. Laws and the Kurdish Question.” In The Kurdish Question and International Law. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 75–80. Oakton, VA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2000.
  495. Find this resource:
  496. Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch World Report. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993–.
  497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  498. Publicizes human rights violations around the world, including those committed against the Kurds.
  499. Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch World Report. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993–.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Kurdish Human Rights Project Legal Review. 2004–.
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  503. Contains legal developments and news, articles, and pertinent cases decided by the European Court of Human Rights concerning the Kurds.
  504. Kurdish Human Rights Project Legal Review. 2004–.
  505. Find this resource:
  506. Kurdish Human Rights Project. Kurdish Human Rights Project Impact Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007–.
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508. Documents human rights abuses against the Kurds in the Kurdish regions of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and the Caucasus.
  509. Kurdish Human Rights Project. Kurdish Human Rights Project Impact Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007–.
  510. Find this resource:
  511. Paech, Norman. “International Law and the Kurdish Struggle for Freedom.” In The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. Edited by Ferhad Ibrahim and Gulistan Gurbey, 159–179. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
  512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513. Illustrates how international law should apply to the PKK struggle in Turkey, the legal status of its members, and especially the accusation of terrorism.
  514. Paech, Norman. “International Law and the Kurdish Struggle for Freedom.” In The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. Edited by Ferhad Ibrahim and Gulistan Gurbey, 159–179. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
  515. Find this resource:
  516. US Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1979–.
  517. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  518. This annual country report publicizes human rights abuses around the world, including against the Kurds in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and elsewhere.
  519. US Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1979–.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Iran
  522.  
  523. Human Rights abuses against the Kurds in Iran increased in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Mirebrahimi 2009 is a highly critical, up-to-date report on freedom of expression and association regarding the Kurds in Iran.
  524.  
  525. Mirebrahimi, Roozbeth. Freedom of Expression and Association in the Kurdish Regions. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. This is a highly critical report on the state of human rights regarding the Kurds in Iran.
  528. Mirebrahimi, Roozbeth. Freedom of Expression and Association in the Kurdish Regions. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.
  529. Find this resource:
  530. Iraq
  531.  
  532. Under the rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraq committed repeated human rights abuses against the Kurds. Amnesty International 1995 documents violations that occurred in the early 1990s. Connors 1992 finds that the application of international humanitarian and human rights law to the Kurds has been tenuous. Black 1993 analyzes Iraq’s genocidal Anfal campaign against the Kurds in the late 1980s. Goldstein 1992 documents the human rights abuses that occurred against the Kurds following the war in 1991. Stover 1992 documents the search for the so-called disappeared who were murdered by the Iraqi government. More recently, Yildiz, et al. 2008 reports that gaps still remain in the human rights structure in the Kurdish region of Iraq. Black 1993 documents the Iraq government’s human rights violations against the Kurds in its own words as well as its genocidal Anfal campaign against the Kurds and the human rights violations that continued after the war in 1991. The same organization also has documented the problem of the disappeared, who were murdered by the Iraqi regime. Cook-Deegan, et al. 1989 reports on a medical mission to evaluate Iraq’s use of poison gas against the Kurds.
  533.  
  534. Amnesty International. Iraq: Human Rights Abuses in Iraqi Kurdistan since 1991. London: Amnesty International, 1995.
  535. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  536. Documents human rights abuses Iraq committed against the Kurds in the early 1990s.
  537. Amnesty International. Iraq: Human Rights Abuses in Iraqi Kurdistan since 1991. London: Amnesty International, 1995.
  538. Find this resource:
  539. Black, George. Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993.
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541. One of several versions of a well-documented analysis on Iraq’s genocidal Anfal campaign against the Kurds.
  542. Black, George. Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993.
  543. Find this resource:
  544. Connors, Jane. “Humanitarian Legal Order and the Kurdish Question.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 84–94. London: Routledge, 1992.
  545. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  546. Finds that the application of international humanitarian and human rights law to the Kurds has been tenuous.
  547. Connors, Jane. “Humanitarian Legal Order and the Kurdish Question.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 84–94. London: Routledge, 1992.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Cook-Deegan, Robert M., Howard Hu, and Asfandiar Shukri. Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas against Its Kurdish Population; Report of a Medical Mission to Iraqi Kurdistan. Somerville, MA: Physicians for Human Rights, 1989.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Reports on a medical mission to evaluate Iraq’s usage of poison gas against the Kurds.
  552. Cook-Deegan, Robert M., Howard Hu, and Asfandiar Shukri. Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas against Its Kurdish Population; Report of a Medical Mission to Iraqi Kurdistan. Somerville, MA: Physicians for Human Rights, 1989.
  553. Find this resource:
  554. Goldstein, Eric. Endless Torment: The 1991 Uprising in Iraq and Its Aftermath. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992.
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556. Documents the human rights abuses that occurred against the Kurds following the war in 1991.
  557. Goldstein, Eric. Endless Torment: The 1991 Uprising in Iraq and Its Aftermath. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992.
  558. Find this resource:
  559. Hiltermann, Joost R. Bureaucracy of Repression: The Iraqi Government in Its Own Words. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994.
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  561. Documents the Iraqi regime’s human rights violations in its own words.
  562. Hiltermann, Joost R. Bureaucracy of Repression: The Iraqi Government in Its Own Words. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994.
  563. Find this resource:
  564. Stover, Eric. Unquiet Graves: The Search for the Disappeared in Iraqi Kurdistan. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992.
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  566. Documents the search for the so-called disappeared who were murdered.
  567. Stover, Eric. Unquiet Graves: The Search for the Disappeared in Iraqi Kurdistan. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Yildiz, Kerim, Catriona Vine, and Rachel Bernu. A Fact-Finding Mission in Kurdistan, Iraq: Gaps in the Human Rights Infrastructure. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2008.
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  571. Finds that gaps still remain in the human rights structure in the Kurdish region of Iraq.
  572. Yildiz, Kerim, Catriona Vine, and Rachel Bernu. A Fact-Finding Mission in Kurdistan, Iraq: Gaps in the Human Rights Infrastructure. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2008.
  573. Find this resource:
  574. Syria
  575.  
  576. Kurds are the largest non-Arab ethnic minority in Syria, numbering approximately 1.7 million or roughly 10 percent of that state’s population. Long marginalized and discriminated against by Syrian governments promoting Arab nationalism, Syria’s Kurds have traditionally been a divided and relatively quiescent group, especially compared to the Kurds in Iraq and Turkey. Whitson and Gorvin 2009 documents how the March 2004 soccer riots in Qamishli were driven by long-simmering Kurdish grievances about discrimination against their community and the positive developments since 2003 regarding the Iraqi Kurds. Thus the Kurds in Syria continued standing up for their rights more than even before. Middle East Watch, a division of Human Rights Watch, issued the now dated but still relevant study Sherry 1996, which shows how repressed and silent the Kurds in Syria had been in the past.
  577.  
  578. Sherry, Virginia N. Syria: The Silenced Kurds. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1996.
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  580. Dated study showing how repressed and silenced the Kurds in Syria were in the past.
  581. Sherry, Virginia N. Syria: The Silenced Kurds. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1996.
  582. Find this resource:
  583. Whitson, Sarah Leah, and Ian Gorvin. Group Denial: Repression of Kurdish Political and Cultural Rights in Syria. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.
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  585. Documents how the Kurds in Syria have gained increased confidence to demand human rights since the March 2004 soccer riots in Qamishli that were driven by long-simmering Kurdish grievances about discrimination, and the positive developments since 2003 regarding the Iraqi Kurds.
  586. Whitson, Sarah Leah, and Ian Gorvin. Group Denial: Repression of Kurdish Political and Cultural Rights in Syria. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.
  587. Find this resource:
  588. Turkey
  589.  
  590. Driven by its felt need to assimilate its ethnic Kurdish population in order to establish and maintain a strong and viable Turkish nation-state, Turkish governments have long repressed Kurdish human rights in that state. Recent reforms to conform to the requirements of the European Union (EU) accession process have led to improvements, but problems still remain. Amnesty International 2010 concerns closure of the pro-Kurdish Democratic Society Party (DTP), prosecution of children under antiterrorism legislation, refugees and asylum seekers, workers’ rights, and the Ilisu Dam, among other issues. Sinclair-Webb 2008 documents numerous aspects of police abuse in Turkey. Ron 1995 analyzes Turkey’s violations of the international laws of war in dealing with the Kurds and thus Turkey’s reliance on US- and NATO-supplied weapons. Yildiz 2010 sheds light on the disproportionate use of Turkish antiterrorism laws against Kurdish children, how lack of public use of the Kurdish language in mother-tongue education is a consistent barrier for far too many children, and other concerns. Capogna and Gür 2008 finds that the human rights situation had deteriorated in the previous two years. Ronayne, et al. 2005 details the cultural and environmental harm in the Kurdish region caused by Turkey building large dams, such as the Ilisu Dam. Yildiz and Muller 2008 demonstrates how Turkey’s EU accession process is positively affecting human rights in that state. Zana 1999 presents a series of articles about her experiences in a Turkish prison because of her nonviolent stands on Kurdish rights while she was a member of the Turkish parliament in the 1990s.
  591.  
  592. Amnesty International. Summary of Amnesty International’s Concerns in Turkey July to December 2009. 8 March 2010.
  593. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  594. Concerns closure of the pro-Kurdish DTP, prosecution of children under antiterrorism legislation, human rights defenders, prison conditions, conscientious objection, refugees and asylum seekers, workers’ rights, and the Ilisu Dam, among other issues.
  595. Amnesty International. Summary of Amnesty International’s Concerns in Turkey July to December 2009. 8 March 2010.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Capogna, Sara, and Nazmi Gür. Return to a State of Emergency? Fact-Finding Mission Report; Protecting Human Rights in South-East Turkey. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2008.
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  599. Based on the findings of a mission to the region in March 2008, finds that the human rights situation has deteriorated in the last two years before the report due to an upsurge in military operations against the PKK. Emphasizes that a genuine resolution of the conflict requires recognition of Turkey’s multicultural makeup and respect for the human rights of all of Turkey’s citizens.
  600. Capogna, Sara, and Nazmi Gür. Return to a State of Emergency? Fact-Finding Mission Report; Protecting Human Rights in South-East Turkey. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2008.
  601. Find this resource:
  602. Ron, James. Weapons Transfers and Violations of the Laws of War in Turkey. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995.
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  604. Dated but still revealing analysis of Turkey’s violations of the international laws of war in dealing with the Kurds, and Turkey’s reliance on US- and NATO-supplied weapons in so doing.
  605. Ron, James. Weapons Transfers and Violations of the Laws of War in Turkey. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995.
  606. Find this resource:
  607. Ronayne, Margaret, Rochelle Harris, and Kerim Yildiz. The Cultural and Environmental Impact of Large Dams in Southeast Turkey. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
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  609. Details the cultural and environmental harm in the Kurdish region caused by the state building large dams, such as the Ilisu Dam.
  610. Ronayne, Margaret, Rochelle Harris, and Kerim Yildiz. The Cultural and Environmental Impact of Large Dams in Southeast Turkey. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
  611. Find this resource:
  612. Sinclair-Webb, Emma. Closing Ranks against Accountability. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2008.
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  614. Documents numerous aspects of police abuse in Turkey.
  615. Sinclair-Webb, Emma. Closing Ranks against Accountability. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2008.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Yildiz, Kerim. The Situation of Kurdish Children in Turkey: Fact-Finding Mission and Research Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2010.
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  619. Sheds light on the disproportionate use of Turkish antiterrorism laws against Kurdish children and how the lack of public use of the Kurdish language in mother-tongue education is a consistent barrier for far too many children, among other problems.
  620. Yildiz, Kerim. The Situation of Kurdish Children in Turkey: Fact-Finding Mission and Research Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2010.
  621. Find this resource:
  622. Yildiz, Kerim, and Mark Muller. The European Union and Turkish Accession: Human Rights and the Kurds. London: Pluto, 2008.
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  624. Demonstrates how Turkey’s EU accession process is positively affecting human rights in that state.
  625. Yildiz, Kerim, and Mark Muller. The European Union and Turkish Accession: Human Rights and the Kurds. London: Pluto, 2008.
  626. Find this resource:
  627. Zana, Leyla. Writings from Prison. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane, 1999.
  628. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  629. A series of articles about the author’s experiences in prison for her nonviolent stands on Kurdish rights. Written by one of Turkey’s most famous human rights victims and advocates.
  630. Zana, Leyla. Writings from Prison. Watertown, MA: Blue Crane, 1999.
  631. Find this resource:
  632. Literature
  633.  
  634. Blau 2006 shows how, although in earlier times the Kurdish elite wrote in the languages of their overlords, creative poets began to use their mother tongue as a symbol of their collective identity. Blau 1996 traces the origins of the Kurdish language and literature in its many different forms with emphasis on the 20th century. Bois 1986—written by a Dominican Kurdologist whose actual name was Lucien Rambout—presents a scholarly analysis of Kurdish popular and folk literature, written and learned literature, and the press. The lengthy study Hassanpour 1992 traces the history of the Kurdish language to modern times with its orthographic standardization and concludes that Kurdish is a bi-standard language. Kreyenbroek 1992 surveys the origin of the Kurdish language and the problems created by the official state repression compounded by the considerable differences between the various dialects. Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi’s Sharafnama (Bitlisi 2005), a history of the Kurdish dynasties up to the end of the 16th century, is one of the most famous Kurdish works, but it was also written in Persian. Mehrdad Izady translates its first book into English in Bitlisi 2005. Soltani 1998 is an edited anthology of 381 poems by thirty-nine Gorani Kurdish poets. Lennox 2001 presents more than six hundred pages of Kurdish essays, stories, poetry, fables, and short fiction, demonstrating some of the wealth of Kurdish literature. Oran 2000 analyzes how the Lausanne Treaty of 1923 dealt only with non-Muslim minorities’ rights in Turkey and concludes that Kurdish language rights are necessary to solve the Kurdish problem in that country.
  635.  
  636. Bitlisi, Sharaf al-Din. The Sharafnama; or, the History of the Kurdish Nation, 1597: Book One. Translated by Mehrdad Izady. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  637. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  638. A translation into English of the first of four books of Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi’s Sharafnama, a very erudite history of the ruling families of the Kurdish emirates. The English translation on each page is followed by a reproduction of the original Persian on the facing page. Unfortunately, Izady has not translated the other three books, although earlier complete translations in other languages do exist.
  639. Bitlisi, Sharaf al-Din. The Sharafnama; or, the History of the Kurdish Nation, 1597: Book One. Translated by Mehrdad Izady. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Blau, Joyce. “Kurdish Written Literature.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 20–28. London: Zed, 1996.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Traces the origins of the Kurdish language and literature in its many different forms with emphasis on the 20th century. Demonstrates that the Kurds have shown an extraordinary linguistic vitality and how this is related to cultural and political development and freedom.
  644. Blau, Joyce. “Kurdish Written Literature.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 20–28. London: Zed, 1996.
  645. Find this resource:
  646. Blau, Joyce. “Refinement and Oppression of Kurdish Language.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 103–112. London: Saqi, 2006.
  647. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  648. Shows how although the Kurdish elite earlier wrote in the languages of their overlords, creative poets began to use their mother tongue, Kurdish, as a symbol of collective identity. Traces the development of Kurdish literature to present times and dreams of unifying the Kurdish language.
  649. Blau, Joyce. “Refinement and Oppression of Kurdish Language.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 103–112. London: Saqi, 2006.
  650. Find this resource:
  651. Bois, Thomas. “Folklore and Literature.” In Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford E. Bosworth, 480–486. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  652. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  653. A scholarly analysis of Kurdish popular and folk literature, written and learned literature, and the press against the background of Kurdish history.
  654. Bois, Thomas. “Folklore and Literature.” In Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Edited by Clifford E. Bosworth, 480–486. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  655. Find this resource:
  656. Hassanpour, Amir. Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918–1985. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992.
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  658. Mammoth study that traces the history of the Kurdish language from its earliest sources to modern times with its orthographic standardization, including the spheres of education and journalism. Looks at all Kurdish dialects—especially Kurmanji and Sorani—and concludes that Kurdish is a bi-standard language, as are several other languages.
  659. Hassanpour, Amir. Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918–1985. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. “On the Kurdish Language.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 68–83. London: Routledge, 1992.
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  663. Surveys the origin of the Kurdish language and then examines its recent history and late-20th-century position in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. Problems created by official state repression are compounded by there being considerable differences between the various dialects of Kurdish. This has prevented the development of a unified standard form of Kurdish.
  664. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. “On the Kurdish Language.” In The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl, 68–83. London: Routledge, 1992.
  665. Find this resource:
  666. Lennox, Gina, ed. Fire, Snow, and Honey: A Collection of Essays, Life Stories, Poetry, Fables, and Short Fiction. Sydney: Halstead, 2001.
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  668. More than six hundred pages of Kurdish essays, stories, poetry, fables, and short fiction, demonstrating the wealth of Kurdish literature. Organized according to the different areas in which the Kurds live.
  669. Lennox, Gina, ed. Fire, Snow, and Honey: A Collection of Essays, Life Stories, Poetry, Fables, and Short Fiction. Sydney: Halstead, 2001.
  670. Find this resource:
  671. Oran, Baskin. “Linguistic Minority Rights in Turkey, the Kurds, and Globalization.” In The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. Edited by Ferhad Ibrahim and Gulistan Gurbey, 151–158. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
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  673. A sophisticated Turkish scholarly analysis of Kurdish rights in Turkey against the background of the Lausanne Treaty of 1923, which dealt only with non-Muslim minorities’ rights. Concludes that since the denial of Kurdish language rights and identity has obviously failed, these Kurdish rights should be recognized.
  674. Oran, Baskin. “Linguistic Minority Rights in Turkey, the Kurds, and Globalization.” In The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. Edited by Ferhad Ibrahim and Gulistan Gurbey, 151–158. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
  675. Find this resource:
  676. Soltani, Anwar, ed. Anthology of Gorani Kurdish Poetry. London: Soane Trust for Kurdistan, 1998.
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  678. Includes a photographic reproduction of the original manuscript from which this anthology of 381 poems by thirty-nine Gorani poets is derived and transcription of the poems into modern Kurdish and twenty selected poems into English. Also features eight beautifully colored Kurdish miniature paintings from Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi’s Sharafnama.
  679. Soltani, Anwar, ed. Anthology of Gorani Kurdish Poetry. London: Soane Trust for Kurdistan, 1998.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Refugees
  682.  
  683. In earlier times both the Ottoman and the Persian empires deported large numbers of Kurds from their historic homelands in an attempt to more effectively control them. More recently, the modern Republic of Turkey has also internally displaced many ethnic Kurds in an attempt to assimilate them. Iraq and Syria also displaced hundreds of thousands of Kurds during the 20th century. This overall Kurdish refugee situation remained little known until the aftermath of the Gulf War in 1991, when the tragic flight of more than 1.8 million Iraqi Kurdish refugees from Saddam Hussein’s vengeance brought the long-standing Kurdish question to the forefront of international concern. Eventually, it led to the creation of a Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) behind the protection of the no-fly zone enforced by the United States. Gunter 2002 analyzes the legal rights of Kurdish refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) under international law, the international legal definition of refugees, and the US implementation of international refugee law and offers conclusions. Ahmed 2002 sheds light on the major events that occurred in Iraqi (southern) Kurdistan during the 20th century, causing substantial internal displacement, migrations, and Kurdish refugee problems. Fisher 2005 illustrates some of the legal and practical questions that face the various authorities with regard to issues of the return and resettlement of IDPs among the Iraqi Kurds, discusses the relevant international normative framework, and concludes with recommendations. Frelick 2002 explains some basic considerations regarding the protection and solutions for IDPs in regard to the Iraqi Kurds. Because of continuing upheavals in Turkey and elsewhere, however, Kurdish refugees remain a major problem both in the Middle East and in Europe. Ayata and Yukseker 2005 offers a scholarly analysis of the internal displacement of Kurds in Turkey and the tardy Turkish and international response. Vine and Claridge 2007 discusses worrying trends concerning the situation of refugees and asylum seekers in Turkey, particularly among twelve hundred Iranian citizens of Kurdish origin stranded in Turkey without access to social provisions or resettlement possibilities in third states. A sizable Kurdish diaspora has arisen in Europe in particular. Van Bruinessen 1998 presents a scholarly study of the Kurdish diaspora in Europe caused by Kurdish refugees fleeing from Turkey and discusses how this new diaspora has caused shifting national and ethnic identities. Employing the concept of diaspora, Wahlbeck 1999 describes the social organization of the Kurdish refugee communities and how this is influenced by the refugees’ relations to both their country of origin and of settlement.
  684.  
  685. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A. “The Chronic Problem of Kurdish Refugees and Internally Displaced Kurds in Southern Kurdistan-Iraq.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 24–42. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Sheds light on the major events that occurred in Iraqi (southern) Kurdistan during the 20th century, causing substantial internal displacement, migrations, and Kurdish refugee problems.
  688. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A. “The Chronic Problem of Kurdish Refugees and Internally Displaced Kurds in Southern Kurdistan-Iraq.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 24–42. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  689. Find this resource:
  690. Ayata, Bilgin, and Deniz Yukseker. “A Belated Awakening: National and International Responses to the Internal Displacement of Kurds in Turkey.” New Perspectives on Turkey 32 (Spring 2005): 93–111.
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  692. A scholarly analysis of the internal displacement of Kurds in Turkey and the tardy Turkish and international response.
  693. Ayata, Bilgin, and Deniz Yukseker. “A Belated Awakening: National and International Responses to the Internal Displacement of Kurds in Turkey.” New Perspectives on Turkey 32 (Spring 2005): 93–111.
  694. Find this resource:
  695. Fisher, David. “Durable Solution for the Internally Displaced Iraqi Kurds: Legal and Practical Considerations.” In The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 206–247. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  696. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  697. Illustrates some of the legal and practical questions that face the various authorities with regard to issues of the return and resettlement of IDPs among the Iraqi Kurds. Discusses the relevant international normative framework and concludes with recommendations.
  698. Fisher, David. “Durable Solution for the Internally Displaced Iraqi Kurds: Legal and Practical Considerations.” In The Kurdish Question and the 2003 Iraqi War. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 206–247. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
  699. Find this resource:
  700. Frelick, Bill. “Protection and Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons: The Case of Northern Iraq.” In Kurdish Exodus: from Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 192–204. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  702. Presents basic considerations regarding the protection and solutions for IDPs in regard to the Iraqi Kurds.
  703. Frelick, Bill. “Protection and Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons: The Case of Northern Iraq.” In Kurdish Exodus: from Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 192–204. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Gunter, Michael M. “The Legal Rights of Refugee and Internally Displaced Kurds under International Law.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 111–132. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. Analyzes the legal rights of Kurdish refugees and IDPs under international law. Analyzes the international legal definition of refugees and US implementation of international refugee law and offers conclusions.
  708. Gunter, Michael M. “The Legal Rights of Refugee and Internally Displaced Kurds under International Law.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 111–132. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  709. Find this resource:
  710. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Shifting National and Ethnic Identities: The Kurds in Turkey and the European Diaspora.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (April 1998): 39–52.
  711. DOI: 10.1080/13602009808716392Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  712. A scholarly study of the Kurdish diaspora in Europe caused by Kurdish refugees fleeing Turkey. Discusses how this new diaspora has caused shifting national and ethnic identities.
  713. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Shifting National and Ethnic Identities: The Kurds in Turkey and the European Diaspora.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (April 1998): 39–52.
  714. Find this resource:
  715. Vine, Catriona, and Lucy Claridge. Refusing Refuge: Investigating the Treatment of Refugees in Turkey; Fact-Finding Mission Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007.
  716. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  717. Discusses worrying trends concerning the situation of refugees and asylum seekers in Turkey, particularly among twelve hundred Iranian citizens of Kurdish origin stranded in Turkey without access to social provisions or resettlement possibilities in third states.
  718. Vine, Catriona, and Lucy Claridge. Refusing Refuge: Investigating the Treatment of Refugees in Turkey; Fact-Finding Mission Report. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2007.
  719. Find this resource:
  720. Wahlbeck, Osten. Kurdish Diasporas: A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.
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  722. Employing the concept of diaspora, this book describes the social organization of the Kurdish refugee communities and how this is influenced by the refugees’ relations to both their country of origin and of settlement.
  723. Wahlbeck, Osten. Kurdish Diasporas: A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Religion
  726.  
  727. Although most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, they are not as a rule overly religious. Indeed, an old Kurdish maxim has it that compared to an unbeliever, a Kurd is a good Muslim. This having been said, however, it must also be noted that there exists an incredible amount of religious diversity among the Kurds not only in Islam but also in various pre-Islamic, heterodox, and syncretist beliefs. What is more, sheikhs still play not only an important religious but also a political role in rural areas. Van Bruinessen 2000 offers a collection of scholarly articles analyzing the role of religion in Kurdish society. Van Bruinessen 1991 includes a scholarly article analyzing religious diversity in Kurdistan, including the Yezidis, the Ahl-i Haqq, the Alevis (Qizilbash), the Sunni majority, the mystical orders (Sufis), sheikhs and the modern state, modernism and radicalism, and Islam and nationalism. Kreyenbroek 1996 illustrates that although Sunni Islam is dominant in Kurdish culture, communities that are more isolated from outside cultural influences have preserved religious beliefs or even developed entire religious systems alien to mainstream Islam. As with the rest of the Islamic world, Islamist forces have been gaining strength among a minority of Kurds. Indeed, within the sway of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in northern Iraq, the Islamists have long been the third strongest force after the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Leezenberg 2006 is a scholarly analysis of the differences between political Islam in Turkey and Iraq as influenced by such factors as rapid urbanization, the rise of mass communication, the demise of communism, neoliberal economic reforms, and conflict between Kurdish nationalists and their respective states. Sunni Kurds distinguish themselves from their Sunni Turkish and Arab neighbors by adhering to the Shafii school of Islamic law instead of the Hanefi school. Zubaida 2006 illustrates how religious divisions continue to play important roles in modern politics and conflicts and demonstrates how these religious differences and boundaries have been politicized in different ways. Leezenberg 1997 offers a scholarly examination of the Shabak and the Kakais, two small esoteric religious groups in Kurdistan. Moosa 1988 presents a scholarly study of the small, extremist Ghulat (extremist Shiite) religious sects among the Kurds. Although some claim that as many as one-third of the Kurds still adhere to these sects, this is almost certainly an exaggeration. Regarding Turkey, Mardin 1989 presents a penetrating study of Said Nursi (also known as Kurdish Said), the highly respected Kurdish scholar, inspired interpreter of the Qurʾan, and founder of the Nurculuk movement, which remains in the early 21st century the most influential religious movement among the Kurds in Turkey. A sizable minority of the ethnic Kurds in Turkey are Alevis, which serves to divide them from their orthodox Sunni cousins. Naqshbandi and Qadiri Sufi orders also continue to play an important role in the lives of some Kurds. It should be noted that historically Christians and Jews were also present among the Kurds. Christian Assyrians still constitute an important minority within the KRG’s sway in northern Iraq.
  728.  
  729. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. “Religion and Religions in Kurdistan.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 85–110. London: Zed, 1996.
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  731. Illustrates that although Sunni Islam is dominant in Kurdish culture, communities that are more isolated from outside cultural influences have preserved religious beliefs or even developed entire religious systems alien to mainstream Islam. Pre-Zoroastrianism Mesopotamian and Anatolian cults, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Hellenistic cults, Manichaeism, Christianity, Islam, Sufism, Yezidism, Shiites and ultra-Shiites, Alh-i Haqq, and Alevis are considered.
  732. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. “Religion and Religions in Kurdistan.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 85–110. London: Zed, 1996.
  733. Find this resource:
  734. Leezenberg, Michiel. “Between Assimilation and Deportation: The Shabak and the Kakais in Northern Iraq.” In Syncretistic Religions Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present, Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 155–174. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
  735. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736. A scholarly examination of the Shabak and the Kakais, two small esoteric religious groups in Kurdistan.
  737. Leezenberg, Michiel. “Between Assimilation and Deportation: The Shabak and the Kakais in Northern Iraq.” In Syncretistic Religions Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present, Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 155–174. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
  738. Find this resource:
  739. Leezenberg, Michiel. “Political Islam among the Kurds.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 203–227. London: Saqi, 2006.
  740. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  741. A scholarly analysis of the differences between political Islam in Turkey and Iraq as influenced by such factors as rapid urbanization, the rise of mass communication, the demise of communism, neoliberal economic reforms, and conflict between Kurdish nationalists and their respective states.
  742. Leezenberg, Michiel. “Political Islam among the Kurds.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 203–227. London: Saqi, 2006.
  743. Find this resource:
  744. Mardin, Serif. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. New York: State University of New York Press, 1989.
  745. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  746. A penetrating study of the highly respected Kurdish scholar, inspired interpreter of the Qurʾan, and founder of the Nurculuk movement, which remains in the early 21st century the most influential religious movement among the Kurds in Turkey. However, the government considered Nursi a dangerous reactionary.
  747. Mardin, Serif. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. New York: State University of New York Press, 1989.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. A scholarly study of the small, extremist Ghulat (extremist Shiite) religious sects among the Kurds.
  752. Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988.
  753. Find this resource:
  754. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Religion in Kurdistan.” Kurdish Times 4 (Summer–Fall 1991): 5–27.
  755. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  756. A scholarly article analyzing religious diversity in Kurdistan, including the Yezidis, the Ahl-i Haqq, the Alevis (Qizilbash), the Sunni majority, the mystical orders (Sufis), sheikhs and the modern state, modernism and radicalism, and Islam and nationalism. Also contains a list for further reading.
  757. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Religion in Kurdistan.” Kurdish Times 4 (Summer–Fall 1991): 5–27.
  758. Find this resource:
  759. van Bruinessen, Martin. Mullas, Sufis, and Heretics: The Role of Religion in Kurdish Society. Istanbul: Isis, 2000.
  760. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  761. A collection of scholarly articles analyzing the role of religion in Kurdish society.
  762. van Bruinessen, Martin. Mullas, Sufis, and Heretics: The Role of Religion in Kurdish Society. Istanbul: Isis, 2000.
  763. Find this resource:
  764. Zubaida, Sami. “Religion and Ethnicity as Politicized Boundaries.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 93–102. London: Saqi, 2006.
  765. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  766. Illustrates how religious divisions continue to play important roles in modern politics and conflicts and demonstrates how these religious differences and boundaries were politicized in different ways.
  767. Zubaida, Sami. “Religion and Ethnicity as Politicized Boundaries.” In The Kurds: Nationalism and Politics. Edited by Faleh A. Jabar and Hosham Dawod, 93–102. London: Saqi, 2006.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Ahl-i Haqq
  770.  
  771. The Ahl-i Haqq (people of the faith) represent an ancient indigenous Kurdish religion that still persists in Iraqi and Iranian Kurdistan. It shares many tenets with the practices of the Alevis and the Yezidis. Ziba Mir-Hosseini has written three articles expounding upon this religion. Mir-Hosseini 1996 presents a detailed scholarly analysis of the esoteric Ahl-i Haqq, branded by both Sunnis and Shiites as heretics, who are thus often persecuted. Mir-Hosseini 1995 offers a scholarly study of the relations between the Ahl-i Haqq (known in Iran as Yaresan) and the Islamic republic established in 1979. Mir-Hosseini 1994 analyzes the beliefs of this esoteric sect centered in Iranian Kurdistan regarding the Divine Essence and its passage between the inner world and the outer world.
  772.  
  773. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-i Haqq of Kurdistan.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (May 1994): 267–285.
  774. DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800060244Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Analyzes arcane beliefs of this esoteric sect centered in Iranian Kurdistan regarding the Divine Essence and its passage between the inner world and the outer world.
  776. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-i Haqq of Kurdistan.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (May 1994): 267–285.
  777. Find this resource:
  778. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Redefining the Truth: Ahl-i Haqq and the Islamic Republic.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21.2 (1995): 211–228.
  779. DOI: 10.1080/13530199408705601Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  780. A scholarly study of the relations between the Ahl-i Haqq (known in Iran as Yaresan) and the Islamic republic established in 1979.
  781. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Redefining the Truth: Ahl-i Haqq and the Islamic Republic.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21.2 (1995): 211–228.
  782. Find this resource:
  783. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Faith, Ritual, and Culture among the Ahl-e Haqq.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 111–134. London: Zed, 1996.
  784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  785. A detailed scholarly analysis of the esoteric Ahl-i Haqq (people of the faith), branded by both Sunnis and Shiites as heretics, who are thus often persecuted.
  786. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Faith, Ritual, and Culture among the Ahl-e Haqq.” In Kurdish Culture and Identity. Edited by Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Christine Allison, 111–134. London: Zed, 1996.
  787. Find this resource:
  788. Alevis
  789.  
  790. The Alevis practice a heterodox form of Islam in Turkey that some would consider beyond the Islamic pale. Therefore, they are sometimes discriminated against in Turkey, where they constitute as much as 20 percent of the population and where they thus tend to espouse leftist, secularist causes. They are also referred to as Qizilbash (a derogatory term) or Red Heads for the distinctive red turbans they historically wore. Alevi beliefs are a mixture of pre-Islamic, Zoroastrian, Turkoman shaman, and Shiʿa ideas and beliefs. The Alevis share many common tenets with the Ahl-i Haqq religion, such as the veneration of the Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. The jam (cam) is the main religious observance of both the Alevis and the Ahl-i Haqq and takes the place of the mosque as the religious gathering place. Both also use the term pir for their religious leaders. Orthodox Muslims sometimes accuse the Alevis of sexual promiscuity from the erroneous belief that Alevis share their women at their communal religious ceremony of the candle blown out. Historically, the Qizilbash supported the Safavid Persian Shah Ismail and constituted a large part of his army when he advanced against the Ottomans in the early 1500s. Thus the Sunni Ottomans saw the Qizilbash as bitter enemies and killed as many as forty thousand after their victory at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. The Alevis were the main victims of the deadly riots that killed several hundred in Kahramanmaras in southeastern Turkey on Christmas Day in 1978. Many Dimili (Zaza) speakers in Turkey are Alevis and constitute a majority in the province of Dersim, now called Tunceli. Alevi Kurds in Turkey are a minority within a minority. Van Bruinessen 1997 examines the debate on the ethnic identity of the Kurdish Alevis in Turkey. Bumke 1989 analyzes various perceptions of boundaries separating the Kurdish Alevis from other groups and finds that the effects of economic and political marginalization even lead to still evasive and fluctuating self-perceptions. Kehl-Bodrogi 1993 examines how secularization in Turkey partially ended Alevi isolation but notes that since 1980 ethnic distinction between Turkish and Kurdish Alevis has gained new importance.
  791.  
  792. Bumke, Peter J. “The Kurdish Alevis: Boundaries and Perceptions.” In Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. Edited by Peter Alford Andrews, 510–518. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989.
  793. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  794. Analyzes various perceptions of boundaries separating the Kurdish Alevis from other groups. Finds that the effects of economic and political marginalization lead to still evasive and fluctuating self-perceptions.
  795. Bumke, Peter J. “The Kurdish Alevis: Boundaries and Perceptions.” In Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. Edited by Peter Alford Andrews, 510–518. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. “Rediscovering the Alevi Community in Turkey: Myth of History and Collective Identity.” Orient 34.2 (1993): 267–282.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. Examines how secularization in the modern Republic of Turkey partially ended Alevi isolation but notes that since 1980 ethnic distinction between Turkish and Kurdish Alevis has gained new importance.
  800. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. “Rediscovering the Alevi Community in Turkey: Myth of History and Collective Identity.” Orient 34.2 (1993): 267–282.
  801. Find this resource:
  802. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Aslini Inkar Eden Haramzadedir! The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present, Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Keinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 1–23. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
  803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  804. Examines the debate on the ethnic identity of the Kurdish Alevis.
  805. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Aslini Inkar Eden Haramzadedir! The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present, Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Keinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 1–23. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
  806. Find this resource:
  807. Christians
  808.  
  809. Indigenous Christian minorities remain living among the Kurds who historically dominated most of them. At times these Christians have also come into conflict with their Muslim neighbors and in modern times have been used as a fifth column offering an entry into local politics to Western imperialists. During World War I these Christians suffered heavily, and their numbers have been greatly reduced. Before the Europeans began their proselytizing activities in modern times, there were three Christian groups living among the Kurds. The Suryani belonged to the Syrian Orthodox or Jacobite church and lived mainly in the Tor Abdin and Jazire areas of northwestern Kurdistan. They spoke Aramaic or Arabic dialects. The Assyrians belonged to the very different Nestorian church, also spoke Aramaic dialects, and lived in central Kurdistan in Bahdinan and Hakkari and also in Urumiya in present-day Iranian Kurdistan. Blincoe 1998 chronicles Christian missionary work from 1668 to 1990 in Kurdistan. Husry 1974 examines the Kurdish and Iraqi nationalist army officer massacres of Assyrians in 1933 that destroyed them as a military force.
  810.  
  811. Blincoe, Robert. Ethnic Realities and the Church: Lessons from Kurdistan, a History of Mission Work, 1668–1990. Pasadena, CA: Presbyterian Center for Mission Studies, 1998.
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  813. Chronicles missionary work from 1668 to 1990 in Kurdistan. Concerns several historically prominent ethnic groups, primarily relating Protestant mission work among them. Impact or lack of impact on Muslim Kurds is the focus.
  814. Blincoe, Robert. Ethnic Realities and the Church: Lessons from Kurdistan, a History of Mission Work, 1668–1990. Pasadena, CA: Presbyterian Center for Mission Studies, 1998.
  815. Find this resource:
  816. Husry, Khaldun S. “The Assyrian Affair of 1933 (I).” International Journal of Middle East Studies 5.2 (1974): 161–176.
  817. DOI: 10.1017/S002074380002780XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  818. Examines the Kurdish and Iraqi nationalist army officer massacres of Assyrians (Christians) in 1933 that destroyed them as a military force. Part 2 of the study is in International Journal of Middle East Studies 5.3 (1974): 344–360.
  819. Husry, Khaldun S. “The Assyrian Affair of 1933 (I).” International Journal of Middle East Studies 5.2 (1974): 161–176.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Jews
  822.  
  823. Brauer 1993 is the definitive study in English of the ancient but now extinct Jewish community among the Kurds. Sabar 2008 offers a biography of the author’s father that is also part history, linguistics primer, and memoir. Schwartz-Beʾeri 2000 describes field research on the material culture of the Jews of Kurdistan, revealing a community rich in tradition and heritage. Sered 1996 discusses the religious world of Jewish women in Kurdistan in the precolonial Middle East.
  824.  
  825. Brauer, Eric. The Jews of Kurdistan. Edited by Raphael Patai. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993.
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  827. The definitive study in English of the ancient but now extinct Jewish community among the Kurds. Discusses history, culture, family, birth and childhood, economic conditions, social organization and education, synagogue, and holidays. Contains ample documentation, a bibliography, and glossary.
  828. Brauer, Eric. The Jews of Kurdistan. Edited by Raphael Patai. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993.
  829. Find this resource:
  830. Sabar, Ariel. My Father’s Paradise: A Son’s Search for His Jewish Past in Kurdish Iraq. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2008.
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  832. A biography of the author’s father that is also part history, linguistics primer, and memoir. Centers on the author’s move from Kurdistan to the immigrant hovels of Jerusalem to Yale University and finally to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he is a professor.
  833. Sabar, Ariel. My Father’s Paradise: A Son’s Search for His Jewish Past in Kurdish Iraq. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2008.
  834. Find this resource:
  835. Schwartz-Beʾeri, Ora. The Jews of Kurdistan: Daily Life, Customs, Arts, and Crafts. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 2000.
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  837. Describes field research on the material culture of the Jews of Kurdistan, revealing a community rich in tradition and heritage. The pilot project of the Israel Museum’s Department of Ethnography, the research on the Kurdish Jewish community began in 1974 and extended five years (twenty-five years after the last Kurdish immigrant had arrived in Israel). Illustrated sections include, among others, daily life, clothing, weaving, amulets, and paintings of Kurdish Jewish Women. Also contains a glossary and a selected bibliography.
  838. Schwartz-Beʾeri, Ora. The Jews of Kurdistan: Daily Life, Customs, Arts, and Crafts. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 2000.
  839. Find this resource:
  840. Sered, Susan Starr. “The Religious World of Jewish Women in Kurdistan.” In Jews among Muslims: Communities in the Precolonial Middle East. Edited by Shlomo Deshen and Walter P. Zenner, 197–214. New York: New York University Press, 1996.
  841. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  842. Discusses the religious world of Jewish women in Kurdistan in the precolonial Middle East.
  843. Sered, Susan Starr. “The Religious World of Jewish Women in Kurdistan.” In Jews among Muslims: Communities in the Precolonial Middle East. Edited by Shlomo Deshen and Walter P. Zenner, 197–214. New York: New York University Press, 1996.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Sufis
  846.  
  847. The Arabic word sufi literally means “wool,” so a Sufi is a person of wool or an ascetic, wool being a material worn by such people. “Sufi” and “dervish” are terms used throughout the Islamic world for men who belong to mystical brotherhoods (Arabic tariqa, plural turuq) that emphasize the immanence of God rather than his transcendental aspect. The Sufi orders in the Muslim world rose during the 12th and 13th centuries and were somewhat analogous to the monastic orders of medieval Christendom. In Kurdistan there are only two basic Sufi orders, the Naqshbandi and the Qadiri. The term “Sufi” is used for the murids or followers of the Naqshbandi order, while dervishes are followers of the Qadiri. To the Naqshbandi, the term “dervish” possesses pejorative connotations of backwardness and superstition involving ecstatic utterances, trances, fire-eating, and self-mutilation. The Sufi orders serve both to strengthen and to divide Kurdish society. Those who belong to the same tariqa order possess an obvious bond regardless of their tribal affiliations. On the other hand, different orders or even different tariqa networks of the same order often experience tensions and conflicts of authority. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk banned the Sufi orders in Turkey following the uprising of the Naqshbandi sheikh Said of Palu in 1925. The orders continued to exist underground, however, because they gave their adherents an identity and a way to deal with the changing world, especially after the abolition of the caliphate. When the Democrat Party of Adnan Menderes came to power in Turkey in 1950, it allowed the revival of many traditional Islamic values. Thus there was ironically a certain amount of Sufi resurgence in Turkey, while in Iraq, Iran, and Syria the Sufi orders remained in decay. Van Bruinessen 1990 offers a scholarly analysis of the Naqshbandi Sufi order during the 17th century. Yavuz 2003 is a scholarly analysis of the Naqshbandi Sufi order detailing its tradition, genesis, and organizational structure; Kemalist persecution and the silent transformation of the order from 1930 to the 1960s; and the order’s early 21st-century opportunity spaces.
  848.  
  849. van Bruinessen, Martin. “The Naqshbandi Order in 17th Century Kurdistan.” In Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique musulman; Acte de la Table Ronde de Sevres, 2–4 mai 1985. Edited by Marc Gaborieau, Alexandre Popovic, and Thierry Zarcone, 337–360. Paris: Institut Francais d’Etudes Anatoliennes, 1990.
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  851. A scholarly analysis of the Sufi Naqshbandi order in 17th century Kurdistan.
  852. van Bruinessen, Martin. “The Naqshbandi Order in 17th Century Kurdistan.” In Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique musulman; Acte de la Table Ronde de Sevres, 2–4 mai 1985. Edited by Marc Gaborieau, Alexandre Popovic, and Thierry Zarcone, 337–360. Paris: Institut Francais d’Etudes Anatoliennes, 1990.
  853. Find this resource:
  854. Yavuz, M. Hakan. “The Matrix of Turkish Islamic Movements: The Naksibendi Sufi Order.” In Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. By M. Hakan Yavuz, 133–150. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  856. This chapter in Yavuz’s book is a scholarly analysis of the Naqshbandi Sufi order detailing its tradition, genesis, and organizational structure; Kemalist persecution and the silent transformation of the order from 1930 to the 1960s; and the order’s early 21st-century opportunity spaces as it seeks to appropriate modernity on its own terms and with regard to democracy, human rights, and the market economy.
  857. Yavuz, M. Hakan. “The Matrix of Turkish Islamic Movements: The Naksibendi Sufi Order.” In Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. By M. Hakan Yavuz, 133–150. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  858. Find this resource:
  859. Yezidis
  860.  
  861. The Yezidis are a religiously heterodox Kurdish group who have often, but incorrectly, been referred to pejoratively as “devil worshippers.” In reality they are a branch of the indigenous Kurdish religion of the Cult of Angels. The reputed founder of the religion is Sheikh Adi, whose burial site is in Lalish, located in the Bahdinani area of Iraqi Kurdistan. “Yezidi” refers to angels, and Lucifer (Malak Tawus or the Peacock Angel) is the main angel worshipped. Malak Tawus, however, is not the prince of darkness but the most powerful of all the archangels. The most important Yezidi celebration is the Jam, a seven-day feast during the second week of October in which the bird icon Anzal is presented to the faithful. The Yezidis are prohibited from eating lettuce, fish, gazelles, the flesh of poultry, and gourds. The color dark blue is also forbidden. Urinating in a standing position, dressing while sitting, using a closet, and washing in a bathroom are also proscribed. Formerly a much larger group, the Yezidis have been decimated by persecution and massacres perpetrated by their Muslim neighbors, who look upon them as heretics. In the early 21st century the Yezidis constitute at most 5 percent of the Kurdish population and probably a lot less. They are concentrated in several different pockets in the Bahdinani area of northern Iraq. During the 1830s many Yezidis left these areas due to persecution and settled in the Tor Abdin Mountains between Mardin and Midyat in what is now Turkey and also near Batman in Turkey. Subsequently, most of them have migrated to Germany to escape continuing persecution. Yezidis also migrated to the Caucasus in Russia for similar reasons in the 19th century. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, the Yezidis have also suffered persecution in Armenia. The Yezidis speak the Kurdish language Kurmanji. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries there also was an Arab attempt to strip them of their Kurdish identity by declaring them Umayyad Arabs. This rewriting of ethnic history was attempted by falsely identifying the Yezidis with the Umayyad caliph Yezid, who reigned from 680 to 683. Allison 2001 examines the oral literature tradition of the Yezidis. Fuccaro 1999 offers a detailed account of the Yezidi tribal society under the British mandate over Iraq largely in the 1920s. Guest 1993 presents an informative scholarly history of the Yezidi Kurds and describes early encounters between the Yezidis and the outside world. Kreyenbroek 1995 emphasizes earlier perceptions of the Yezidis and their beliefs, rituals, and social organization and also includes texts from Yezidi oral traditions.
  862.  
  863. Allison, Christine. The Yezidi Oral Tradition in Iraqi Kurdistan. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2001.
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  865. Examines the oral literature tradition of the Yezidis, arguing their identification as devil worshippers is an incorrect and unfair characterization.
  866. Allison, Christine. The Yezidi Oral Tradition in Iraqi Kurdistan. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2001.
  867. Find this resource:
  868. Fuccaro, Nelida. The Other Kurds: Yazidis in Colonial Iraq. London: Tauris, 1999.
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  870. Offers a detailed account of the Yezidi tribal society under the British mandate over Iraq largely in the 1920s. Demonstrates the extreme fluidity of Yezidi cultural, social, and political boundaries.
  871. Fuccaro, Nelida. The Other Kurds: Yazidis in Colonial Iraq. London: Tauris, 1999.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Guest, John S. Survival among the Kurds: A History of the Yezidis. Rev. ed. London: Kegan Paul International, 1993.
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  875. Offers an informative scholarly history of the Yezidi Kurds and describes early encounters between the Yezidis and the outside world, especially the close friendship forged in the 1840s with the British archaeologist Sir Henry Layard. An epilogue reviews the early 21st-century status of the Yezidis, and an appendix outlines Yezidi religious doctrine.
  876. Guest, John S. Survival among the Kurds: A History of the Yezidis. Rev. ed. London: Kegan Paul International, 1993.
  877. Find this resource:
  878. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. Yezidism: Its Background, Observances, and Textual Tradition. Lewiston, NY: Edward Mellen, 1995.
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  880. Emphasizes earlier perceptions of the Yezidis and their beliefs, rituals, and social organization. Also includes texts from Yezidi oral traditions.
  881. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. Yezidism: Its Background, Observances, and Textual Tradition. Lewiston, NY: Edward Mellen, 1995.
  882. Find this resource:
  883. Culture
  884.  
  885. The ideas, customs, skills, arts and crafts, and so forth of a people constitute their culture and thus help give them their identity. Since the Kurds have lived under the repressive rule of other nations in modern times, their culture has been repressed and strong attempts made to assimilate it. Kurdish rugs, for example, are often subsumed under the category of Turkish or Persian rugs. To a large extent of course all of the various topics in this entire annotated bibliography are part of the Kurdish culture and thus should be consulted by those interested in the topic. Nevertheless, it is appropriate also to have a separate category on culture. Brenneman 2007 examines core and changing aspects of Kurdish culture, including human rights, ethnic identity, women’s roles, family and community values, religious practices, transition from oral tradition to literacy, and the massive migration from rural roots to an urban environment. Busby 1996 briefly covers history and cultural relations, settlements, economy, kinship, marriage and family, sociopolitical organization, and religion and expressive culture. Eagleton 1988, written by a former US ambassador to the region, compiles a beautifully illustrated description and classification of Kurdish rugs and other weavings from Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. Hassanpour 1998 gives an apt description of a Kurdish television channel that broadcasts from Europe to the Kurdish regions of the Middle East and elsewhere. It has subsequently been succeeded by ROJ-TV. Romano 2002 provides a scholarly look at how the Kurds have been using modern communications technology to promote their ethnic agenda. Kreyenbroek and Allison 1996 and Sweetnam 1994 examine oral and written literature, textiles and costume, religion, historical background, the media, and rugs and weaving. Universities of Kurdistan 2007 presents a brief survey of the seven universities in the Kurdistan region of northern Iraq (the Kurdistan Regional Government), including Salahaddin in Erbil, Sulaimania, Dohuk, Koya, University of Kurdistan Hawler (Erbil), and American University (Sulaimania), among others.
  886.  
  887. Brenneman, Robert L. As Strong as the Mountains: A Kurdish Cultural Journey. Long Grove, IL: Waveland, 2007.
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  889. Examines core and changing aspects of Kurdish culture, including human rights, ethnic identity, women’s roles, family and community values, religious practices, transition from oral tradition to literacy, and the massive migration from rural roots to an urban environment.
  890. Brenneman, Robert L. As Strong as the Mountains: A Kurdish Cultural Journey. Long Grove, IL: Waveland, 2007.
  891. Find this resource:
  892. Busby, Annette. “Kurds.” In Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. 9, Africa and the Middle East. Edited by David Levinson, 174–177. Boston: Hall, 1996.
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  894. Briefly covers history and cultural relations, settlements, economy, kinship, marriage and family, sociopolitical organization, and religion and expressive culture.
  895. Busby, Annette. “Kurds.” In Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. 9, Africa and the Middle East. Edited by David Levinson, 174–177. Boston: Hall, 1996.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Eagleton, William. An Introduction to Kurdish Rugs and Other Weavings. New York: Interlink, 1988.
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  899. A beautifully illustrated description and classification of Kurdish rugs and other weavings from Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. Also compiles a list of more than two hundred Kurdish tribes. The author is a former US ambassador to the region.
  900. Eagleton, William. An Introduction to Kurdish Rugs and Other Weavings. New York: Interlink, 1988.
  901. Find this resource:
  902. Hassanpour, Amir. “Satellite Footprints as National Borders: MED-TV and the Extraterritoriality of State Sovereignty.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (April 1998): 53–72.
  903. DOI: 10.1080/13602009808716393Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904. An apt description of a Kurdish television channel that broadcast from Europe to the Kurdish regions of the Middle East and elsewhere. It has subsequently been succeeded by ROJ-TV.
  905. Hassanpour, Amir. “Satellite Footprints as National Borders: MED-TV and the Extraterritoriality of State Sovereignty.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (April 1998): 53–72.
  906. Find this resource:
  907. Kreyenbroek, Philip G., and Christine Allison, eds. Kurdish Culture and Identity. London: Zed, 1996.
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  909. Successive chapters examine oral and written literature, textiles and costume, religion, historical background, the media, and rugs and weaving. Makes clear the differences that exist in a community that is spread across four separate states and is in the process of change due to modernity.
  910. Kreyenbroek, Philip G., and Christine Allison, eds. Kurdish Culture and Identity. London: Zed, 1996.
  911. Find this resource:
  912. Romano, David. “Modern Communications Technology in Ethnic Nationalist Hands: The Case of the Kurds.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 35 (March 2002): 127–149.
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  914. Provides a scholarly look at how the Kurds have been using modern communications technology to promote their ethnic agenda.
  915. Romano, David. “Modern Communications Technology in Ethnic Nationalist Hands: The Case of the Kurds.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 35 (March 2002): 127–149.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Sweetnam, Denise L. Kurdish Culture: A Cross-Cultural Guide. Bonn, Germany: Verlag fur Kultur und Wissenschaft, 1994.
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  919. Successive chapters examine oral and written literature, textiles and costume, religion, historical background, the media, and rugs and weaving. Makes clear the differences that exist in a community that is spread across four separate states and is in the process of change due to modernity.
  920. Sweetnam, Denise L. Kurdish Culture: A Cross-Cultural Guide. Bonn, Germany: Verlag fur Kultur und Wissenschaft, 1994.
  921. Find this resource:
  922. “Universities of Kurdistan: Knowledge Powers Growth.” In The Kurdistan Region: Invest in the Future. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, 166–168. Washington, DC: Newsdesk Media, 2007.
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  924. A brief survey of the seven universities in the Kurdistan region of northern Iraq (the Kurdistan Regional Government), including Salahaddin in Erbil, Sulaimania, Dohuk, Koya, University of Kurdistan Hawler (Erbil), and American University (Sulaimania), among others. They offer specialized degrees leading to bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees.
  925. “Universities of Kurdistan: Knowledge Powers Growth.” In The Kurdistan Region: Invest in the Future. Edited by Brendan O’Leary, 166–168. Washington, DC: Newsdesk Media, 2007.
  926. Find this resource:
  927. Women
  928.  
  929. Van Bruinessen 1993 describes the best-documented cases of women who became rulers or played other “manly” roles in Kurdistan. Despite these examples, women’s rights, or the lack thereof, are increasingly issues in Kurdistan. Mojab 2001 is the definitive scholarly collection of articles about Kurdish women, containing historical; political and legal; and social, cultural, and linguistic perspectives. Gurbey 2002 discusses the lot of internally displaced Kurds in Turkey with special attention to the situation of women and children. Yildiz and Sinha 2005 gives data about enforcing the rights of women, eliminating all forms of discrimination, and promoting participation of women in policy and decision making at all levels. Yuksel 2006 contributes a scholarly study of the interaction of Kurdish women with nationalism in Turkey.
  930.  
  931. Gurbey, Gulistan. “Internally Displaced Kurds in Turkey with Special Focus on Women and Children.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 3–23. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
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  933. Discusses the lot of internally displaced Kurds in Turkey with special attention to the situation of women and children. Considers the causes and consequences of the situation, such as housing, employment, health, and educational problems.
  934. Gurbey, Gulistan. “Internally Displaced Kurds in Turkey with Special Focus on Women and Children.” In Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora. Edited by Mohammed M. A. Ahmed and Michael M. Gunter, 3–23. Sharon, MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
  935. Find this resource:
  936. Mojab, Shahrzad, ed. Women of a Non-State Nation: The Kurds. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2001.
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  938. The definitive scholarly collection of articles about Kurdish women, containing historical; political and legal; and social, cultural, and linguistic perspectives.
  939. Mojab, Shahrzad, ed. Women of a Non-State Nation: The Kurds. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2001.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Matriarchy in Kurdistan? Women Rulers in Kurdish History.” International Journal of Kurdish Studies 6 (Fall 1993): 25–39.
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  943. Describes the best-documented cases of women who became rulers or played other “manly” roles in Kurdistan.
  944. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Matriarchy in Kurdistan? Women Rulers in Kurdish History.” International Journal of Kurdish Studies 6 (Fall 1993): 25–39.
  945. Find this resource:
  946. Yildiz, Kerim, and Archana Sinha. Enforcing the Charter for the Rights and Freedoms of Women in the Kurdish Regions and Diaspora. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
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  948. Manual about enforcing the rights of women, eliminating all forms of discrimination, and promoting participation of women in policy and decision making at all levels. Offers comprehensive guidance about application at a grassroots level. Focuses on United Nations and Council of Europe bodies.
  949. Yildiz, Kerim, and Archana Sinha. Enforcing the Charter for the Rights and Freedoms of Women in the Kurdish Regions and Diaspora. London: Kurdish Human Rights Project, 2005.
  950. Find this resource:
  951. Yuksel, Metin. “The Encounter of Kurdish Women with Nationalism in Turkey.” Middle Eastern Studies 14.5 (2006): 777–802.
  952. DOI: 10.1080/00263200600828022Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  953. Scholarly study of the interaction of Kurdish women with nationalism in Turkey.
  954. Yuksel, Metin. “The Encounter of Kurdish Women with Nationalism in Turkey.” Middle Eastern Studies 14.5 (2006): 777–802.
  955. Find this resource:
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