3400 Exam 2 Topic 4-6

Personal Career Theories

A theory is an explanation of how or why something occurs. Indeed, any general statements about
cause or effect are theory based. The power of a theory is its ability to connect events into an
integrated web. The evidence for building and testing theories is gathered through scientific
research methods and confirmed by repeated observations. The desire to understand things has led
to many theories, including those that focus on personal and career development.

Many factors in the world around and within us affect our career decisions and success. The
environment in which we live is extremely complex, and scientists all over the world are engaged in
research to learn more about the Earth and its inhabitants. Human beings and their behaviors are so
complex that nobody fully understands why people think, feel and act as they do. Yet, psychologists
and social scientists continue to offer us interesting theories based on their investigations about the
nature of people and how they interact with others and the environment.

According to Norman Gysbers (an expert in career guidance at the University of Missouri), modern
theories of career development began appearing in the professional literature during the 1950s. At
that time, the notion of occupational choice as a youthful event started to give way to a broader,
more comprehensive view of individuals and their development over the lifespan. Vocational
development became a popular term.

By the 1960s, the terms career and career development gained popularity. This expanded
perception was more useful than earlier views of choice because it broke the time barrier that had
restricted the vision of career development to a small part of an individual's life. In the 1970s,
writers gave even broader and more encompassing definitions to career and career development.
From their viewpoint, career decision making is a lifetime process that involved an integration of
roles (e.g. worker, learner, family, citizen), settings (e.g. home, school community, workplace), and
events (e.g. entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement). The focus is on the total person· the human
career.

The word development is used to indicate that individuals are always in the process of changing and
becoming. Lifespan career development focuses on people as unique individuals with their own
particular life styles. It looks at career as more than a single choice made at one point in life. In fact,
within their lifespan, individuals may have several major working careers as their personal needs and
interests change throughout their lives.

For our purposes, we want to become familiar with theories that help explain career development
over the lifespan. In this course, they will be organized into two categories:
- 1) Personal Theories, which are covered in this topic, and
- 2) Social Learning and Environmental theories, which are presented in the next topic.

The Personal Theories

Trait-Factor Theory

Trait-factor theories of career development go back as far as the early writings of Frank Parsons
(1909). As the national economy shifted from one based primarily in agriculture to one grounded in
the industrial and manufacturing processes, new occupational opportunities emerged.

At the time, it was assumed that individuals needed to understand their abilities and skills (traits)
and match these to the specific requirements and demands (factors) of different occupations. The
successful matching of individual traits with job factors was the key to a successful and satisfying
"vocational choice. "

The trait-factor theory was the most prominent approach used in vocational psychology in the early
part of the 20th century. Parsons' methods sought to match people with careers by examining the fit
between a person's abilities and the demands of the job. The theory was later criticized because it
did not account for such things as the person's interests, values and personality characteristics.

Furthermore, the decision-making process was viewed primarily as a single decision and a
point-in-time event, and its emphasis was on job placement. Upon leaving school, many people chose
an occupation and remained in that particular field of work until retirement. Yet, it was Parsons who
first wrote: "It is better to chose a vocation (career) than merely hunt a job."

The trait-factor approach suggests that you can find your best career by testing your aptitudes and
capabilities. In its reliance on the accuracy of assessment, this approach ignores some other
important variables. Rupert Sewell (in Brown, 2003) said that the trait-factor approach was apt to
produce superficial results at best and misleading results at worst when testing was not done
correctly with valid and reliable measures. He compared it taking a personality test in a popular
magazine instead of having individual testing done by a psychologist.

For many years, however, the trait-factor approach was foundation of most school guidance
programs. It was closely associated with the testing movement of the 1920s and influenced the
description of the world of work as well as efforts to predict success.

E.G. Williamson, a professor at the University of Minnesota who was associated with the university's
student personnel offices, helped popularize the theory during the 1 930s. He attempted to identify
steps that would lead toward career decision-making. It was assumed that there was a single career
and career goal for everyone and that measuring an individual's abilities could lead to the best
career decisions. The theory was readily embraced by the military services because they needed to
make quick decisions when placing recruits i1 military positions. They didn't have the time to fully
investigate interests, knowledge, values and personalities.

When the testing movement became demystified and exposed as having many limitations, Williamson's
work fell out of favor and so did faith in the trait-factor theory. Trait testing characterized job
placement, but there was little evidence to support that job success and job satisfaction were
directly related to matching traits and occupations. Williamson and others countered that tests were
only one means of evaluating an individual, but his reliance on tests and inventories linked him
forever with a rather static theory.

The trait-factor theory, however, has some advantages to keep in mind as we move toward a more
comprehensive theory. First, tests are easy to use, especially if one qualifies the results and views
the approach as a similarity model rather than a model for predicting satisfaction and success.
Second, when interpreted with caution and within the limits of valid testing, the information can be
useful in evaluating career choices and jobs that are similar in important ways. Contemporary career
development programs and counseling approaches continue to use tests and inventories, but the
data is valued as only one source of information that can be used in the decision-making process.

It is not our purpose to evaluate all of the tests and inventories that have been used as tools to
help assess a person's traits. The 18th Mental Measurement Yearbook (201 0) lists more 3,000 tests
and measures. Of these, 88 are achievement batteries, 223 focus on intelligence and academic
aptitudes, 560 are vocational tests, and 676 are personality inventories.

Nobody is familiar with all of these tests and many are not validated or even practical. There are a
few well-accepted tests and inventories that may be used in a trait-factor approach by some career
counselors. Some are frequently found and available at university career resource centers.

Five Basic Traits

In general, there are five basic trait areas that can be assessed by tests, inventories, and through
interviews. These are achievements, abilities/aptitudes, interests, values and personality. Let's take
a look at these areas.

Achievements

Achievement refers to a broad range of events that individuals participate in and accomplish during
their lifetime. Academic accomplishment is most often measured by grades, specific test scores, and
by honors awarded for recognized achievements. Over the years, research studies have shown that
the best single predictor of future academic performance is previous academic performance.

In other words, one can predict achievement in college better from high school grades than from
aptitude test scores. In fact, high school grades could be given twice the weight of scholastic
aptitude tests when predicting college grades. One reason for this may be that high school grades
better reflect the extent to which a student knows and uses essential study habits and skills.

Although not strictly traits, accomplishments obtained at work, through hobbies or through
extracurricular activities can be very useful in determining the nature of an individual's abilities and
achievements. Recognition for accomplishments in these areas of life can be related to a wide range
of diverse activities, from job-related skills and contributions to athletic or humanitarian awards.

While such activities are important and valuable in predicting future success, they are often very
difficult to measure quantitatively and, therefore, inconvenient to use in evaluating achievements for
career development purposes.

In the working world, achievement can be measured quantitatively through tests that are used for
licensure, certification, or entry into a particular field or profession. For example, psychologists,
doctors, nurses, lawyers and accountants must pass state board examinations prior to becoming
licensed to do their specific work. In a similar vein, plumbers, electricians, police officers, life
insurance agents, realtors and many other professionals must take tests before advancing from one
level to another.

While they may differ in format, what characterizes all of these tests is that they are very specific to
a given task or profession. For example, the best test for computer data specialists is to obtain
samples of their work or to observe them work at a computer. A written multiple-choice test might
work for a realtor license but not a musician, for whom an audition is more appropriate. A portfolio of
work might work best for an artist.

Aptitudes/Abilities

The differences among aptitude, ability and 3chievement tests were discussed in topic 3. In review,
an achievement test is designed to reveal how much an individual has learned; an ability test reveals
the level of a person's present ability to perform a task; and an aptitude test reveals a person's
future potential ability to perform a task.

Admittedly, sometimes the distinction becomes blurred, as assessments of past achievement or
present ability may serve as an indicator of possible aptitude. It is important to consider the way the
test scores are used. Typically, the goal of 3ptitude testing is to predict one's capacity to gain from
an educational experience or succeed in a specific career or course of study. Often cognitive ability
tests are used similarly.

Aptitude tests are attractive to people who believe that, if they can find the occupations in which
they have talent, they can predict their future success in a specific occupation. While aptitude tests
measure a number of general and specific aptitudes, they are not precise enough to predict with
certainty the eventual success of an individual. Yet, there are many times when aptitude tests are
used at the exclusion of other variables to predict future success in either further educational
endeavors or occupational training.

It's safe to assume that you, along with most other college students, took the SAT (College Board
Scholastic Assessment Test) or the ACT (the American College Testing Assessment Program:
Academic Test). These are the two most widely used tests for predicting college success.

Schools in the eastern and western parts of the United States tend to rely on the SAT, whereas
those in the Midwest tend to use the ACT. Because the tests have some qualitative differences,
some students take both of them and use the one that provides the higher score.

Both tests have normative data that allow for comparisons of performance among those who took or
have taken the test. Minimum scores on a test are often used to determine admission to certain
universities, colleges, programs or advanced training institutes. The assumption is the higher the
score on these tests, the more likely it is that a person will succeed in meeting the academic
demands of higher education.

The problem for some people is that they may not be admitted to a program that leads to their
chosen career goal because they didn't meet the required minimum or "cut-off" score on admission
testing. In other cases, interested persons will not even apply when their scores do not meet the
cut-off.

Further, there is evidence to suggest that such tests are biased and favor some population groups
more than others (e.g. whites versus minorities, physically able versus with disabilities, and higher
socioeconomic versus lower socioeconomic). Good candidates are surely overlooked when only
aptitude test scores are considered.

It is regrettable for a student to hear words like these, "You'll never get into medicine because your
scores are not high enough." There are many examples in our society of how people have proven
such statements about them to be wrong. Many have ended up doing much better than was
predicted. In some cases, the tests provided an inaccurate appraisal of the person's potential. For
others, determination or taking a different approach made the difference.

At the same time, it is important to note that every occupation, whether it is engineering, medicine,
law or management, relies on certain aptitudes. The work you are most likely to enjoy and find
satisfying is that which uses your aptitudes. Perhaps the ideal situation is to work in an occupation
that challenges one's aptitudes while not demanding ones the person lacks.
Individuals are probably in the best position to determine the risk that they are willing to take in
trying to enter an occupation in which they appear to have little chance of success. When they look
beyond aptitudes and take other personal traits into consideration, they may identify other
strengths to help them reach their goals.

Values

Values are related to what we see as the most important parts of living. They are motivators and
guardians that lie beneath most of the choices that we make. They comprise an often neglected
area in terms of traits and factors that influence career development.

Our values are a source of strength and support. Yet, we often incorporate certain values without
examining whether they are a good fit for us. We know that values change and that some endure as
lifetime guiding lights. While we may not always be sure that we can identify the source responsible
for shaping our values, we can be sure that our values influence our career choices and
development.

Not all our personal values are easy to identify. A few stand out because they are a driving force
behind what we say and do. Inventories that attempt to measure values almost invariably include
interest items and situations in which choices must be selected. After sorting items and clarifying
values, you can identify those that tend to be most predominant and influential.

For example, people who wish to help the homeless because they value helping others may pursue
social work or a form of business management related to community service. The value of altruism,
as it is called on some value scales, can be compared to other work values. Again, statements can
be listed that represent value categories and respondents make forced choices from among the
statements. The idea is to arrive at a profile that highlights work values.

What is it that leads some individuals to study for years in order to enter a career such as medicine
or law while others are looking for the quickest and easiest way to get to a job where they can
make money? What causes a person to switch careers after spending years in an occupation, making
a good living and having built a favorable reputation? The simple answer is values. They are the
unidentified forces that guide and influence your decisions throughout your life.

Values provide a frame of reference for evaluating your contributions and happiness in a work place
and in society. If you value creative freedom, you probably won't be happy and productive in a
situation that pays well but requires that you follow strict procedures and work in a confined
environment.

If you value family activities, then you are less likely to accept a job that will take you away from
family for long periods of time. If you value career satisfaction, then you will take more time to look
at job benefits that go beyond making a lot of money. What else do you want from a job besides
money? The answer to that question may help you identify some of your values, which in turn can
lead you to discover more of your needs and motivators.

Interests

Over the years, one's interests have become an increasingly important consideration in occupation
selection. Especially for individuals with many abilities who are able to choose from a wide range of
occupations, occupational entry can be better predicted from interests than from aptitude.

Your career interests include the kinds of work activities that attract you. They are things that you
like to. For most part, interests tend to become stable in early adulthood. The same kind of activities
that you liked at the beginning of your career will likely still be enjoyable many years later. Your
interests play a central role in determining career satisfaction.

"I'd like to become an airline pilot." "I've always been interested in building things and would like to be
a building contractor." "I love sports and working with kids; I think I'd really like to be a coach." "If I
had the time, I'd go back to college and become a veterinarian." "You know, in my next life I'm going
to be an architect." Such statements of career interest are common across all ages.

Equally common in today's rapidly changing world of work are statements of uncertainty and
frustration regarding career choices. "I haven't got a clue what I'm going to do when I graduate from
college." "I can't make up my mind between teaching and going into business." "I wish I felt a passion
for some career!" Or, "They are phasing out my job and I'm not sure what to do next." These and
similar comments indicate a need for some specific direction in career planning.

Some researchers and career development experts have put together various forms of interest
inventories. They are designed to help identify interests and relate them to specific occupations
where people who have similar interests are working.

Typically, a series of items (questions) are presented in the inventories, perhaps arranged in triads.
Respondents choose the one that they prefer the most and the one they prefer the least. The
results are scored and profiled in occupational areas or scales. These vary in name across
standardized inventories but some common themes include such categories as: outdoor, science,
arts, music, communications, sales, management, technology, service, and mechanical.

Interests can help us identify a career field or area, more than just a specific job or occupation
within that field. For example, a young woman said she wanted to be a nurse. A career counselor
helped her take a serious look at her interests. Nursing fascinated her from a distance and from
what she saw on television. In fact, she was interested in the field of medicine but not necessarily
the occupation of nurse. She was assisted to explore other jobs in the medical field that also held
her interest but would be more appealing and perhaps less demanding in terms of academic
preparation.

Personality Types

The measurement of personality has been an important area of study for decades. Although much of
the research has centered on abnormal personalities, there have been a few that focused on normal
personalities. In these, personality factors were presented in a bipolar method, indicating the
extremes of a particular trait. For instance, cool vs. warm, submissive vs. dominant, and shy vs. bold.
Using statistical procedures and factor analyses, scales were presented that help conceptualize a
person's general psychological make-up. These scales were then tied to career decision-making.

The Holland Approach. Perhaps the most popular approach in current use is that developed by John
Holland (1985), which is also related to work environments. We have already presented his approach
to some extent.

The six types in Holland's Theory (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and
Conventional) focus on work environments. In turn, there is a description of the personality type and
typical behaviors of people who match each environment. This approach, then, recognizes that there
is an interaction between a work environment and personality.

Holland believed that career choice and career adjustment represent an extension of a person's
personality. People express their interests and values through their work choices and experience. In
his theory, Holland assumed that people's impressions and generalizations about work, which he
refers to as stereotypes, are generally accurate. It's possible to assign people and work
environments to different categories.

There are some other important considerations when going beyond the basic model. Holland
assumes that the individual is a product of heredity and environment. As a result of the early and
continuing influences of genetic potentialities and environmental interaction, a person develops a
hierarchy of habitual or preferred methods of dealing with social and environmental tasks. Thus,
these most typical methods develop into a person's orientation or stereotype.

Holland believed that the majority of people find work that is congruent with their type. Most people
tend to gravitate toward work environments that allow them opportunities to express their
personalities, to feel a degree of personal comfort and job satisfaction, and feel reinforced for their
efforts.

Why do people leave jobs? People change jobs because they are dissatisfied, because they are
incompetent, or because other workers want them to leave. Or, there may be other personal and
environmental reasons, such as better climate, physical disability, dissatisfied relatives, or more
money. In theory, they leave because there is incongruence of person-environment factors or
because of an opportunity to increase their congruence through a better match of personality and
environment.

Research with Holland's hexagon suggests that those individuals who choose work environments
within a close proximity of one another, or less distance apart, as viewed on the hexagon model, are
likely to find more job opportunities and more job satisfaction. For instance, again looking at the
hexagon, a Holland code of REI is much less congruent than RCI or ESA. This does not mean that a
person cannot be successful in occupations with such incongruence. It only suggests that dominant
and subdominant interests are conflicted and there is less chance for one feeling a sense of
well-being and job satisfaction.

Because Holland's theory is the basis of so many methods used by career counselors in most
university career resource centers, we will examine it more when we look at the issues related to
searching for an occupation and career.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The Myers-Briggs Type Theory (MBTI), which was already
presented to some extent, was not designed to be a theory of career development. It is included
here because it has become very popular with college and university career counselors in their work
with students. It is a psychological theory of personality based on the work of Carl Jung and was
adapted by Katharine Briggs in the late 1920s. Since that time, there have been numerous studies
related to work environments and personality types based on the MBTI.

This theory focuses on how people perceive the world and the judgments they make based on their
perceptions of their surroundings. For instance, a person may have a tendency to focus on the
outer world (extraversion) or the inner world (introversion). It is assumed that we each have
preference patterns of the ways we are inclined to view things and to make decisions and choices.

In general, there are four bipolar dimensions basic to Myers-Briggs theory: extraversion-introversion,
sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judgment-perception. In order to understand the theory and its
application to career development, one has to understand the four bipolar categories and how they
work in conjunction with each other.

Are you an extrovert or introvert? You might have used or heard the terms used in social
conversations. People have used them as quick designations for many years. They refer to the world
that dominates your consciousness. Generally, an extrovert gains energy from interacting with the
outer world- a person who enjoys working with people and things, one who is happy and
comfortable relating to experiences outside of the self. You might hear such people described as
"outgoing," "charismatic," "talkative" or "social." An introvert, on the other hand, is someone who
receives energy from time alone and from his or her inner world. This is a person who enjoys ideas
and concepts, who likes thinking activities, and might be called "quiet," "reserved," or a "listener."
Perhaps more than with the other types, people near the middle of the scale on this one will have
characteristics of both types.

Are you sensing or intuitive? These terms may be less familiar to you, as they are particular to MBTI
types. They refer to how you perceive things, or how you look at and discover the world. A sensing
person relies on the five senses. This person takes in information that hearing, seeing, tasting,
touching and smelling provide and views the world in terms of facts than can be measured and
proven through these senses. An intuitive person tends to go with a "gut feeling." This person
discovers the world through the emotions, relationships and deeper meanings that reside inside.
Senses alone could not explain things satisfactorily for an intuitive type.

Have you ever had the feeling that you were going to have an especially good day -or maybe a bad
day-without having any facts upon which to base your feeling? If so, then you may be an intuitive
type. For instance, perhaps one day you're in a good mood, even though it's cold outside, there is a
big project that needs more attention and an unexpected bill just hit you. Everything points toward
increased stress in your life, but despite these events you still feel good, believing that all will turn
out okay. You have an inner feeling of calm and peace in the face of events that might otherwise stir
up ill feelings. Given the same scenario, a sensing person is much more likely to experience the
stress as someone who relies on information from facts, a sensing person is more tied to them and
their effects.

Are you a thinking or feeling type? These words are used to describe how you decide to act on
what you see happening in the world. Thinking people make decisions based on facts and figures.
They like to follow logic and be able to concretely explain their decisions. These people are often
called "logical" or "calculated." Feeling people make decisions based on how they feel about the
situation. They might even ignore the facts of situation in favor of what is more important to them or
others. These people are sometimes called "sensitive" or "emotional."

How would two individuals on different sides of the Thinking-Feeling continuum react to job offers?
What would attract each one? Let's look at an example. Lyndsey is a "T" or thinker type. Justin is an
"F" or feeler. They both live in an apartment complex in a suburban area outside a large city. They
have comparable skills and went through the same computer-aided design program. Both interviewed
for the following two jobs:

- Job One: Moderate salary, limited benefits, outgoing and congenial staff, office downtown,
fifteen employees.

- Job Two: Salary on the high end for this field, full benefits, pleasant but reserved and
business like staff, office in suburbs, with forty employees.

Although Lyndsey knew the group of people at the first job, once she saw the salary and benefit
package of Job Two, she knew her choice. She also considered the faster commute, adding to her
logical decision based on facts. Justin's first thought was to go with Job One and he stuck with it,
despite the fact that the pay was lower. He felt at home with the staff and was excited about the
prospect of working with them. The commute might be tougher, but that didn't affect his feelings,
which dominated his decision.

Are you perceiving or judging? The last of the four categories considers how you related to your
outer world. If you are a perceiving person, you prefer to live day-to-day, happy to explore new
things and ideas, focusing on how you view the world (through either senses or a gut feelings) and
not on making decisions about those perceptions. This kind of person might be called "spontaneous"
or "flexible." If you are a judging person, you tend to focus on how you want to take action on your
worldview (thinking or feeling). The decision to act is more important than perception. You prefer to
order and control your world, whether you do so based on fact or emotion. Words used to describe
you in this case are "decisive" "controlled," "organized," and "structured."

This last category may provide clues in terms of how you are likely to operate in your job or
occupation. The work that you do and the tasks that you accomplish happen as you interact with
your outer world, whether that world is a machine, people, numbers or ideas. Defining yourself as
having primarily perceiving or primarily judging qualities will give you the biggest clue about your
work personality and style.

Although the term "test" is often used when referring to personality inventories, there are no
correct or incorrect answers to the items on the MBTI or similar instruments. You are presented with
choices and those choices help produce a profile in terms of the types.

The interrelationships between the four major types make for a complex and sometimes difficult
theory to learn; yet it can be helpful to consider its sixteen type combinations.

The Myers-Briggs system lists four pairs of opposite preferences. Within each pair, we favor one
side over the other, and we tend to use that one most of the time because it comes more easily to
us. http://www.personalitytest.net/types/descriptions/index.htm(external link 01)

Even without taking the MBTI or similar measure, you can probably put together a b3sic personality
type for yourself by thinking through the descriptions of the four types.

Should you pursue the Myers-Briggs system in more depth, you will learn about the interaction of the
four dimensions. More specifically, a person's preferences for introversion or extroversion and for
judging versus perceiving act in concert to influence the other dimensions, sensing-intuiting and
thinking-feeling, in terms of their dominance in your temperament.

Life Stages and Career Development

We can also look at career and personal development as closely linked and as a reflection of the
events that often happen at certain decades of life. Sociologists like to point to certain events that
tend to take place at various ages in life.

For instance, leaving home and the parent's world after high school is a major change in life. For
some young people it is a time to find a job and immediately enter the world of work. It is assumed
that they have the basic skills for employment and will get more training on the job. Others continue
with their education often unsure of their abilities and what they need to acquire. Even though they
may be open to ideas, it is a period of instability and a lot of searching for self.

The early twenties mark a period when many young people are gaining independence in work and
feeling that they are finally "on their own," free from parental guidance. Eager to make their own way
and be self-reliant, people in this age group are also engaged in starting a long-term intimate
relationship or marriage. There is a need to prove that they are competent, building a future, and
determining their own lifestyle preferences.

The early thirties transition is sometimes marked by a questioning of commitments to traditional
marriage and relationships, family and career, and reassessments take place. This is a particularly
vulnerable period, as the ties to parents, high school and college are cut. The ten years that mark
the decade of thirty-year-olds is considered a time for childbearing and helping children grow. People
want stability for their families and set their roots, while at the same time giving more attention to
business matters. They are trying to establish a reputation in their fields of work. Some wonder if
they will have time to do all the things that appeal to them.

The end of the thirties and beginning of the forties are considered turning point years. Midlife crises
can cause family upheavals and it may appear that earlier dreams are not attainable. "Soul searching"
frequently marks this period. "What is the meaning of life?" "What is my life about and where am I
going?" "Is that all are there is?" "What do I really want out of life?" In traditional families, this is the
first time that some women experience freedom from caring for small children and begin to consider
career options.

As the fifties approach, more people are at peace with questions of mortality, career and their
lifestyle. Careers can be blossoming and there is a renewal of giving attention to personal health and
growth. Relationships are reevaluated, as one's children become adults.

Then follows about a 15-year period marked by renewal. At the same time, people may face
challenges due to abrupt career changes or in their planning for retirement. Physical energy and
strength may be declining, though some people feel competent enough to start a new career. It is
also a time of new caretaking responsibilities, as they watch over their aging parents. This can be a
period of disillusionment or one of joy, depending upon the self-concepts and attitudes of the
people involved.

When retirement finally arrives, generally after the age of 65, it is a time for other interests.
Providing people have good health, there is more time for leisure activities and perhaps more
volunteering for community services. One must stay active or risk the onset of depression end ill
health, which can lead to premature death.

Ginzberg's Theory: A Developmental Process

Eli Ginzberg (1984) and associates were among the first to propose a career theory suggesting that
career choice is a developmental process rather than a single decision. Compromises are made
between the individual's wishes and occupational possibilities. They viewed the developmental
process as spanning three stages taking place from childhood to the early 20's (See Figure
4.1(external link 02)).

First Stage: Fantasy

The first stage is fantasy and takes place from birth to about age 11. It involves play and imagination
in thinking about the future of work. Consider how small children play and imitate the talk or actions
of the adults with whom they live. They are great observers, and they learn in leaps and bounds.
When mom or dad leaves the house to go to work, their children wonder where they go. Whatever
information parents give them or they absorb from their environment, they quickly incorporate into
play- playing house or store, police officer, driving a car, and so forth. This stage has also been
characterized as one where interests are developed.

Second Stage: Tentative

The second stage is tentative, from age 12 to 17. These are the middle and high school years.
Young people are become more realistic about their capabilities. It is about this time that teachers
and parents create additional pressure on school achievement. The educational process becomes
more important in their preparation for the world of work. At this stage the emphasis is on
developing academic skills. Still, any choices made at this point are likely to be made on interests and
a touch of fantasy. "I want to have my own band." "I'm going to be an NFL football player." "I want to
be rich."

This theory assumes that capabilities, while dependent on skills, are preceded by interests. Early
adolescence, however, is a time of social development and many teenagers are less interested in
the world of work than in making and keeping friends. Sex-roles and sexual intimacy tend to override
the idea of finding the right job. Then, as the middle school years wane around the 8th grade,
students begin to feel more pressure to make educational plans that might be related to future work
opportunities.

It is also during this stage that values and goals are taken into consideration regarding career
interests. As their cognitive skills have developed, adolescents may be exploring such issues as: "Is
it better for me to work inside or outdoors?" "Is it better to have a decent income 3nd spend time
with my family or make a lot of money by spending more time at work and less time at home?''

Third stage: Realistic

The realistic stage is from age 18 to the early 20s. For most people, this stage begins with
graduation from high school. Some will immediately seek employment, depending on the skills they
learn in high school. Others will attend technical schools to acquire specific skills related to a
particular job or occupation. Still others will see this period as an extension of attending school and
taking classes (post-secondary education). They visualize themselves entering a career that
requires a college education or some equivalent.

Ginzberg and associates further theorized that four factors converged to shape a person's career
decisions. These factors are:

- Individual values
- Emotional state
- Level of education
- Pressures of reality

As an economist, he considered the impact of the market. Once individuals had become realistic and
had integrated their values, interests, and capabilities, their career opportunities and choices were
further influenced by the state of nation or local economy.

Super's Theory: Stages of Career Development

Perhaps the most influential of the developmental career researchers and theorists was Donald E.
Super (1990). His studies investigated how adolescents developed their readiness to make
appropriate educational and career choices. He also believed that people progressed through
stages of career development.

Super proposed a ladder model . That included a sequence of life stages, the developmental tasks
of each stage, and the ages at which they typically occur. His concept of the cycling and recycling of
developmental tasks through the life span can be seen in Figure 4.2(external link 03).
Super's model for the process of change included a sequence of five stages: Growth, Exploration,
Establishment, Maintenance, and Disengagement. Development through the life and career stages
can be guided by encouraging the maturing of a person's abilities and interests, which are facilitated
by reality-testing and enhancing self-concepts.

Growth Stage

This stage in Super's model includes both physical and emotional growth. It begins in early childhood,
where you learned to model the behaviors and attitudes of others. It was then that you began to
form a self-picture or self-concept. What did you learn about yourself from childhood or family roles?
For instance, you may find yourself thinking, "I'm a team player," or " I'm independent, " or "I would
rather read inside than play a sport outside." This stage is also full of fantasies, such as dreaming to
be an airplane pilot, a police officer or a famous entertainer.

Exploration Stage

During the Exploration Stage, ideas about jobs and occupations start to narrow. Reality testing
begins to make an impact in terms of resources, talents and opportunities. Reality, of course, is that
which one perceives and experiences at a particular time in his or her surroundings. Exploration
frequently begins by learning more about the kind of work you think you might enjoy and the kind of
worker that you imagine yourself to be. You may characterize yourself in a variety of ways. For
example, "I'm really good with details," "I get along well with others and like being around other
people, " "I like working alone on projects," or "It's not easy for me to take criticism or be evaluated
by others."

Establishment Stage

At this point, a person has made some choices and settled on an occupation that has the promise of
a career. The hope is that it will be steady for many years. In this stage a person goes beyond
tentative or temporary work and finds employment that is the beginning of a personally acceptable
career. There is less doubt and efforts are made to get a good start.

Maintenance Stage

By this stage, some meaningful career decisions have been made and a career area is more clearly
defined. This is when people try to maintain or improve themselves in their careers. Opportunities for
advancement to higher levels of responsibilities and salaries or lateral movements across fields are
considerations which may produce excitement, stress, challenges, and values clarification. A new
self-picture may emerge. These are perhaps the best working years and most productive.

Disengagement Stage

The final stage was originally called the Declining Stage. As years passed, Super renamed it the
Disengagement Stage. The term is more positive and recognizes that people live longer and many
choose to start second careers in the latter part of their lives.

Generally speaking, however, this stage begins just before retirement when there are fewer
opportunities for advancement. Traditionally, it has been a period when people shift the amount of
emphasis placed on their careers and begin thinking about a reduction of hours, more flexible time,
and freedom from job responsibilities. Of course, it is possible that some people enter the
disengagement stage much earlier than others and that it lasts for a longer period of time. "I want to
do other things than work at this job." "I want to spend more time at home." "I want more time to
pursue some hobbies and travel."

Unfortunately, there may be times in a person's life when disengagement was not chosen but rather
a part of an economic change that resulted in layoffs. The circumstances are beyond the control of
the individual and the impact is more disruptive.

Factors Affecting Career Development Across the Stages

Super recognized that people differ in their abilities and personalities, as well as needs, values,
interests, traits and self-concepts. Moreover, these differing characteristics qualified people for a
number of occupations, although each occupation is characterized by and requires a particular
pattern of personality traits. According to Super, there is a tolerance variable in each occupation
that enables people with differing personalities to be in the same occupation.

Further, he believed that occupational preferences and competencies, as well as the situations in
which people live and work, could change with time and experience. Self-concepts, as products of
social learning, also can change but tend to be increasingly stable from late adolescence until late
maturity. This accounts for some continuity of choice and adjustment over the life span.

Super's theory also suggests that greater self-awareness improves the probability that the way you
seek and select jobs will be fruitful. Moreover, the theory applies each time you make a career
change. You then again experience the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance,
and disengagement.

It is certainly true that the nature of any career pattern and what may happen at various stages of
career development are influenced by parental attitudes, family socio-economic levels, educational
opportunities, personality characteristics, and cultural customs. People are affected by the realities
of their everyday lives.

A college student from a family with limited resources may need to work while going to school, thus
having fewer hours available for study than one with more financial support. Yet, history has shown
us that people may overcome such limitations with effort and perseverance.

Finally, Super believed that the process of career development is essentially that of developing and
implementing occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesizing and compromising process in which the
self-concept is a product of the interaction of a variety of factors. These include inherited aptitudes,
physical makeup, opportunities to observe and play various roles, and evaluation of how well the
results of role playing meet the approval of significant others including teachers, employers,
supervisors and worker colleagues.

Self-Concept and Career Development

Self-concept is defined as an individual's perception of himself or herself. The term is often
mistakenly used interchangeably with self-acceptance, self-image and other self-constructs. Your
self-concept contains both your present view of yourself and how you see yourself in the future.
Some theories postulate that you have several possible selves (e.g., desired self, unwanted self).
What else?

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem may be viewed as a reflection of one's sense of personal worth or value. Most theorists
agree that self-esteem is a learned phenomenon and is closely related to social support. People with
high self-esteem have more self-confidence and can take more risks. Because they are more secure
within themselves, they are more open to valuing the worth and contributions of others. A number of
studies show that self-esteem and social support are associated with better health and the
avoidance of fatal risks.

How do our beliefs about ourselves influence our thoughts and actions? How accurately do we know
ourselves? And, how does our culture shape our sense of self?

We know that important elements of the self-concept and self-esteem are shaped early in life
through our relationships with our parents and by others' appraisals of us. Our self-picture or
self-image is modified as we encounter cultural realities, compare ourselves to others, and seek
self-enhancement and personal survival. Moreover, our experiences with others and our cultural
experiences influence not only our identities, but also our values, skills, and basic vision of the world.

Self-confident people trust themselves. They believe that they have the power to make positive
changes in themselves if and when needed. They are not afraid of change. They look forward to the
future and take an active part in developing it. They do not have to diminish others in order to feel
good about themselves. They do not let a job dictate their sense of personal worth; rather the work
they do is seen as a positive expression of themselves and they enjoy being productive in the world
of work. There is less stress in their lives.

Seeing oneself in a positive light is the beginning of building a successful career and satisfying life.
Each of us needs to be our best cheerleader, our own best friend, and our greatest resource. We
must have faith in ourselves and know that we are responsible for our choices- for better or for
worse - and can make positive things happen.

Negative Self-Concept

A negative self-concept or self-image causes doubt and can be paralyzing. The negative self-talk
that goes with a negative image takes away self-confidence, incites anxiety and lays the foundation
for confusion, frustration, and excessive stress when it comes to making decisions and career
choices. It is okay, of course, to be critical of yourself at times; and, if you are like most people,
there are times when you doubt yourself. You might think, "I'm just not smart enough," or "I'm going
to fail at this."

Failing to live up to one's own expectations, as well as those of others, can lead a person to become
an increasingly harsh self-critic and more negative in self-image. On the other hand, another person
can experience similar situations more as a responsive observer who is open to feedback and willing
to evaluate and use information. What makes the difference? Part of it has to do with how we talk to
ourselves.

Self-Talk

Much of what passes for thinking is really self-talk. Some describe this kind of thinking as subvocal
conversations that we continually hold with ourselves. It can take the form of judgments, which then
impact our attitudes about ourselves. Your critical thinking skills may be undermined by negative
self-talk that is repeated over and over again. That kind of talk reinforces a negative self-concept or
self-image. Repeatedly thinking such things as, "I can't do anything right," "I hate that class," and
"School is a waste of time," contribute to a negative image of oneself as a learner or student.

Self- talk affects our behavior and success. The good news is that we can do something about how
we do it. We can begin with how we view or interpret situations and even the old negative messages
we carry around in our heads. This is called reframing and it can enable us to look at a situation from
a more open and productive perspective.

Take for example, entering a job interview. Negative self-talk and negative framing of the situation
can lead individuals to fear and assume that the interview will go poorly. Thoughts like, "I hate
interviews! No matter how much I prepare, I always mess up!" do nothing to help the cause. They're
likely to lead a person to approach the interview with more anxiety and uncertainty and, thereby,
jeopardize their chances of doing well.

On the other hand, a job applicant might think, "Interviewing is just a part of the process of getting a
job, and I've taken the time to prepare and get ready. The company is looking to fill this position, and
it might as well be me!" By reframing the situation and talking to themselves positively, individuals can
set themselves up for success rather than failure.

If you hear yourself saying, "I'm really dumb," then censor yourself and change the thought to
something like, "I can do better than that next time and I will." Replace negative thought with positive
ones. If you are too hard on yourself in your evaluations, then negative thoughts are going to occur
more often then positive ones. It may take awhile, but just continue to replace the negative ones by
rewording them with positive thoughts. Congratulate yourself and move on.

As an economist, he considered the impact of the market. Once individuals had become realistic and
had integrated their values, interests, and capabilities, their career opportunities and choices were
further influenced by the state of nation or local economy.

Super's Theory: Stages of Career Development

Perhaps the most influential of the developmental career researchers and theorists was Donald E.
Super (1990). His studies investigated how adolescents developed their readiness to make
appropriate educational and career choices. He also believed that people progressed through
stages of career development.

Super proposed a ladder model . That included a sequence of life stages, the developmental tasks
of each stage, and the ages at which they typically occur. His concept of the cycling and recycling of
developmental tasks through the life span can be seen in Figure  4.2(external link 03).

Super's model for the process of change included a sequence of five stages: Growth, Exploration,
Establishment, Maintenance, and Disengagement. Development through the life and career stages
can be guided by encouraging the maturing of a person's abilities and interests, which are facilitated
by reality-testing and enhancing self-concepts.

Growth Stage

This stage in Super's model includes both physical and emotional growth. It begins in early childhood,
where you learned to model the behaviors and attitudes of others. It was then that you began to
form a self-picture or self-concept. What did you learn about yourself from childhood or family roles?
For instance, you may find yourself thinking, "I'm a team player," or" I'm independent," or "I would
rather read inside than play a sport outside." This stage is also full of fantasies, such as dreaming to
be an airplane pilot, a police officer or a famous entertainer.

Exploration Stage

During the Exploration Stage, ideas about jobs and occupations start to narrow. Reality testing
begins to make an impact in terms of resources, talents and opportunities. Reality, of course, is that
which one perceives and experiences at a particular time in his or her surroundings. Exploration
frequently begins by learning more about the kind of work you think you might enjoy and the kind of
worker that you imagine yourself to be. You may characterize yourself in a variety of ways. For
example, "I'm really good with details," "I get along well with others and like being around other
people, " "I like working alone on projects," or "It's not easy for me to take criticism or be evaluated
by others."

Establishment Stage

At this point, a person has made some choices and settled on an occupation that has the promise of
a career. The hope is that it will be steady for many years. In this stage a person goes beyond
tentative or temporary work and finds employment that is the beginning of a personally acceptable
career. There is less doubt and efforts are made to get a good start.

Maintenance Stage

By this stage, some meaningful career decisions have been made and a career area is more clearly
defined. This is when people try to maintain or improve themselves in their careers. Opportunities for
advancement to higher levels of responsibilities and salaries or lateral movements across fields are
considerations which may produce excitement, stress, challenges, and values clarification. A new
self-picture may emerge. These are perhaps the best working years and most productive.

Disengagement Stage

The final stage was originally called the Declining Stage. As years passed, Super renamed it the
Disengagement Stage. The term is more positive and recognizes that people live longer and many
choose to start second careers in the latter part of their lives.

Generally speaking, however, this stage begins just before retirement when there are fewer
opportunities for advancement. Traditionally, it has been a period when people shift the amount of
emphasis placed on their careers and begin thinking about a reduction of hours, more flexible time,
and freedom from job responsibilities. Of course, it is possible that some people enter the
disengagement stage much earlier than others and that it lasts for a longer period of time. "I want to
do other things than work at this job." "I want to spend more time at home." "I want more time to
pursue some hobbies and travel."

Unfortunately, there may be times in a person's life when disengagement was not chosen but rather
a part of an economic change that resulted in layoffs. The circumstances are beyond the control of
the individual and the impact is more disruptive.

Factors Affecting Career Development Across the Stages

Super recognized that people differ in their abilities and personalities, as well as needs, values,
interests, traits and self-concepts. Moreover, these differing characteristics qualified people for a
number of occupations, although each occupation is characterized by and requires a particular
pattern of personality traits. According to Super, there is a tolerance variable in each occupation
that enables people with differing personalities to be in the same occupation.

Further, he believed that occupational preferences and competencies, as well as the situations in
which people live and work, could change with time and experience. Self-concepts, as products of
social learning, also can change but tend to be increasingly stable from late adolescence until late
maturity. This accounts for some continuity of choice and adjustment over the life span.

Super's theory also suggests that greater self-awareness improves the probability that the way you
seek and select jobs will be fruitful. Moreover, the theory applies each time you make a career
change. You then again experience the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance,
and disengagement.

It is certainly true that the nature of any career pattern and what may happen at various stages of
career development are influenced by parental attitudes, family socio-economic levels, educational
opportunities, personality characteristics, and cultural customs. People are affected by the realities
of their everyday lives.

A college student from a family with limited resources may need to work while going to school, thus
having fewer hours available for study than one with more financial support. Yet, history has shown
us that people may overcome such limitations with effort and perseverance.

Finally, Super believed that the process of career development is essentially that of developing and
implementing occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesizing and compromising process in which the
self-concept is a product of the interaction of a variety of factors. These include inherited aptitudes,
physical makeup, opportunities to observe and play various roles, and evaluation of how well the
results of role playing meet the approval of significant others including teachers, employers,
supervisors and worker colleagues.

Self-Concept and Career Development

Self-concept is defined as an individual's perception of himself or herself. The term is often
mistakenly used interchangeably with self-acceptance, self-image and other self-constructs. Your
self-concept contains both your present view of yourself and how you see yourself in the future.
Some theories postulate that you have several possible selves (e.g., desired self, unwanted self).
What else?

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem may be viewed as a reflection of one's sense of personal worth or value. Most theorists
agree that self-esteem is a learned phenomenon and is closely related to social support. People with
high self-esteem have more self-confidence and can take more risks. Because they are more secure
within themselves, they are more open to valuing the worth and contributions of others. A number of
studies show that self-esteem and social support are associated with better health and the
avoidance of fatal risks.

How do our beliefs about ourselves influence our thoughts and actions? How accurately do we know
ourselves? And, how does our culture shape our sense of self?

We know that important elements of the self-concept and self-esteem are shaped early in life
through our relationships with our parents and by others' appraisals of us. Our self-picture or
self-image is modified as we encounter cultural realities, compare ourselves to others, and seek
self-enhancement and personal survival. Moreover, our experiences with others and our cultural
experiences influence not only our identities, but also our values, skills, and basic vision of the world.

Self-confident people trust themselves. They believe that they have the power to make positive
changes in themselves if and when needed. They are not afraid of change. They look forward to the
future and take an active part in developing it. They do not have to diminish others in order to feel
good about themselves. They do not let a job dictate their sense of personal worth; rather the work
they do is seen as a positive expression of themselves and they enjoy being productive in the world
of work. There is less stress in their lives.

Seeing oneself in a positive light is the beginning of building a successful career and satisfying life.
Each of us needs to be our best cheerleader, our own best friend, and our greatest resource. We
must have faith in ourselves and know that we are responsible for our choices - for better or for
worse - and can make positive things happen.

Negative Self-Concept

A negative self-concept or self-image causes doubt and can be paralyzing. The negative self-talk
that goes with a negative image takes away self-confidence, incites anxiety and lays the foundation
for confusion, frustration, and excessive stress when it comes to making decisions and career
choices. It is okay, of course, to be critical of yourself at times; and, if you are like most people,
there are times when you doubt yourself. You might think, "I'm just not smart enough," or "I'm going
to fail at this."

Failing to live up to one's own expectations, as well as those of others, can lead a person to become
an increasingly harsh self-critic and more negative in self-image. On the other hand, another person
can experience similar situations more as a responsive observer who is open to feedback a1d willing
to evaluate and use information. What makes the difference? Part of it has to do with how we talk to
ourselves.

Self-Talk

Much of what passes for thinking is really self-talk. Some describe this kind of thinking as subvocal
conversations that we continually hold with ourselves. It can take the form of judgments, which then
impact our attitudes about ourselves. Your critical thinking skills may be undermined by negative
self-talk that is repeated over and over again. That kind of talk reinforces a negative self-concept or
self-image. Repeatedly thinking such things as, "I can't do anything right," "I hate that class," 3nd
"School is a waste of time," contribute to a negative image of oneself as a learner or student.
Self-talk affects our behavior and success. The good news is that we can do something about how
we do it. We can begin with how we view or interpret situations and even the old negative messages
we carry around in our heads. This is called reframing and it can enable us to look at a situation from
a more open and productive perspective.

Take for example, entering a job interview. Negative self-talk and negative framing of the situation
can lead individuals to fear and assume that the interview will go poorly. Thoughts like, "I hate
interviews! No matter how much I prepare, I always mess up!" do nothing to help the cause. They're
likely to lead a person to approach the interview with more anxiety and uncertainty and, thereby,
jeopardize their chances of doing well.

On the other hand, a job applicant might think, "Interviewing is just a part of the process of getting a
job, and I've taken the time to prepare and get ready. The company is looking to fill this position, and
it might as well be me!" By reframing the situation and talking to themselves positively, individuals can
set themselves up for success rather than failure.

If you hear yourself saying, "I'm really dumb," then censor yourself and change the thought to
something like, "I can do better than that next time and I will." Replace negative thought with positive
ones. If you are too hard on yourself in your evaluations, then negative thoughts are going to occur
more often then positive ones. It may take awhile, but just continue to replace the negative ones by
rewording them with positive thoughts. Congratulate yourself and move on.

It can be helpful to replace words like "have to" and "ought to," which takes power from you, with
"want to" and "choose to," which enable you to have power and control. They imply that you have the
strength and means to make a personal decision and act on it. For example, if you say "I have to go
to law school," or "I should go to law school" then it appears that someone else had or has the seat
of power and making the decisions. When you say, "I want to go to law school" or "I am going to law
school," the base of power is within yourself and you are making the choice to move in that direction.

People with positive self-concepts tend to feel a sense of power and their self-talk helps them be
decisive and take strong action. Self-talk can be an indicator of feeling empowered to make positive
things happen. Look at the contrasting self-talk language below. Which expressions do you tend to
favor in talking to yourself? In talking to others?

Use						Avoid
I want to			I promise to		I have to			I intend to
I choose to		I know I will		I should			I think I can
I will			I commit to		I’ll try			I hope to

As you move through life, you will make many decisions and take action in a host of situations.
Through training and experience, your skills will become better and you are likely to gain more
confidence, especially as you focus on what you have accomplished and what you do well.
Discovering your potential will be both easy and hard at times and such a task requires a positive
self-concept.

Maintaining a positive self-concept or self-image is a lifelong challenge. It is not something that one
simply brings from childhood and that never needs attention. It is not something that a person either
has or doesn't have.

There will be times when decisions are difficult, when choices are hard to make, and when things
don't work out as well as you had hoped or planned. There will be times when you have to have a
serious talk with yourself, perhaps share and sort out ideas with someone else, and work harder at
staying focused and being positive. It helps if you recognize that your career decisions and
development play a major role in forming and maintaining your self-picture and the satisfaction you
experience in life.

Topic 5

Social Learning and Decision Making Theories

Social Learning Theories

We learn by watching and observing others. It is our primary method of gaining information when we
are children. We pay particular attention to those who are closest to us and on whom we are most
dependent for our very physical and psychological survival. These significant others, whether they
are parents, guardians or caretakers, can play a major role in influencing our career development.

The Role Of Parenting Styles

Ann Roe, a professor at Harvard University, and one of the first career development theorists,
proposed that early childhood experiences play an indirect yet significant role in shaping later career
behavior. She suggested that parent-child relationships influence personality orientations an::l the
development of psychological needs. Career interests and choices are among the ways individuals
try to satisfy those needs. Although it has been difficult to demonstrate links between pare1ting
styles and career choices, some supportive research evidence is emerging.

Ann Roe believed the needs structure of an individual to be greatly influenced by early childhood
environmental and relationship experiences. This needs structure, in turn, would later influence the
selection of occupational categories. Roe viewed needs and interests as determinants of motivation
and accomplishments. She classified occupations into two major categories: person oriented and
non-person oriented.

Some suggest that Roe's theory be viewed as a personality theory of career development, but we
choose to think of it as a social learning theory that focuses on childhood experiences and what
children learn in the social context of their families.

The theory focuses on parenting practices (such as rejecting, overprotecting, and democratic). How
parents behave and interact with their children sets a tone that influences how individuals ultimately
establish relationships with other people and things. For instance, based on childhood experiences,
people are either drawn toward other people or not. Parental behaviors with children shape the way
that we, as adults, make career decisions and choices later in life.

Patterns of Parenting

Emotional Concentration. If there is an emotional concentration on children in the early years, which
includes the opposite extremes of over-protective and over-demanding behaviors, then the children
will be dependent upon their parents for gratification in later years. This includes approval for job
and career choices. In turn, these individuals are drawn to jobs that give them a high level of
feedback and reward, - such as performing arts.

Avoidance. A second parenting pattern is that of avoidance. This might range from emotional
rejection of the child to physical neglect. In this case the child learns to turn elsewhere for
involvement and interests. There would be limited contacts with others as bases for gratification
since the child probably learned early not to depend on adults. Scientific and mechanical interests
might more readily appeal to this person since there is less reliance on others for satisfaction.
Acceptance. The third parenting practice is acceptance, which might involve either casual or loving
acceptance. The child is frequently incorporated into the family structure as an equal in a democratic
process. The child's independence is encouraged and, thus, he or she might seek occupations that
balance personal and nonpersonal interests without the need for isolation from others or intense
approval from them.

A Hierarchy of Needs

Roe's theory is considered compatible with Maslow's theory of a hierarchy of needs. In this case the
assumption is that higher order needs, such as self-actualization, are contingent on the relative
satisfaction of lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs. Maslow's hierarchy of
needs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CF2clq_OvdE(external link 01)

One or two illustrations of the meaning of Maslow's hierarchy might be useful here. For example, a
child who comes from a home where food is scarce and the parents are talking about divorce will
likely struggle in school. An unknowing teacher might chastise the child for not doing his or her
homework and not caring about school. The more accurate view is that the child is preoccupied with
satisfying physiological and safety needs. Until these can be routinely met, it is unlikely that the child
will be highly motivated by needs for information and understanding.

If a person grew up in a family that has lived through an economic depression, when work was limited
and large numbers of people had little money and food, the security aspects of a job will be
especially appealing. In Roe's theory, the person who has not been exposed to such poverty and
hardship feels freer to seek high-order needs in work.

Field and Level Classification of Occupations

Roe also provided a useful field and level classification of occupations. Her eight fields or job families
are primarily defined by their content, and they express a things-versus-person orientation. The
levels relate to the complexity of the worker tasks or responsibilities involved in a particular job. The
choice of one of these fields would be a function of interests, while the level attained would depend
on genetic factors as manifested in intelligence and personal style.

Attachment and Social Learning Research

Researchers have studied the influence of parents and the family on career choice and development.
Much of this research links career development to factors such as socioeconomic status, parents'
educational and occupational attainment and cultural background.

There is a different body of research that considers the effects of family relationships. This research
is primarily based on two theories. The first is attachment theory, which suggests that close
relationships provide experiences of security that promote exploration and risk taking. The other is
social learning theory, which views early experiences as a basis for developing career self-efficacy
and interests as well as career goals and choices throughout life.

Parenting styles are broad patterns of child raising practices, values and behaviors. Althoug1 they
might be described in other ways, four type:; of parenting styles are:

- Authoritative - Both demanding and responsive
- Authoritarian - Highly demanding and directive but not responsive
- Indulgent - More responsive than demanding
- Uninvolved - Low in responsiveness yet highly demanding

The authoritative style balances clear, high expectations with emotional support and recognition of
children's autonomy. Studies have associated this style with self-confidence, persistence, social
competence, academic success and psychosocial development. Authoritative parents provide a
relatively warm family climate, set standards and promote independence, which result in more active
career exploration on the part of children.

Authoritarian parenting is often associated with school success. However, the pressures to conform
and fulfill parents' expectations regarding education and careers can cause a poor fit between the
individual and the chosen career, as well as estranged family relationships and poor mental health.
Families with indulgent or uninvolved parents seem unable to function well, either because they
cannot set guidelines or because they do not pursue interests outside the family. This makes it more
difficult for children to develop self-knowledge and to differentiate their own career goals from their
parents' goals.

Family Systems and Career Development

Career choice based on early family determinants and needs satisfaction has been incorporated into
the family systems approach that characterizes the work of many family counselors. Although more
research is needed in this area, it is evident that many people follow the career paths of their
parents or ancestors. Could this be related to the family system and the interaction that takes
place?

Maybe people choose traditional family occupations because of role modeling. It is what they have
been exposed to and know about. It may also be a matter of convenience and seem like a practical
thing to do. Perhaps family members have connections that open doors to careers that have long
been associated with family members. "My family has always been involved in retail sales. I guess I'm a
born salesperson." "My mother was a doctor and my father, a paramedic. I plan to go into the field of
medicine." "My father and his father were pharmacists and I think they expect me to do the same
thing and someday take over the store."

Family background characteristics found to be associated with career development include the
following parental factors:

- Socioeconomic status (SES)
- Educational level
- Biogenetic factors (e.g., physical size, ability and temperament)

In one study of the influences on adolescents' career development, the variable that had the most
effect on educational plans and occupational aspirations was parental education.

Family Functioning and Career Development

Family functioning is a broader concept that encompasses parenting style. It includes such factors as
parental support and guidance, positive or negative environmental influences, and family members'
interaction styles. Research suggests that family functioning has a greater influence on career
development than either family structure (size, birth order, number of parents) or parents'
educational and occupational status.

Parental support and guidance. This can include specific career or educational suggestions as well as
experiences that indirectly support career development, such as family vacations, provision of
resources such as books, and parental modeling of paid and unpaid work roles.

The absence of support, guidance and encouragement can lead to floundering or difficulty with
developing and pursuing a specific career focus. Lack of support can also take the form of conflict,
as when parents pressure a child toward a particular career and withdraw financial and emotional
support for a career path not of their choosing.

Environmental Influences. Family functioning also includes the response to circumstances such as
poverty, alcoholism, marital instability, and illness or death of family members. Sometimes an individual
may respond to a stressful or negative family environment by making hasty, unreflective career
choices in an attempt to escape or survive. On the other hand, critical life events can spur a
transformative learning experience that may shape a career and life direction.

Family Interaction Styles. Interactions between parents and children and among siblings are powerful
influences. Interactions can include positive behaviors such as showing support and interest and
communicating openly or negative behaviors such as pushing and controlling. By shoring workplace
stories, expressing concern for their children's future and modeling work behaviors, parents can
serve as a context for interpreting the realities of work.

Parent-child connectedness facilitates risk taking and exploration, which are needed for identity
formation in general as well as for the formation of career identity. Siblings can be a source of
challenge and competition and a basis for comparison of abilities, thus providing a context for
identity formation. Because career development is a lifelong process, family of origin continues to
have an influence through the lifespan. Understanding early family experiences and relationships can
help adults identify related barriers to their career progress.

If the concept of career is considered a social construction, then one of the ways in which children
form this concept is through social relationships. Parents' influence on career development stems
from the continuous process of relationship with their children.

Career choice as a developmental task begins to take prominence in adolescence. Thus, it
represents an important means for constructive parent-adolescent engagement. Conversely, career
issues can also intensify conflict between parents and adolescents.

Analyzing career-related conversations between high school adolescents and their parents, Roach
(201 0) focused on how parents and children perceived career decision-making and their areas of
agreement and disagreement. Research showed how family relationships and functioning are
embedded in career conversations.

Ketterson and Blustein (1997) also support the relational context of career development. They cite
research demonstrating that secure parent-child relationships are associated with progress in
career decision-making, affirmative career self-efficacy beliefs, and career planfulness. Their study
found that students who have secure attachments to parents engage in greater levels of
environmental and self-exploratory activity. They conclude that secure, comfortable relationships are
critical in helping students take the risks necessary in exploring new settings and roles.

Way and Rossmann (1996) explored the question of differences among individuals in their ability to
make successful career transitions. Their research used an ecological systems perspective to show
how development is influenced by relationships with others and the environment. Their interviews
with youth and adults identified a proactive family interaction style that significantly contributes to
career readiness. They found that proactive families:

- Are well organized, cohesive and expressive
- Speak up and manage conflict positively
- Seek out ways to grow
- Are sociable
- Make decisions through democratic negotiation
- Encourage individual development
- Are emotionally engaged

Proactive parents help children learn to be autonomous and successful in shaping their own lives.
They also transmit values about work and teach important lessons in decision-making, work habits,
conflict resolution and communication skills, which create a strong foundation for career success.

Of course, family systems intersect and interact with other systems such as gender, race and class.
Poverty, lack of access to opportunities and gender-role expectations can hamper the career
development process. However, close family connections and strong role models can be facilitative
factors in confronting these barriers.

Some researchers say that children develop many of their initial ideas and beliefs about work on the
basis of what they hear from their parents, as well as what they observe for themselves. Their
parents' intentional career-related actions are important in preparing children to be tomorrow's
workers and citizens. However, the day-to-day patterns of family relationships may be the most
significant role a family can play in children's developing understanding and approach to work and
careers.

Inherited Aspirations. Mary Jacobsen ( 1999) described the family system as a web of relationships.
She uses concepts from family systems theory to describe how family expectations about work are
passed on to each new generation. This often occurs in subtle and indirect ways that disguise the
family's influence and make it difficult to detect and alter. These inherited aspirations--or
"hand-me-down dreams"--affect not only career selection, but also relationships and behavior on the
job.

In her book, Hand-Me-Down Dreams, Jacobsen relates how the hidden dynamic of family expectations
for our careers works. We may feel trapped and disappointed that we let our family's wishes, rather
than our own natural talents, interests and passions, guide us in our choice of careers. Jacobsen
asserts that people who are unhappy in their occupations may have been inadvertently- and in some
cases intentionally- pressured into their occupations by family members. In effect, they are trying to
live someone else's dream. Popular singer Faith Hill movingly expressed the anguish of inherited
aspirations in her song, "Hand Me Down Dreams." In the song's refrain, she sings,

She was Daddy's little girl,

Momma's little angel,

Teacher's pet, pageant queen.

She said, "All my life I've been pleasin' everyone but me,

Waking up in someone else's dream."

Jacobsen explores the ways that even well-intentioned family expectations about work are passed
on from one generation to the next, sometimes openly, but often in indirect, subtle ways, and how
these expectations influence not only our career choices but also our roles, relationships and values
on the job. She provides strategies for making the career changes necessary to fulfill our own
dreams and attain success on our own terms. Jacobsen emphasizes that all families have unfulfilled
dreams that are handed down to the next generation, whether parents intend to or not.

Now, consider how children learn to walk. When sufficient physical development has taken place, a
child will spontaneously stand, take some steps and walk, and later run and further experiment with
jumping, climbing and so on. Before walking, there were many efforts, such as stretching helplessly
to reach for something, crawling, stumbling and staggering into things.

Yet, first steps, walking towards someone, and even falling on the way and picking one's self up, are
the beginnings of active self-determination within the family environment, which represents the world.
These first steps show that individuals can go for a chosen goal, though there may be obstacles and
power struggles along the way. "Why did they take that pretty vase away just as I got to where I
could pull it down?"

Family Transactions. Human beings are social animals and communication begins in the family. Family
messages to members about their personalities, their value, and their futures are often engrained
and later reflected in career decisions and work behavior.

In his groundbreaking book, Games People Pia)(, Eric Berne (1967), a renowned psychologist and
author, proposed that both verbal and non-verbal communication is based on exchanges of strokes,
which he called "transactions."' According to Berne's theory, early in life, children become accustomed
to particular patterns of transactions with their principal caretakers and family members. Later in life,
we tend to want to duplicate such patterns with others whom we select for close relationships. On
the job, we might try to get others to respond to us in the manner in which we are accustomed as
well.

An analogy might be preferring home cooked soup to all other food, even gourmet cuisine, and
seeking out all opportunities to be served such soup. Of course, we are always disappointed when
what we receive does not meet our expectations based on childhood experience, regardless how
tasty the "different" food might be.

In another instance, two persons assigned to work together might experience mutual disappointment
when their respective stroke exchanges do not result in the anticipated responses that correspond
to their old internalized patterns. Each might firmly believe that this is the other person's fault.

By analyzing and clarifying patterns of transactions and which ones repeatedly cause hurt and
misunderstanding, people can learn to understand more about how they relate to one another. This
allows people to understand where others are coming from. When they understand these patterns,
it is usually possible to come to some agreement (a "contract") about how to cooperate more
effectively at future tasks, even if nobody gets the total satisfaction that would have come had they
happened to find others with matching patterns of transacting.

Berne also believed that people could learn to be independent. He once said, "Each person designs
his own life. Freedom gives us the power to carry out our own designs." He assumed, of course, that
people would understand how communication systems and expectations work within a family.

Social Learning Theory and Career Development

Albert Bandura and John Krumboltz, professors and researchers at Stanford University in Palo Alto,
California, have made major contributions to social learning theory as applied to career choice and
development.

Bandura's Theory

Bandura (1997) emphasized the influence of reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing
and classical behaviorism on human behavior. His theory, while still acknowledging the role of innate
and developmental processes, assumes that individuals' personalities and behavior repertoires can
be explained most usefully on the basis of their unique learning experiences.

Environment, Thought and Action. Bandura believed that humans are intelligent, problem-solving
individuals who strive at all times to understand the reinforcements that surround them. In turn, they
control their environments to suit their own purposes and needs. Bandura described the interaction
of environment, self-referent thought and behavior as a "triadic reciprocal interaction system."

In other words, we are learning from our social environment and being reinforced for our actions all
the time. We learn by watching other people (vicarious learning), as well as by engaging our minds
with the written words of authors and in discussions where people share ideas and make judgments
(cognitive learning). Sustained interests depend upon positive reinforcement.

For example, suppose that a person who enjoys building things is thinking about becoming a civil
engineer. The person's favorite television programs may be ones that feature marvelous inventions
and building home projects. If positively reinforced, these interests may lead to further exploration
of a careers related to engineering. If there is no reinforcement and the person feels discouraged,
this interest is likely to fade away and new interests are pursued.

Self-efficacy. Bandura also proposed a view of behavior that he called self-efficacy. Behavior and
subsequent decisions are mediated by expectations that one can perform the action. It is assumed
that self-efficacy is derived from previous accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion
and emotional arousal. People try to estimate whether they will be successful in something that they
might try. Success breeds more success and creates an aura of self-efficacy.

Because mathematics is so critical as a basic skill or knowledge set for scientific and technical
occupations, avoidance of such skills tends to eliminate individuals who have low self-efficacy in
mathematics. Those who have taken math courses and been successful in them will see themselves
as capable and the strength of their self-efficacy in this area enables them to be more open to
thinking about related occupations. They are less anxious about doing difficult math problems and
can stay focused on the task at hand, rather than allowing stress to lead to panic and giving up.

Krumboltz's Theory

John Krumboltz and his colleagues developed a theory that individuals make career decisions based
on behavior (action) and cognitions (knowing or thinking). It differs from many other approaches
because the emphasis is on decision-making techniques and helping people to use them in making
career choices and selecting alternatives. The techniques also help one to conceptualize the most
important issues.

Krumboltz asked: "Why do people chose the occupations they do?" "Why do they choose one
college major rather than another?" "Why choose one college and not another college?" He believed
that four basic factors helped answer these questions: genetic endowment, environmental
conditions, learning experiences, and task-approach skills.

These factors also interact with one another. Although many theories of career development focus
on inherited abilities and environmental events, no other theory emphasizes the importance of
learning experiences and task-approach skills as the Krumboltz social learning theory does.

Genetic endowment. This refers to those aspects that an individual inherited or are innate rather
than learned. It includes physical appearance, such as height, hair color and skin color, as well as
one's predisposition toward certain physical illnesses and other characteristics. Similarly, it seems
that some individuals are born with special aptitudes or abilities in arts, music, writing, athletics, and
so forth. In general, the greater an individual's innate genetic abilities, the more likely he or she is to
respond to learning and teaching in those areas.

For example, an individual with limited musical ability (e.g., tone deafness) is unlikely to respond well
to musical instruction no matter how long it is done and how much energy is given to it. The individual
may improve and be able to perform well to a certain degree but is not likely to become a skilled
musician or consider options in music as a career.

The issue of how much a particular ability is inherited and how much is learned is a difficult one. The
term aptitude is often preferred when referring to an innate ability. Sometimes people can practice a
skill enough to acquire ability, despite a lack of aptitude for it. Social learning theory does not deal
directly with the issue of aptitude as much as it does with learning and enhancing skills and abilities
and how these are related to the career decision-making process.

Environmental conditions and events. This second factor recognizes that there is a vast number of
conditions that affect individuals and many of them are outside the control of the individual. These
include social, cultural, political and economic conditions. Even such factors as climate and geography
affect an individual in significant ways.

For instance, living in an urban or suburban environment, or one subject to frequent storms, or one
with long cold winters, or one that is on a seacoast can affect an individual in many specific ways.
Learning how to use a snow blower and having some ideas of how to repair one will not prove very
useful if you are living in Florida. Floridians may travel to areas where there are winter sport:; and
enjoy them, but they usually don't have to k1ow how the install snow tires or snow chains to get
over a mountain pass. In Colorado, for instance, there numerous jobs related to dealing with winter
weather, from those in retail stores to local transportation. The weather can affect the kind of
houses that are built and what conveniences buyers value.

Learning experiences. The third factor in this theory includes two types of learning experiences -instrumental
and associative. Instrumental le3rning experiences have three components:
antecedents, behaviors and consequences. Associative learning experiences may occur through
observation or generalizing from one experience to another. An individual may have millions of them
to draw upon that eventually could influence career decisions. Because the variety of potential
experience is so great, each person's set of learning experiences is different from anyone else's.

Task-approach skills are the focus of Krumboltz's fourth basic factor. This factor is related to how an
individual approaches a task. One's approach to a task, which influences the outcome of that task,
depends on the interaction of the person's genetic endowments, environmental conditions end
previous learning experiences. Certain task-approach skills are especially important in career
decision-making. These include setting goals, clarifying values, predicting future events, generating
alternatives and seeking occupational information. The development of these skills is a major
component of Krumboltz's approach.

Decision-Making Models

Closely associated with social learning theories are the decision-making models that evolved from
problem solving and scientific analysis. The i11portance of decision-making is underscored by viewing
it as a lifelong process. Most of these models include four major elements:

- Objectives that one seeks to achieve
- Choices or alternative courses of action from which one can choose
- Possible outcomes associated with each choice
- Ways in which the outcomes might be assessed in terms of how well they met the objectives

In the Krumboltz model, decision-making involves the following sequence of steps.

- First, one must recognize that an important decision is needed. Without this awareness there
is very little, if any, commitment to move through the next steps.
- Second, the task has to be defined realistically and in a manageable way. Otherwise there is
too much ambiguity and confusion. There is no chance to determine a direction.
- Third, once possible alternatives and outcomes are generated, then information about them
should be gathered and the sources of information considered in terms of reliability, accuracy
and relevancy.
- Finally, the sequence of decision-making behaviors must be planned and carried out.

Decision-making models embrace a logical process that follows a precise set of procedures. One
starts at Point A and proceeds to Point X, with sequential steps along the way. This form of linear
thinking makes a lot of sense to certain kinds of thinkers. Most computer-assisted career search and
development programs are based on this model. Computers lend themselves to linear thinking
approaches. There is a yes-and-no format, a toggling of the switch to an on or off mode, or a
correct- incorrect type of thinking. This approach relies on direction, even if there is a circular
pattern.

Decision-Making Steps

Decision-making models embrace a logical process that follows a precise set of procedures. One
starts at Point A and proceeds to Point X, with sequential steps along the way. This form of linear
thinking makes a lot of sense to certain kinds of thinkers. Most computer-assisted career search and
development programs are based on this model. Computers lend themselves to linear thinking
approaches. There is a yes-and-no format, a toggling of the switch to an on or off mode, or a
correct- incorrect type of thinking. This approach relies on direction, even if there is a circular
pattern.

Decision-Making Steps

Decision-making models, as they are applied to career development, are designed to guide and
focus your career planning through a step-by-step process of thinking and acting. Drawing on a
typical career decision-making model, you would proceed through the following steps:

1 . Recognizing the need for making a decision or plan

In career decision-making, the first step is to recognize that you need some direction in planning
your career and that there are always two or more possible courses of action that you might take.
You start by identifying some objectives or choices that need to be made now. Some decisions
might be postponed, while others are more pressing or most fitting at this stage in your life and
career. Which career decisions seem most urgent to you now?

2. Assessing self and gathering information

Using some of the tools suggested in topic 3, and any others that might be helpful, you begin the
process of self-assessment. As you understand yourself better, you increase the probability of
identifying goals and objectives that match your personality, lifestyle and wishes. In the process, it is
possible to clarify your options and see them more clearly.

This is also a time when occupational information about the world of work begins to have a place.
Your current experience, knowledge, vision of the future, and perspectives of the work world can
limit the options you consider. Therefore, you gather and study data and draw upon resources in
order to expand your knowledge of careers and job opportunities.

3. Generating and narrowing options

You work hard at keeping yourself open to options that seem to match your interests and values.
You explore and discover. Then, you begin narrowing your choices based on the information that you
have collected about yourself and the world of work.

4. Making a decision

As you narrow your choices, you continually assess yourself in terms of interests, values, skills,
ability to learn, and motivation. Then, it is decision-making time and you do the best you can to make
a choice that feels right for you. It does not have to be a practical one. It doesn't have to be one
that others think you should make or that you have dreamed about for a long time.

Rather, you make a decision that will move you along a chosen career path. This may be to select or
change a college major. It may be to investigate and find out more about a particular occupation that
holds your interest. It may be a decision that needs to be implemented within the next few days or
within a longer timeline. At the very least, you formulate a goal or objective and a plan of action.

5. Implementing a plan

Now, you implement your plan. You take action. You do something that moves you toward your goal
or desired outcome. Your plan may have a number of steps, or it may be as simple as meeting with
an advisor. The simpler plans usually generate more information to be used at the next level.

6. Evaluating results

Next, you evaluate the results of that action or behavior. Modifications are made when appropriate
and you may start again. Eventually the outcomes are projected into the bigger picture of life and
related to the next choices that face you.

Decision-making models embrace a logical process that follows a precise set of procedures. One
starts at Point A and proceeds to Point X, with sequential steps along the way. This form of linear
thinking makes a lot of sense to certain kinds of thinkers. Most computer-assisted career search and
development programs are based on this model. Computers lend themselves to linear thinking
approaches. There is a yes-and-no format, c toggling of the switch to an on or off mode, or a
correct- incorrect type of thinking. This approach relies on direction, even if there is a circular
pattern.

Decision-Making Steps

Decision-making models, as they are applied to career development, are designed to guide 3nd
focus your career planning through a step-by-step process of thinking and acting. Drawing on a
typical career decision-making model, you would proceed through the following steps:

1 . Recognizing the need for making a decision or plan

In career decision-making, the first step is to recognize that you need some direction in planning
your career and that there are always two or more possible courses of action that you might take.
You start by identifying some objectives or choices that need to be made now. Some decisions
might be postponed, while others are more pressing or most fitting at this stage in your life and
career. Which career decisions seem most urgent to you now?

2. Assessing self and gathering information

Using some of the tools suggested in topic 3, and any others that might be helpful, you begin the
process of self-assessment. As you understand yourself better, you increase the probability of
identifying goals and objectives that match your personality, lifestyle and wishes. In the process, it is
possible to clarify your options and see them more clearly.

This is also a time when occupational information about the world of work begins to have a place.
Your current experience, knowledge, vision of the future, and perspectives of the work world can
limit the options you consider. Therefore, you gather and study data and draw upon resources in
order to expand your knowledge of careers and job opportunities.

3. Generating and narrowing options

You work hard at keeping yourself open to options that seem to match your interests and values.
You explore and discover. Then, you begin narrowing your choices based on the information that you
have collected about yourself and the world of work.

4. Making a decision

As you narrow your choices, you continually assess yourself in terms of interests, values, skills,
ability to learn, and motivation. Then, it is decision-making time and you do the best you can to make
a choice that feels right for you. It does not have to be a practical one. It doesn't have to be one
that others think you should make or that you have dreamed about for a long time.

Rather, you make a decision that will move you along a chosen career path. This may be to select or
change a college major. It may be to investigate and find out more about a particular occupation that
holds your interest. It may be a decision that needs to be implemented within the next few days or
within a longer timeline. At the very least, you formulate a goal or objective and a plan of action.

5. Implementing a plan

Now, you implement your plan. You take action. You do something that moves you toward your goal
or desired outcome. Your plan may have a number of steps, or it may be as simple as meeting with
an advisor. The simpler plans usually generate more information to be used at the next level.

6. Evaluating results

Next, you evaluate the results of that action or behavior. Modifications are made when appropriate
and you may start again. Eventually the outcomes are projected into the bigger picture of life and
related to the next choices that face you.

A simple model of a decision-making sequence can be seen in Figure 5.2(external link 02). You will
note again that awareness of the need to make a decision is considered the first step. The second
step goes beyond knowing options and alternatives. It emphasizes the need to understand one's
self. More specifically, in this step efforts are made to understand the personal variables that
influence decision-making. This understanding helps one to expand and narrow the options in the
third step. Then, it is time to make a choice, followed by implementing the decision that was made.
The last step, "Knowing I Made a Good Choice," can only be determined if one has a method for
evaluating the outcomes or results of implementing the decision.

Decision-making models stress a cyclical process. The models provide a framework for a series of
immediate, intermediate and future decisions. After an initial decision is made and results are
evaluated, another choice appears and is considered. Using the same steps and procedures, one
makes the next decision. Thus, the procedures are repeated, although the choices, alternatives,
information and actions change.

For example, suppose you decide to change your college major. Your anxiety may be a driving force
that makes you aware that you are unhappy with your current major and starts you thinking about
other alternatives. If you are indifferent and thus less anxious, then you let the situation play out and
do nothing. If you want to make a decision and reduce your anxiety, you might decide to talk with a
counselor to clarify your goals and discuss your options and the consequences of making changes.
You could also talk with your friends, professors, parents, or others who are already employed in
jobs related to your major.

After considering your alternatives, you decide to see a counselor at the career resource center. If
the meeting is satisfactory and you leave feeling less anxious and perhaps with plan of action for
your next step, then you might feel reinforced and choose to use the counselor again in a similar
situation. If you leave the counselor feeling more confused, more anxious and still uncertain about
what to do next, then you might again look at your alternatives and decide to talk with one of your
professors or perhaps one in another major that interests you.

Decision-making models are popular in career resource centers because counselors can adapt the
procedures to many types of clients and situations. This approach is also a respectful one,
empowering people to take responsibility for their career choices and their plans to reach desired
goals. It acknowledges the role of feedback based on an appraisal of the situation.

Some people criticize the approach as being too rigid, too structured and too "left brained," which
suits those who prefer logical, step-by-step methods and clearly defined objectives. Many "right
brained" individuals, who prefer to make decisions based on gut feelings or intuition, can adapt this
approach but they tend to be less satisfied with it. They see it as too specific, too narrow and as
giving too much emphasis to some variables while excluding others. Because "right brain" thinking
people are a minority in our nation's population (perhaps 25-30%), career counselors and specialists
favor the decision-making models in most cases.

Decision-making models embrace a logical process that follows a precise set of procedures. One
starts at Point A and proceeds to Point X, with sequential steps along the way. This form of linear
thinking makes a lot of sense to certain kinds of thinkers. Most computer-assisted career search and
development programs are based on this model. Computers lend themselves to linear thinking
approaches. There is a yes-and-no format, a toggling of the switch to an on or off mode, or a
correct- incorrect type of thinking. This approach relies on direction, even if there is a circular
pattern.

Decision-Making Steps

Decision-making models, as they are applied to career development, are designed to guide and
focus your career planning through a step-by-step process of thinking and acting. Drawing on a
typical career decision-making model, you would proceed through the following steps:

1 . Recognizing the need for making a decision or plan

In career decision-making, the first step is to recognize that you need some direction in planning
your career and that there are always two or more possible courses of action that you might take.
You start by identifying some objectives or choices that need to be made now. Some decisions
might be postponed, while others are more pressing or most fitting at this stage in your life and
career. Which career decisions seem most urgent to you now?

2. Assessing self and gathering information

Using some of the tools suggested in topic 3, and any others that might be helpful, you begin the
process of self-assessment. As you understand yourself better, you increase the probability of
identifying goals and objectives that match your personality, lifestyle and wishes. In the process, it is
possible to clarify your options and see them more clearly.

This is also a time when occupational information about the world of work begins to have a place.
Your current experience, knowledge, vision of the future, and perspectives of the work world can
limit the options you consider. Therefore, you gather and study data and draw upon resources in
order to expand your knowledge of careers and job opportunities.

3. Generating and narrowing options

You work hard at keeping yourself open to options that seem to match your interests and values.
You explore and discover. Then, you begin narrowing your choices based on the information that you
have collected about yourself and the world of work.

4. Making a decision

As you narrow your choices, you continually assess yourself in terms of interests, values, skills,
ability to learn, and motivation. Then, it is decision-making time and you do the best you can to make
a choice that feels right for you. It does not have to be a practical one. It doesn't have to be one
that others think you should make or that you have dreamed about for a long time.

Rather, you make a decision that will move you along a chosen career path. This may be to select or
change a college major. It may be to investigate and find out more about a particular occupation that
holds your interest. It may be a decision that needs to be implemented within the next few days or
within a longer timeline. At the very least, you formulate a goal or objective and a plan of action.

5. Implementing a plan

Now, you implement your plan. You take action. You do something that moves you toward your goal
or desired outcome. Your plan may have a number of steps, or it may be as simple as meeting with
an advisor. The simpler plans usually generate more information to be used at the next level.

6. Evaluating results

Next, you evaluate the results of that action or behavior. Modifications are made when appropriate
and you may start again. Eventually the outcomes are projected into the bigger picture of life and
related to the next choices that face you.

A simple model of a decision-making sequence can be seen in Figure 5.2(external link 02). You will
note again that awareness of the need to make a decision is considered the first step. The second
step goes beyond knowing options and alternatives. It emphasizes the need to understand one's
self. More specifically, in this step efforts are made to understand the personal variables that
influence decision-making. This understanding helps one to expand and narrow the options in the
third step. Then, it is time to make a choice, followed by implementing the decision that was made.
The last step, "Knowing I Made a Good Choice," can only be determined if one has a method for
evaluating the outcomes or results of implementing the decision.

Decision-making models stress a cyclical process. The models provide a framework for a series of
immediate, intermediate and future decisions. After an initial decision is made and results are
evaluated, another choice appears and is considered. Using the same steps and procedures, one
makes the next decision. Thus, the procedures are repeated, although the choices, alternatives,
information and actions change.

For example, suppose you decide to change your college major. Your anxiety may be a driving force
that makes you aware that you are unhappy with your current major and starts you thinking about
other alternatives. If you are indifferent and thus less anxious, then you let the situation play out and
do nothing. If you want to make a decision and reduce your anxiety, you might decide to talk with a
counselor to clarify your goals and discuss your options and the consequences of making changes.
You could also talk with your friends, professors, parents, or others who are already employed in
jobs related to your major.

After considering your alternatives, you decide to see a counselor at the career resource center. If
the meeting is satisfactory and you leave feeling less anxious and perhaps with plan of action for
your next step, then you might feel reinforced and choose to use the counselor again in a similar
situation. If you leave the counselor feeling more confused, more anxious and still uncertain about
what to do next, then you might again look at your alternatives and decide to talk with one of your
professors or perhaps one in another major that interests you.

Decision-making models are popular in career resource centers because counselors can adapt the
procedures to many types of clients and situations. This approach is also a respectful one,
empowering people to take responsibility for their career choices and their plans to reach desired
goals. It acknowledges the role of feedback based on an appraisal of the situation.

Some people criticize the approach as being too rigid, too structured and too "left brained," which
suits those who prefer logical, step-by-step methods and clearly defined objectives. Many "right
brained" individuals, who prefer to make decisions based on gut feelings or intuition, can adapt this
approach but they tend to be less satisfied with it. They see it as too specific, too narrow and as
giving too much emphasis to some variables while excluding others. Because "right brain" thinking
people are a minority in our nation's population (perhaps 25-30%), career counselors and specialists
favor the decision-making models in most cases.

Creative Decision Making

H. B. Gelatt was a career specialist with the Palo Alto School District of Palo Alto, California who
worked closely with researchers at Stanford University. For many years he advocated using
decision-making models and provided some intricate configurations that showed the cyclical process
of making choices, planning, and evaluating results. Along with other career specialists, he believed
that once an outcome is achieved, it yields more data and perhaps a new objective and the process
resumes.

Software developers used Gelatt's early theory to construct computer-assisted programs in career
exploration, career planning and decision-making. The theory favors a linear approach, assuming that
there is a beginning and an ending point in the planning process. It involves knowing where you want
to go, setting goals, collecting information and making periodic choices which then move a person
along a continuum of transition points. It is logical and appealing to those who want a simple and
organized approach to career decision-making.

Eventually, Gelatt began to amend his theory. He recognized that most of the decision-making models
were too simple and there were many influential factors that were being ignored. In his new
approach, he described a decision-making strategy as a plan for converting values, objectives,
information and risks into a decision. He noted that there are risks associated with any alternative,
and the degree of risk and uncertainty in a decision-making situation influences the choice of a
strategy. Some commonly used strategies are:

The Wish Strategy:		Choose what you desire most.
The Safe Strategy:		Choose the most likely to succeed.
The Escape Strategy:		Choose to avoid the worst.
The Combination Strategy:	Choose the option that is both most desirable and
most likely to succeed.

Career planning is about trying to predict the future and making choices. Gelatt continued to rethink
some of his assumptions and the linear approach that was popular in the first computer-assisted
career programs. He shifted his focus to creative decision making using positive uncertainty. He
cautioned against too much structure in the process at the expense of flexibility and creativity.

He once described the process of choosing and using a strategy as an individualized art that can be
learned. In speaking to career counselors, Gelatt said,

"The future does not exist and it cannot be predicted It m1 1st be imagined and invented The choice
of action is where the decision makers express their individuality; it should not be done by formula
The career co1mselor of the future must help clients imagine and invent their own future. "
Getlatt and his colleagues recognized the value of traditional theories but also emphasized the
importance of creativity and flexibility in the process, encouraging the use of what he called "positive
uncertainty," as a framework for decision-making.

He proposed this framework as a way to help individuals deal with change and ambiguity, accept
uncertainty and inconsistency, and incorporate "non-rational and intuitive" thinking into their
decision-making.

Gelatt encouraged the discovery of new connections between previous decision-making models and
new insights. He paved the way for other alternative theories, some of which will receive attention in
topic 6.

Topic 6

Alternative Career Theories

The linear thought process characterized much of our nation's early scientific thinking. It helped
produce the Industrial Revolution and resulted in many technological achievements. This kind of
thinking has been greatly valued in schools, businesses and corporations as a primary mode of
operation and management.

The career theories that we have examined to this point are considered linear models. They tend to
look at something from one point of view, focusing on cause and effect or sequential relationships.
Using this kind of thinking, one might take information or an observation from one situation a1d use it
in an orderly fashion in another situation so that a conclusion can be reached. This approach works
well when change is continuous and predictable.

Using such a linear model, it is often assume::l, for example, that you move sequentially through
various stages of growth and that career development is a series of steps from when one enters an
occupation, achieves advancements, and then moves on to another job or retires. In a similar fashion,
the career chase begins by collecting information about yourself and jobs, analyzing the information
to help you reach a decision or a conclusion and choosing an option.

Some contemporary theorists are now challenging total reliance on such linear models that try to
understand and predict career development. They seem inadequate for a complex and fast :hanging
world. It would be similar to using Newtonian Physics to try to understand and make predictions in
the complexities of Einstein' s universe. Line3r thinking is simple-minded, according to critics, and
could lead to solutions that are impractical or unsatisfying.

However, linear theories can provide us insights into cause and effect relationships. Their simplicity
enables us to draw diagrams and pictures that give us a visual understanding of problems and
possible solutions. For many people they provide a practical and comfortable way of thinking about
the world of work. They provide some leads for next steps and actions. They certainly have a place
in career and lifespan development.

Mapping Roads to a Career

Many career developmental specialists and counselors like talking about career paths and highways.
It is a catchy idea and to map out a course of action that leads to a satisfying and rewarding career
is appealing.

It is assumed that the roads on carefully designed maps provide a straight and narrow (logical) way
of getting from one point to another, such as graduating from high school, applying to a college,
being admitted to a program of study, taking courses, passing exams, obtaining a degree and then
entering an occupation. There are many little steps or trips that must be taken to achieve
destination points and there are some indicators that can be used to check progress.

Unfortunately, all roads on a journey are not plotted on even the best of maps and some are not
well-paved and well-engineered. Many of the routes have not been fully tested or proven despite
signs and historic markers along the way. In addition, on a long journey most travelers discover rest
stops and roadside points of interest that may or may not be shown on a map.

A few people might be on a career super highway and move rapidly toward their destination. Most
people will discover that a more accurate way of describing a career map would be "Bunny Trails."
They are the antithesis of the orderly progression featured by straight highways. They cause our
forward progress to head off in different directions.

You know how bunnies are; in their journeys they constantly make right-angle turns, poking their
noses here and there, and often reversing their direction. Whether foraging or fleeing, they make it
difficult to predict where they are headed next. Still, they generally seem to make it back safely to
the warren.

When we follow a career path and highway built on a linear model of thinking, every decision that we
make has a starting point. From there, we move on to gather some information and give careful
thought to goals and objectives. "We are here and this is where we want to go."

We might also sense some of the difficulties that might lie ahead. We try to assess the time that it
might take, the resources that are required, and the speed at which we must move to arrive at a
given time. We even try to anticipate whom we might pick up as a partner or welcome travelers
along the way. We have a plan, a basic course to follow, and our movement from Point A to Point 8 is
set. We need only to take the first steps and then those that subsequently follow.

Yet, as much as we would like to rely on the simplicity and comfort of a linear model, we don't know
everything there is to know in order to assure ourselves of a safe, efficient and speedy trip to our
destination. All along the way we find new information and some unexpected detours. Some events
that happen enrich our lives, while others challenge us to the point of needing help from others.

This is where the idea of "Bunny Trails" can play an important role in career decision-making. Planned
trails, of course, seem best. But, occasionally, we need to wander, to move off the straight and
narrow to discover what is away from the beaten path. We need to have enough courage and
confidence to explore the wilderness, breathe the fresh air, and gain some new and refreshing
perspectives.

There is something rewarding about examining the world and meeting people who live out of the
mainstream. We also benefit from being open to experience and continuing to examine matters in
terms of our personal values. We know that change is inevitable and that just as traditional or familiar
roadside surroundings change, so do we. We can always consult our map. In some cases, we may
even choose to redefine our goals and decide whether or not new directions are needed.
Sometimes we take side roads and trust serendipity.

There is an easy lesson to be learned by all of this: Plan your highways and paths well, welcome the
trails and tributaries, and be a bunny once in awhile.

Brain Works and Workplaces

For decades, scientists have studied the brain to understand how it functions in terms of processing
information and decision-making. One area of research has looked at the two hemispheres of the
brain and the activities performed by each side. The left side of the brain performs the more logical
functions, which deal with verbal and analytical processes. The right side performs activities viewed
as more creative and related to patterns and relationships. By understanding how the brain works,
researchers hope to be able to figure out optimal ways for learning and the reasons some people
are inclined to work differently than others.

Math, accounting, the use of synchronized machines, long-range planning and step-by-step
procedures with specific goals and objectives are associated with so called "left-br3in" thinking.
Linear models were derived from left-brain thinking. On the other hand, "right brain" thinking is
considered more holistic, embodying sudden flashes of insight and relying more on empathy and
emotion than logic.

For some reason, most of us seem naturally inclined to see life in contrasting pairs (e.g. good versus
bad, east versus west, logic versus emotion, cold versus hot). In a manner of speaking, we are
probably handicapped by the English language and reliance on the state of being verb "to be."
Something is or is not. Americans have problems thinking in terms of degrees of me3nings. Asians,
because of the nature of their languages, have more words and concepts to describe many shades
of meanings.

In terms of career choices' Americans, tend to think that any given job is either right or not right for
us. We want to make choices that are exact and correct, but sometimes it is hard t::> see the forest
because of the trees and vice versa.

It seems a natural dilemma: left versus right brain thinking. But, in reality, we don't have to pick one
side over the other and it's probably dangerous if we do. For instance, logic without emotion is a
chilly, Spock-like existence. Emotion without logic could be a weepy, hysterical world where the
clocks are never right and the buses are always late. In the end, yin always needs yang.

Some people hope for a spectacular moment of clarity when they will know what to do when making
career choices. In terms of "Eureka" moments, though, the end result is often the product of
considerable linear thinking that led to the intuitive breakthrough.

Peter Gallison (2003), in his book Einstein's Clocks, Poincare's Maps· Empires of Time, noted that
much of Einstein's scientific creativity actually came from the careful, lawyerly appro3ch he learned
from his work as a patent clerk. As one reviewer observed, this is "an eye-opening surprise given
the all-pervasive image of Einstein as an otherworldly thinker oblivious to his surroundings."

The popular image of creativity or extraordinary insight usually involves individuals going about their
business, when suddenly "bang" ... a brilliant idea or solution hits them right between the eyes. It is
now evident what must be done. This is the so-called "Eureka" moment when everything becomes
clear. It is an insightful moment not experienced before then.

In reality, creativity or sudden insights don't just come out of the blue. They are likely the result of
accumulative thought, experience and hard work that come into play in a timely way.

When this idea is applied to career development, one might think there is a single insightful moment
when everything will become clear in terms of a decision or choice that needs to be made. A career
path suddenly opens or a job opportunity miraculously appears. There is a moment of euphoria, "I've
got it. I know what I'm going to do." In fact, if and when this happens, it is typically a reflection of
previous thoughts and events, perhaps falling into place because of an activity or personal
experience.

For some people, "holistic" and "right-brain" approaches seem less troublesome than the tiresome
traditional linear approaches with all their steps, increments and demanding work. It would be so
much easier to rely on genius, insightful moments and intuition (even luck) to skip across all the
steps to a final worthwhile conclusion. But genius, as the inventor Thomas Edison once cautioned,
has more to do with perspiration than inspiration.

While workplaces may be somewhat unfriendly to right brain thinking, they are much friendlier than
they used to be. In decades past, people in Henry Ford's factories were fired for smiling or laughing
on the job. This was in keeping with Ford's dictum that "When we are at work, we ought to be at
work. When we are at play, we ought to be at play. There is no use trying to mix the two."

Recently our educational institutions have been pressed again for more left-brain rigor. It is assumed
that people need the tools that come with logic and linear thinking if they are to have flashes of
inspiration. Inspiration, like good fortune, favors the well-prepared mind. Just as the ability to play
guitar "naturally" requires many hours of repetition and practice, so the ability to think creatively
generally requires a great deal of less exciting groundwork before those flashes of genius appear.

On the other hand, right-brained people may not always fit easily into a traditional school setting or
workplace. If you read J.D. Salinger's famous book, The Catcher in the Rye, you may recall the
description of the boy who got an F grade in Oral Expression. He kept digressing when he made his
class presentations instead of sticking to the point. However, his meanderings always proved to be
the most interesting parts of his speech to those who were listening. He would have received an A
in a nonlinear thinking class.

Nonlinear thinking takes into account events that represent discontinuity, surprise and uncertainty.
Organizations need such a perspective to handle disruptive change. For instance, linear thinking
strategists have trouble fighting terrorists since they don't seem to have a specific agenda or
coordinated plan of action or site they are trying to capture.

Terrorists want to randomly destroy, which provokes fear and paranoia. They are fighting a
psychological war that is unpredictable. This was very unsettling to Americans after the 9/11
disaster because there was no visible enemy against whom to vent anger and seek revenge. There
was no way to take advantage of air and naval superiority, to use tanks and artillery or apply
advanced technology. To win the war against terrorism, military leaders are trying to use logic but
also learn to "think out of the box."

Forecasting The Future

Linear approximations have been used to predict the state of our economy, and they may work well
for forecasts of one or two years. But in today's dynamic economy, point-to-point based thinking is
rarely accurate more than a few months in advance. Unexpected events, such as terrorist acts and
natural disasters like hurricanes, can wreak havoc with our economy and make it harder to predict
market trends.

Forecasting the future is harder to predict than many experts would like to admit, especially when
they are committed to a particular formula and probable conclusion. For example, some argue that
we still don't have a clear picture of how the earth is warming and contributing factors to make
predictions about future damage. We don't have a clear picture of what the world economy will be
like in the next 25 years (or even five). We are unsure of what new technologies will be developed
over that period of time that could prevent further environmental damage or create new job
opportunities.

There are a great number of famous scientists and researchers who have missed the mark when
trying to predict the future. Some said things couldn't be done. Others judged ideas as having no
practical use and failed to envision how they would be a common feature in everyday life.

Consider these confident predictions from the past.

-There is no likelihood man can ever tap the power of the atom." --Robert Millikan, Nobel Prize
winner in Physics, 1 923.
-Man will never reach the moon regardless of all future scientific advances."- Dr. Lee de
Forest (1873-1961 ), inventory of television.
- "Professor Goddord does not know the relation between action and reaction and the need to
have something better than a vacuum against which to react. He seems to lack the basic
knowledge ladled out daily in high schools."-- 1921 New York Times editorial about Robert
Goddard's revolutionary rocket work.
- "Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons." -- Popular Mechanics, forecasting
the relentless march of science, 1949.
- "I think there is a world market for maybe five computers." -- Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM,
1943.
- "I have traveled the length and breadth of this country and talked with the best people, and I
can assure you that data processing is a fad that won't last out the year."-- The editor-in-chief
of business books for Prentice Hall, 1957.
- "But what ... is it good for?" -- Engineer at the Advanced Computing Systems Division of IBM,
1968, commenting on the microchip.
- "This 'telephone' has too many shortcomings to be seriously considered as a means of
communication. The device is inherently of no value to us."-- Western Union internal memo,
1876.
- "The wireless music box has no imaginable commercial value. Who would pay for a message
sent to nobody in particular?" -- David Sarnoff's associates in response to his urgings
investment in the radio in the 1920s.
-"The concept is interesting and well-formed, but in order to earn better than a 'C,' the idea
must be feasible."-- A Yale University management professor in response to Fred Smith's paper
proposing reliable overnight delivery service. Smith went on to found Federal Express
Corporation.
-"A cookie store is a bad idea. Besides, the market research reports say America likes crispy
cookies, not soft and chewy cookies like you make." -- Response to Debbi Fields' idea of
starting Mrs. Fields' Cookies.
-"We don't like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out."-- Decca Recording Co.
rejecting the Beatles, 1962.
- "If I had thought about it, I wouldn't have done the experiment. The literature was full of
examples that said you can't do this." -- Spencer Silver on the work that led to the unique
adhesives for 3-M "Post-It" Notepads.
-"So we went to Atari and said, 'Hey, we've got this amazing thing, even built with some of your
parts, and what do you think about funding us? Or we'll give it to you. We just want to do it. Pay
our salary, we'll come work for you.' And they said, 'No.' So then we went to Hewlett-Packard,
and they said, 'Hey, we don't need you. You haven't got through college yet."'-- Apple
Computer Inc. founder Steve Jobs on attempts to get Atari and H-P interested in his and Steve
Wozniak's personal computer.

But not every forecaster gets it wrong. In 1900, John Watkins missed when he predicted that the
U.S. population would explode to more than 500 million people by the year 2000 but predicted
correctly the birth of worldwide television and fax machines. Forecaster James Sullivan predicted a
retail system along the lines of Wai-Mart. And Samuel Barton, the nephew of Cornelius Vanderbilt,
predicted that Florida would become both a health resort and a vacation haven. Sometimes
forecasters get it right, sometimes they get it wrong and, very often, they simply miss the size and
scope of things to come.

People are typically concerned with their own small worlds. They are less interested in what may
unfold in the world over time or what happens to "most people." Predicting the outcome of single
case is nearly impossible given all the factors that impinge on a situation and all the things that can
go wrong.

Alan C. Kay is a fellow at Apple Computer Inc., a visionary and one of a few select scientists who
have an independent charter to pursue far-out ideas. His remarks at a 1 971 computer forum at
Stanford University were insightful and still of value in today's world. He said, "The best way to
predict the future is to invent it. This is the century in which you can be proactive about the future;
you don't have to be reactive. The whole idea of having scientists and technology is that those
things you can envision and describe can actually be built."

Ellen Langer (1998), a professor of psychology at Harvard University, wondered:

"…And do we really want to have complete knowledge of the future? It is ironic that freedom and
control are important to us and yet we still seek predictability On the face of it, it would seem that
the two are related If I can predict, I can control A deeper analysis, however, reveals quite a
different picture When we want light, we mindlessly flip the light switch We have no doubt that it will
work, so we don't have to think about it Without doubt, there is no choice Without choice there is
no feeling of control.

Complete predictability would leave us with no need to pay attention to anything any longer And
when would we like to 'know' everything completely so we could stop paying attention? When we are
15, 30 or 60 years old? At what point do we want to close the future and live in the past?"

If we are aware of the uncertainty of going forward, we're unlikely to blame ourselves for our failures
of prediction when looking back. If we allow for uncertainty, we're likely to stay mindful and in the
present.

Positive Uncertainty and Strategies for Change

H.B. Gelatt knew that his early approach to career decision-making, based on the application of
conventional scientific methods, had limitations, as did so many other point-to-point models. He
observed, "the past is not always what it was thought to be, the future is no longer predictable, and
the present is changing more rapidly than ever before."' So, he advocated some major changes that
were in direct contrast to his earlier linear and objective theory (topic 5).

When someone is certain about an outcome, then it seems easy enough to make a decision based
on that certainty. When there is uncertainty, then each choice leads to several possible outcomes
with unknown probabilities. There is an element of risk in making a choice or decision.

Gelatt (1992) proposed a new theory called "'Positive Uncertainty." It was developed in response to
our information society having more data than we can use and the increased communication among
people in the world. He stated that decisions are not always rational and reality is subjective to the
individual.

Positive uncertainty is a decision-making strategy that attempts to use the whole brain. It accepts
uncertainty as the nature of life and emphasizes the need for flexibility. The theory continues to
value rational methods but incorporates the concept that a person must use creative and intuitive
reasoning as well.

According to Gelatt, the future cannot be predicted; it must be imagined and invented. He concluded
that rational theories and strategies are not obsolete; rather, they are no longer sufficient. He also
believed that if one starts with clear objectives and doesn't review or waiver from them, then
choices that could lead to new experiences are discouraged. When we embrace uncertainty, then
we can act with more confidence and comfort even though we may be unsure about what we are is
doing, or how it will turn out.

This approach to careers encourages people to become more open-minded and accepting of
change, anticipating it rather than reacting to it. The idea is to help people learn effective ways of
creating their future, not just coping with problems.

"Know what you want but don't be sure, be positive about the uncertainty.

----- H.B. Gelatt

There are some helpful strategies that can be used with the theory of Positive Uncertainty. Let's
see how they might work.

Seeing the Big Picture. This requires you to look through a career development camera with different
lenses. The wide-angle lens lets you see the forest or the whole system rather than just a few trees
or small pieces. For instance, you look at the medical field, not just the specific occupations of
doctor or nurse. You are seeing the system and going beyond its individual parts. You see the whole
picture, and the potential within.

In another situation, you might ask, about how a particular job fits into the purpose of an
organization or scheme of a company. Of course, a zoom lens would let you zero in on the trees in
the forest and take note of individual parts. In this case you study a job and job functions more
specifically.

If you use a telescope, then you are trying to see beyond the horizon. What is the future of this
company, this job, or this field?

Imagine the Future. This encourages you to think of some possible scenarios that could happen.
Imagining how things might be enables you to think of ways you could behave in a given situation.
You might consider how to act in order to make things happen or to avoid unpleasant surprises. You
ask yourself, "What kind of a future do I want?"

Dream Some Impossible Dreams. While trying to peer into the future, visualize some positive pictures.
As Gelatt once said, "Most of us dread precisely and dream vaguely. We need to learn to do the
opposite." This strategy encourages you to stretch your ideas and dream of what might be. If you
can think it or dream about it, then there is a possibility that it could happen.

It was writer and philosopher Henry David Thoreau who said, "If you built castles in the air, your work
need not be lost; this is where they should be; now put foundations under them."

How do you make your positive dreams come true? What must happen to make them become a
reality?

Look Through Other People's Glasses. Sometimes it can help to pause and try to see things from a
different perspective. Imagine putting on another person's pair of glasses. You might also try on
different hats. What's it like to function in a particular role or job?

As you see things from different angles and perspectives, you can also learn to reframe ideas.
Instead of saying, "I would hate that job," you might try, "That job strikes me as too stressful and
would make me nervous." Or, "I can see how exciting that job might be for somebody who can stand
pressure."

Use Metaphor as a Method. It can be helpful to think holistically and this requires that you activate
your right brain. Using metaphors or symbols can create images in your mind that will help the
rational left, brain connect with the emotional and intuitive side. A picture, even in the mind's eye, can
be worth a thousand words.

- A job search is like a trip to the mall: You try stuff on, and if you're patient, you find
something worth buying.
- A job search is like a treasure hunt: You dig around and, even if it takes time to find the
treasure, the process itself can be fun.
- When you contact someone and it proves useless, relate it to the experience of checking out
a library book that did not turn out to be what you expected. No negative emotion expended,
no sense of rejection; you just return it and try another book.

The metaphor "glass ceiling" is used to draw attention to discrimination practices in the workplace.
Women have complained that they cannot advance to top-level management positions in some
companies, even though they can see the job and are competent enough to hold it, because there is
an invisible glass ceiling. "I couldn't get through it, even though I was more experienced and qualified
than the man who was given the position."

In this case, the metaphor gives a name to a social process that might otherwise remain hidden. It
tends to legitimize the experiences of those who have been subjected to discrimination at that level
and perhaps forewarn those who are still planning their careers. It has been credited for helping to
mobilize actions for equal employment opportunities.

The ideas, concepts, and strategies that are part of the Positive Uncertainty theory offer a dynamic
approach to career development. It provide:; a new framework of reflection and imagination where
individuality is encouraged and expressed.

Chaos Theory

Career theorists are increasingly interested in approaches that characterize the individual a1d the
environment in more complex and dynamic terms than the traditional person-environment
approaches. There are many contextual factors in career development and few researchers have
explored the role of unplanned events in career choice.

Recently, several authors have begun to investigate the potential of chaos theory to explain career
behavior. Chaos theory challenges traditional approaches to scientific explanation. It emphasizes the
lack of predictability at the most infinite level, even when they have the appearance of stability at a
most obvious level. In reality, minor events can have a disproportionate influence on outcomes.

Career development and the influences upon it are highly complex. Furthermore, it is increasingly
accepted that career behavior is influenced by unplanned and chance events to a much more
significant degree than has been typically acknowledged.

By including a wide array of influences and acknowledging the central role of chance events in
careers, there is a significant challenge to accurate prediction. This challenge, because can be
useful, when providing career advice, career development professionals are explicitly or implicitly
making predictions about the suitability of d1tterent courses of action or jobs tor a client based on
past behavior, knowledge, skills or interests.

Traditional approaches to career development typically aim to understand the key attributes of the
person and then match these to compatible or congruent environments (jobs). A recurring theme in
the criticisms of traditional person-environment fit models is that they are too limited. Their
descriptions of how factors interact are too static, given the complexities and change that are
observed in modern careers.

We also know that order follows chaos. Creative and productive people tolerate ambiguity. They
believe that by attending to and processing problems, eventually a more orderly organization
emerges, as well as new thoughts that lead to innovation, workable solutions and more resourceful
relationships. Randomness becomes connectedness and a new order of things results.

Think of times when you were in the early stages of a writing project. There might have been a
profusion of thoughts and ideas rushing to your mind. You were probably searching for an angle, a
point that could spark order and fluency, a framework that eventually would lead to a meaningful
sequence.

This movement from chaos to order is significant for a person to have a sense of unity and
completeness. Without it, there is a mental thrashing about that creates turmoil, accompanied by
stress and anxiety. Perhaps this is one reason that talking about jobs and careers is stressful for
people who are unsettled and struggling to manage the many factors impinging on their place in the
world of work.

Once the chaotic struggle is resolved, it may also account for why many people strive for comfort
and reduced conflict in their occupation. They may settle for less than what might otherwise be,
because they fail to see that, with work and planning, some new order will come forward out of
chaos and they worry that it will not be as satisfying as that which they already have.

Career planning is often portrayed as an organized and orderly process. In reality, it is more chaotic
and there are an unpredictable number of factors that influence opportunities and choices. Chaos
presents the unexpected, which can mean fortuitous opportunities.

One man who intended to be an attorney began working in juvenile court to help pay his way through
law school. He became increasingly fascinated with the youth culture and considered changing his
major to social work so that he could help needy children and their families. His success as a
counselor in the juvenile court system came as a result of his personality, ability to relate to young
people, and his sincere respect for them as he listened to their stories. They trusted him.

This experience, in turn, led the man to reconsider his career options. He decided to attend
graduate school and enter the field of mental health counseling. Today, he is the administrator of an
organization that provides counseling and rehabilitation services to youth who live a low
socioeconomic community. His experiences were accumulative as he reached a high level of
competency. He enjoys being held in high regard and says, "I feel lucky to be in a career that is hard
but so personally rewarding."

Serendipity Theory

Closely connected to Chaos Theory is the theory of Serendipity. It provides some additional insights
into the complex and chaotic phases of societal interactions and transformations, where the
outcomes are not known.

Are careers the result of careful planning or accidental events? Do they come about by hard work or
chance? How many people can say they had planned to be where they are today? What part does
serendipity play in career development?

Serendipity can be described as discovering something useful or pleasurable quite by accident. One
comedian said it was like a man looking for a needle in a haystack and finding the farmer's daughter.
In our case, however, it might be defined more broadly as unexpected or seemingly unlikely events
that provide opportunities or obstacles affecting the subsequent course of one's career.

When some successful business people were brought together at a conference and encour3ged to
talk candidly about their careers, a common statement was, "I was at the right place at the right
time." Others were: "It was an accident that I fell into my first job." "It seemed like luck was on my
side at the moment." "I can't explain it, perhaps it was just fate."

Many of the major discoveries in biology, medicine and industry have come about unexpectedly, or at
least had an element of chance in them. Many useful items were invented unintentionally. These
include nylon, penicillin, x-rays, teflon and dynamite.

For example, George deMestral got the idea for velcro when his curiosity led him to use a
microscope to figure out why cockleburs stuck to his jacket after he was out for a walk. Chemist
Harry Coover discovered superglue when the polymer he was examining got stuck in his lab
instruments. Quite independently, superglue led to another fortuitous find years later, when a
policeman, realized that fumes from the glue condensed around his fingerprints. He stumbled on a
forensic technique that is now used worldwide. And in 2000, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was
awarded to three scientists who worked out how to make plastics conduct electricity. Their work
began when a foreign researcher mistranslated instructions and added a chemical a thousand times
more concentrated than usual to an experiment.

Most people seek to implement career objectives consistent with their personal identity and
interests. They at least have a general plan. Because chance events can disrupt such plans or tempt
an individual to abandon one established plan for a promising alternative, chance events can also
challenge one's career identity. Chance events can create stress and uncertainty.

Career counselors, in general, tend to underestimate the role of chance factors in the career
development of their clients. They may encourage too rigid an implementation of a career plan that
fails to take advantage of new and unexpected opportunities as they arise. At the other extreme,
some job search and placement specialists often push their clients to pursue any suitable
opportunity that presents itself and perhaps too easily compromise their career aspirations and
identity.

If you embrace this theory of career development, you believe that your career path is that not
likely to be a straight one and you will seek opportunities to go outside your comfort zone in order
to learn more about yourself and the world about you. You may, on occasion, choose to do
something that is unusual for you, maybe paralleling another interest that does not seem related to
your professional goals. In the end, all of the events are in someway related.

One of H.B. Gelatt's "Rules of the Road" is: Try to find things you're not looking for. He said,
"Serendipity isn't just a happy accident; it requires that you seek something and be receptive to
something else." People who have had successful careers can recall instances when they benefited
greatly by meeting someone or learning something new under unexpected circumstances.

One counselor who specializes in helping people relocate and find new jobs said, "It's tough to
always remain open and willing to circulate outside our immediate circles of activities, coworkers,
colleagues and friends. As working professionals we are often busy, tired, preoccupied. It can be
hard to find the energy to open our vision, widen our focus, and push the envelope of our work-life."

A professor said to a student, "You seem to have a knack for this subject and you should consider
majoring in it." A neighbor said, "You ought to think of making a career out of your talent." Sometimes
the message that should be heard is, "Keep this talent somewhere in your life, not necessarily as a
money maker."

John Krumboltz, a well-known psychologist who focuses on career issues, provided a great deal of
research on how behaviorism affected career decision-making. More recently, he has also proposed
that successes often result from "planned happenstance"-creating and transforming unplanned
events into career opportunities.

Krumboltz said that since we know that chance factors play an important role in most people's
careers, we should cultivate the capacity to create, recognize and incorporate chance events into
our ongoing career management. He further suggested that, while most people would admit that
unplanned events played a role in their careers, they may not see how their own actions
contributed.

Many will readily acknowledge that serendipitous events such as personal and professional
connections or being in the right place at the right time contributed to their success. But, those
same individuals will often overlook what they did to get to know those significant people or the
actions they took that led them to be in the right place at the right time.

So, how can you use an understanding of planned happenstance to your career's advantage?

Krumboltz suggests:

1. Recognize that planned happenstance is already in your career history. Consider:

- How have unplanned events influenced your career so far?
- What actions did you take before or after an unplanned event that led to a positive outcome
for your career?

2. Use your curiosity to lead you to new opportunities for learning and exploration. Consider:

- What arouses your curiosity?
- What are you voluntarily reading?
- How could you further explore what excites you?

3. Take concrete steps to produce desirable chance events. Consider:

- What steps could you take to create a chance event, such as visiting sites of interest, taking
classes or networking via email with others working in your area of interest?
- How can you act now to increase the likelihood of a desired event?

Career serendipity is more likely to happen where you're around successful people. Go to events
that attract successful people. Let them know you're contemplating a job change and are open to a
wide range of options. You just may learn of an opportunity that never would have entered your
thoughts.

Serendipity does not mean leaving your career prospects to chance. It means being open to
unexpected opportunities and putting yourself in a position to come across new possibilities. Making
serendipity work for you involves looking beyond stereotypes and labels, relying on a broad a range
of people and resources, and making your job search a part of your everyday conversation.

Your curiosity can lead you in new and unexpected directions. You may "chance" upon something that
will be significant for you. For example, you may, in your career search and exploration, have a
chance encounter with someone who refers you to a friend who ends up hiring you. Or perhaps you
come across information that is so interesting, you join a club, meet new contacts, and end up
heading in a new career direction.
Serendipity is more than just winning a raffle. It's the result of the curiosity, efforts and activities that
lead you to unexpected knowledge and opportunities. In our case, it is perhaps a positive outcome
that results from searching, exploring, discovering and making career choices. These will be the
focus of our next topics.

Career development theories might help explain how people develop certain traits and abilities, as
well as personalities. An important concept, however, is that career development is also about
change. Theories are based on the context in which people live their lives and how variables interact
to influence decision-making. Theories might be a starting place for understanding some factors but
they seldom provide a step-by-step model for making choices and final decisions. Now, let the
journey continue and the search begin.