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Alexandria (Biblical Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE, Alexandria under the Ptolemaic dynasty soon became a unique cultural center that led the Hellenistic world. Cultural interchange created a milieu in which some of the most important Jewish and Christian thinkers would thrive. The Septuagint (LXX) was produced here, largely in the 3rd century BCE. With the vibrant intellectual hubs of the Alexandrian museon and library, a distinctive Alexandrian school of philosophy, science, and medicine developed that included such figures as Eratosthenes and Ptolemy. It is likely that many works of Jewish literature written in Greek were composed here, though their provenance cannot be established with certainty. There was a Jewish school of allegorical exegesis, evidenced in the work of Aristobulus and Philo. Paul’s influential associate Apollos came from this city (Acts 18: 24–8). After the uprising of 115–17 CE, when the Alexandrian Jewish community was decimated, allegorical exegesis was continued in the Christian catechetical school, headed by Pantaenus, Clement, and then Origen. Christian teachers such as Basilides, Valentinus, and Isidore were also active in the city. Traditionally the evangelist Mark was said to have died in Alexandria (see, for example, Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. 2: 16, 24), where his tomb was venerated for centuries before his remains were brought to Venice in 828 CE. A useful bibliographical Internet resource for the site may be found online. A remarkable 3-D tour of ancient Alexandria is also provided online.
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  5. History
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  7. The most important contexts for biblical literature are the Hellenistic or Ptolemaic periods (from the foundation by Alexander in 321 to 30 BCE), the subsequent Roman period, and also the era of late Antiquity when Alexandria was a leading Christian city in which biblical texts were conserved and interpreted. General overviews are found in Bell 1948 and Pollard and Reid 2006. Hirst and Silk 2004, Harris and Ruffini 2004, and Steen 1993 collect conference papers on a wide range of topics. An early exploration of issues of ethnicity is Davis 1951. Of key concern in numerous studies are the relationships between different ethnic groupings. Guide books can contain valuable information about the city’s past. Forster 2004, first published in 1922, is a good example. General illustrated introductions are provided in Haag 2004.
  8.  
  9. Bell, Harold I. Egypt, from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest. Oxford: Clarendon, 1948.
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  11. Concise and insightful examination of a wide period of history, with a focus on the fate of Hellenism in Egypt as a whole.
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  13. Davis, Simon. Race-Relations in Ancient Egypt: Greek, Egyptian, Hebrew, Roman. London: Methuen, 1951.
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  15. A slightly dated but valuable discussion of the question of relationships between ethnic groups.
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  17. Forster, E. M. Alexandria: A History and a Guide. London: Andre Deutsch, 2004.
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  19. Beautifully written, well-illustrated and thoroughly researched historical introduction to the city, first published in 1922, this edition includes guides to the Pharos and Pharillon. The first section provides a history from the city’s foundation to the modern period; the second is a guide to walks from the main square, with forays west and east.
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  21. Haag, Michael. Alexandria Illustrated. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 2004.
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  23. Overview of Alexandria’s history with good illustrations.
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  25. Harris, W. V., and G. Ruffini, eds. Ancient Alexandria between Egypt and Greece. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
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  27. A collection of thirteen papers from a conference at Columbia University, New York, in 2002, focusing on integrating new archeological and papyrological discoveries into understanding the history and character of Alexandria. The subjects are diverse, and there are good indices of subjects and papyri, with maps and illustrations.
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  29. Hirst, Anthony, and Michael Silk, eds. Alexandria, Real and Imagined. Centre for Hellenic Studies, King’s College London, Publications 5. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004.
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  31. This volume springs from a conference at King’s College London in 1997. It is wide in scope, but there are some important papers for the period of concern here on art, especially tomb art, and the Acta Alexandrinorum and the Jewish community.
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  33. Pollard, J., and H. Reid. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern Mind. London: Viking, 2006.
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  35. A general review of events and people that acts as a good introductory work.
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  37. Steen, Gareth L., ed. Alexandria, the Site and the History. New York: New York University Press, 1993.
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  39. The expertise of local Egyptian archaeologists and historians is drawn on to present Alexandria’s whole history, with numerous photographs, with good introductions to the ancient period.
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  41. The Hellenistic or Ptolemaic Period
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  43. The key work is that of Fraser 1972, a monumental study that remains essential, with a good introduction also provided in Bernand 1995. Wider discussions of social aspects of Hellenistic Egypt as a whole, such as those in Bingen 2007, Weber 2010, Bilde 1992, and Goudriaan 1988, have enabled a more nuanced study of different ethnic groups within the overarching cultural sway of Hellenism, with important reference to papyrological and epigraphic evidence.
  44.  
  45. Bernand, A. Alexandrie des Ptolémées. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1995.
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  47. A general introduction, with numerous illustrations.
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  49. Bilde, Per, ed. Ethnicity in Hellenistic Egypt. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1992.
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  51. A collection of eight essays concerning the definition of Hellenic and Egyptian identity in Ptolemaic Egypt. Ethnic identity is considered by reference to language, behavior, science, culture, name, and entitlement to participate in the gymnasium. The question of the impact of ethnicity for the Ptolemaic administration is considered.
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  53. Bingen, Jean. Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007.
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  55. English translations of articles first appearing in French. Bingen reflects on societal and administrative structures and the influence of Hellenism. Draws on literary, epigraphical, and papyrological sources to analyze how Greeks and Egyptians interacted politically, economically, and socially in the Hellenistic period.
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  57. Fraser, Peter M. Ptolemaic Alexandria. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
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  59. Masterful study of historical, archaeological and epigraphical evidence with extensive notes and index. Fraser covers the city during its first three centuries: its population, trade, religion, literature, culture, and scholarship. Volume 1 is the history, Volume 2 has the notes, and Volume 3 is the extremely useful index.
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  61. Goudriaan, Koen. Ethnicity in Ptolemaic Egypt. Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 5. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1988.
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  63. Applies ethnicity theory to the problem of determining “Greeks” (Hellenes) and “Egyptians” in texts, with a focus on papyri of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE. With appreciation of complex issues, Goudriaan considers the importance of language in defining categories and tends to question the importance of ethnicity in the legal system in this period.
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  65. Weber, Gregor, ed. Alexandreia und das ptolemäische Ägypten: Kulturbegegnungen in hellenistischer Zeit. Berlin: Verlag Antike, 2010.
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  67. Collection of articles about cultural interactions between Hellenic and Egyptian cultures, regarding Alexandrian society, economy, the royal dynasty, religion, and literature. The cultural interactions demonstrate how this forged innovations in various aspects of Alexandrian thought.
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  69. The Roman Period
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  71. The long period of Roman rule in Alexandria began with the arrival of Octavian in 30 BCE and ended with the Arab conquest of 641 CE, though the post-Constantinian period (when Alexandria gradually became more of a Christian city) should be thought of as a different category. The question is how much Alexandria changed administratively and culturally from the time of the Ptolemies in the Early Roman period, matters explored particularly in Capponi 2005 and Capponi 2010. Bagnall and Frier 1994 and Delia 1991 indicate how the population negotiated the conflicting ethnic identities and citizenship issues. Lewis 1983 and Lewis 1986 focus on Jews in the city, while Sly 1996 views Alexandria through the writings of Philo.
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  73. Bagnall, Roger S., and Bruce W. Frier. The Demography of Roman Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  74. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511584053Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. A statistical survey of about 300 census documents from Roman Egypt from 12 to 259 CE, largely from the Fayyum, with diagrams that illustrate households. This sheds much light on marriage, family, fertility, and mortality. This is useful for the Alexandrian context even though no papyri are available for the city itself.
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  77. Capponi, Livia. Augustan Egypt: The Creation of a Roman Province. London: Routledge, 2005.
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  79. Investigates Egypt’s transition from a Hellenistic kingdom to a Roman province with special reference to the administrative changes brought about by the introduction of the census, new taxation system, Roman law, and the immigration of Roman officials.
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  81. Capponi, Livia. Roman Egypt. Classical World Series. Bristol, UK: Classical, 2010.
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  83. A shorter book by that outlines the features of Roman Egypt in an introductory way, with effective use of papyrological evidence to illuminate culture and society.
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  85. Delia, Diana. Alexandrian Citizenship during the Roman Principate. American Classical Studies 23. Atlanta: Scholars, 1991.
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  87. Study of the categories of citizenship, using the comparative evidence of the Gnomon of the Idios Logos: Roman citizens, elite astoi, and Egyptians (= peregrini). Focus on the question of whether Alexandrian citizenship was a necessary precursor to Roman citizenship, positions of civic responsibility, definitions of named groups including the Alexandrian boule.
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  89. Lewis, Naphtali. Life in Egypt under Roman Rule. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983.
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  91. Explores Egyptian papyrology from 30 BCE to 285 CE using a thematic approach, focusing on daily life.
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  93. Lewis, Naphtali. Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford: Clarendon, 1986.
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  95. An introduction to papyrology with an emphasis on ordinary people’s lives and relationships between Hellenes and Egyptians.
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  97. Sly, Dorothy. Philo’s Alexandria. London: Routledge, 1996.
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  99. A themed study of Alexandria through the lens of Philo’s writings, with an interest in the 1st century CE.
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  101. The Byzantine Period or Late Antiquity
  102.  
  103. The city of Athanasius was the reference point for Christian monasticism and the struggle of variant philosophies and theologies, while Greco-Roman philosophy also continued to thrive (Watts 2006). The city of this period has been explored most extensively and vividly in Haas 1997. During the period of late Antiquity, Alexandria and Egypt witnessed the growth of Christian churches and dramatic Christian dogmatic debates, as explored by Goehring and Timbie 2007 and Pearson 2004. It also continued a strong tradition of Greco-Roman philosophy and religion through to the late 4th and 5th century CE. The need for a holistic appraisal of society and culture is shown in Bagnall 1993; Bagnall 2007; and Davis 2008; and Egberts, et al. 2002 demonstrates how the cultural mix may be seen in comparative perspective by looking at Panopolis.
  104.  
  105. Bagnall, S. Roger. Egypt in Late Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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  107. Using literary, papyrological, and archaeological evidence, Bagnall offers detailed information on society, economy, religions and culture of Egypt from Diocletian (284 CE) to the mid-5th century. Explores the administrative transformations of the 4th century and the role of the military, as well as the interactions between urban and rural environments.
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  109. Bagnall, S. Roger. Egypt in the Byzantine World 300–700. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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  111. The first comprehensive survey of Egypt and Alexandria in late Antiquity, with twenty-one papers that discuss the history, society, economy, culture, religious institutions, art and architecture of this period, which includes the first half-century of Arab rule.
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  113. Davis, J. Stephen. Coptic Christology in Practice: Incarnation and Divine Participation in Late Antique and Medieval Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  114. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199258628.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. Uses interdisciplinary methods derived from the fields of social history, discourse theory, ritual studies, and the visual arts in order to reconstruct growth of Christian identity in 5th-century Egypt. Traces the trajectory of the Coptic Church’s theological and cultural transition from late Antiquity to Dar al-Islam.
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  117. Egberts, Arno, B. Paul Muhs, and Jacques Van Der Vliet, eds. Perspectives on Panopolis: An Egyptian Town from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  119. Panopolis (Akhmim), in southern Egypt, was an important center reflecting the cultural life of Alexandria. It became a major center of monasticism and was the birthplace of the Gnostic alchemist Zosimos. This volume brings together seventeen contributions on epigraphy, papyri, funerary texts, literature, and local monastic architecture.
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  121. Goehring, E. James, and Janet A. Timbie. The World of Early Egyptian Christianity. Language, Literature and Social Context. Washington, DC: Catholic University of American Press, 2007.
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  123. A collection of essays on the origin and development of forms of Coptic Christianity. Covers everything from language and literature to aspects of social life, with the focus on monasticism. The latter focus includes investigations of the literature and history of the Pachomian movement. Explores the Jewish (Philonic) legacy as well as ongoing polemics.
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  125. Haas, Christopher. Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
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  127. A wide-ranging and reflective discussion of the city’s physical character, as well as its economic life, social structure, and political authority. There is a strong emphasis on the city’s different Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities and how these interacted.
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  129. Pearson, A. Birger. Gnosticism and Christianity in Roman and Coptic Egypt. New York: T&T Clark International, 2004.
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  131. Outlines the development of early Christianity in Egypt, including the growth of the hierarchy, the spread of Christianity from Alexandria into the countryside, and the origins of monasticism. Discusses aspects of Gnostic and Hermetic literature. The author also examines topics from the Acts of Mark, to Enoch, to Gnostic ritual and iconography.
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  133. Watts, Edward J. City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
  134. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520244214.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Compares two important cities and shows how differently education developed while being influenced by local power structures and urban context of each polis. This volume discusses a number of significant Greco-Roman and Christian intellectuals, among them are Ammonius Saccas, Origen, Hypatia, Olympiodorus, Proclus, and Damascius.
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  137. Archaeology
  138.  
  139. Most of ancient Alexandria lies beneath the modern city of the same name, but because of the changing coastline the northern edge is now submerged. This has led to some successful projects of underwater archaeology, reported in Goddio, et al. 1998 and Goddio and Clauss 2006. In addition, excavations largely led by French and Polish expeditions have exposed some important sections of the city, as well as tombs and cemetery complexes (necropoleis). There are a vast number of archaeological studies continually coming from ongoing research. Some key introductory works for understanding the light archaeological excavations have shed on the ancient city are Empereur 1998, Empereur 2002, and Tkaczow 1993. The lost art and architecture of the city has been reconstructed in McKenzie 2007, and tombs are well explored in regard to questions of society in Venit 2002.
  140.  
  141. Empereur, Jean-Yves. Alexandria Rediscovered. New York: Braziller, 1998.
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  143. Useful review of the French excavations of Alexandria and an examination of the ancient city for a general audience, with numerous photographs by Stephanie Compoint and plans. Translation of Alexandrie redécouverte.
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  145. Empereur, Jean-Yves. Alexandria: Past, Present and Future. London: Thames and Hudson, 2002.
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  147. General introduction for a wide readership with an underlying focus on issues of conservation.
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  149. Goddio, Franck, André Bernand, Etienne Bernand, et al. Alexandria, the Submerged Royal Quarters. London: Editions Periplus, 1998.
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  151. Presents the royal quarters found in the eastern harbor of contemporary Alexandria and explored by the French underwater archaeology team. Discussions of the surveying techniques, topography, engineering, the ancient authors on the great harbor and palaces, inscriptions (with special emphasis on the emperor Caracalla), sculptures, and Pharaonica.
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  153. Goddio, Franck, and Manfred Clauss. Egypt’s Sunken Treasures. New York: Prestel, 2006.
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  155. A large book designed to accompany an exhibition is full of stunning photographs presenting the wealth of archaeological material found in ten years of French underwater archaeological investigations. The evidence relates to monumental buildings but also to everyday life, religion and trade, relating to Alexandria, Herakleion, and Canopus.
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  157. McKenzie, Judith. The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt: 300 BC to AD 700. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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  159. An original and detailed investigation of architectural forms of ancient Alexandria and their influence. Using archaeology and a far-reaching comparative method, McKenzie reconstructs types by reference to existing buildings and monuments in the ancient world. Considers also the relationship between Hellenic and Egyptian forms and the resulting hybridity.
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  161. Tkaczow, Barbara. Topography of Ancient Alexandria. Warsaw, Poland: Zakład Archeologii Śródziemnomorskiej, Polskiej Akadmii Nauk, 1993.
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  163. Examines the archaeology relating to different periods of Alexandria’s history, with useful plans.
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  165. Venit, M. S. The Monumental Tombs of Ancient Alexandria. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  167. Investigation into excavations of elite tombs and burial complexes and an attempt to read these as social documents. Presents the growing hybridity of the funerary art with the understanding of the population under discussion as being culturally fundamentally Hellenic (and Roman).
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  169. Epigraphy
  170.  
  171. There is a growing body of epigraphic material being brought to light by archaeological activities in the late 20th to early 21st centuries. Inscriptions relating to the Jewish communities of Alexandria have been collected in Horbury and Noy 1992. The remainder may be found in the now-outdated Breccia 1978 and in the updates of Bernand 2001 and Kayser 1994.
  172.  
  173. Bernand, Étienne. Inscriptions grecques d’Alexandrie ptolemaïque. Cairo, Egypt: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 2001.
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  175. A corpus of Greek inscriptions from the Ptolemaic period.
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  177. Breccia, Evaristo, ed. Inscriptiones Graecae Aegypti. Vol. 2, Inscriptiones nunc Alexandria in Museo (1911). Chicago: Ares, 1978.
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  179. Standard presentation of Alexandrian inscriptions, although these are now out of date thanks to recent excavations (see Bernand 2001 and Kayser 1994).
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  181. Horbury, William, and David Noy. Jewish Inscriptions of Greco-Roman Egypt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  183. A useful collection of dedicatory and burial inscriptions illustrating the Jewish community of the city.
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  185. Kayser, François. Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines, non funéraires, d’Alexandrie impériale, I-III s. apr. J.C. Cairo, Egypt: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1994.
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  187. A focus on non-funerary inscriptions here creates a considerable dossier of inscriptions from temples in Roman Alexandria.
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  189. The Jewish Community of Alexandria
  190.  
  191. Key questions for studies of Jews in ancient Alexandria have concerned their status in law and what rights the Jewish politeuma possessed in terms of legal administration (see Goodenough 1929 and Modrzejewski 1995), as well as social conflict with the Hellenes (see Kasher 1985, Tcherikover 1985, and Modrzejewski 1993). This conflict manifested itself in several violent episodes, the most notable being the riots of 38 CE (Philo wrote extensively on the circumstances surrounding these), and the violence of 115–117 CE, which led to the near-annihilation of the Jewish community of Alexandria and all Egypt. For both Barclay 1996 and Smallwood 1981 Alexandrian Jews can be seen as representative of many other diaspora communities. The relationship between Jews and the homeland is well explored in Pearce 2004.
  192.  
  193. Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexandra to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE). Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1996.
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  195. Over half of this book deals with Alexandria and Egypt. A comprehensive introduction and ideal starting point, this work looks at the political and social history of Jews in Egypt, with coverage of interaction and clashes with their Gentile neighbors and questions of assimilation among Egyptian Jews.
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  197. Goodenough, Erwin R. The Jurisprudence of the Jewish Courts in Egypt. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1929.
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  199. Discusses the autonomous legislative processes of the Jewish community in Alexandria as a self-standing politeuma.
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  201. Kasher, Aryeh. The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt: The Struggle for Equal Rights. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1985.
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  203. The historical chronology is much briefer than in Tcherikover and Barclay, with a focus on the social and political status of the Jews in Egypt and the evolution of this in Hellenistic and Roman times. Kasher looks at Jewish communities in the surrounding countryside in comparison with Alexandria and focuses on Jewish status and rights in the larger society.
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  205. Modrzejewski, Joseph Mélèze. “How to be a Greek and Yet a Jew in Hellenistic Alexandria.” In Diasporas in Antiquity. Edited by Shaye J. D. Cohen and Ernest S. Frerichs, 65–92. Atlanta: Scholars, 1993.
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  207. Looks at Jewish identity in Hellenistic Egypt, in relation to the notion of diaspora. Investigates perceptions of Hellenism and Jewishness, as well as the civic status of the Jewish community in Ptolemaic Egypt and the compatibility of Judaism with membership in the larger Hellenic community.
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  209. Modrzejewski, Joseph Mélèze. The Jews of Egypt: From Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian. Translated by Robert Cornman. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995.
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  211. Offers a wider chronology than the introductions of Barclay and Tcherikover. It is divided into chronological sections and has more of a “case-study” feel, which means it does not have all of their detailed historical minutiae; however, Modrzejewski instead brings the past to life in a vivid and topical manner.
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  213. Pearce, Sarah. “Jerusalem as Mother-City in the Writings of Philo of Alexandria.” In Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire. Edited by John Barclay, 19–37. London: T&T Clark International, 2004.
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  215. Considers Philo’s statement that Alexandrian Jews saw Jerusalem as their metropolis (“mother-city”) or true homeland and explores the ongoing relevance of the Temple. Analyzes Kasher’s views on diaspora identity in considering whether Philo presents tensions between Jerusalem as mother-city and Alexandria as residence.
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  217. Smallwood, Mary. The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian: A Study in Political Relations. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1981.
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  219. Wide review of diaspora Jewish communities from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE, with an emphasis on political relations with Rome. Chapter 10 is a worthy discussion of Jews in Alexandria and Egypt. See pp. 220–255.
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  221. Tcherikover, Victor. Hellenistic Civilisation and the Jews. New York: Atheneum, 1985.
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  223. The second half investigates Hellenistic civilization in the diaspora as a whole, but there is much regarding Alexandria. Looks at the political history, structure of Jewish society within Greek cities, and issues of economy, society, and culture.
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  225. Religious Cults of Alexandria
  226.  
  227. The Ptolemaic dynasty of Alexandria developed a Hellenized form of traditional Egyptian religion in the cult of Serapis (see Fraser 1972 and Stambaugh 1972). The cult of Serapis (and that of Isis) soon traveled out from Alexandria to become important throughout the Greco-Roman world, so studies of the subject often relate to material found far from Alexandria even though they inform devotions in the city (Tran Tam Tinh 1983). A good attempt to understand the Serapeum on the basis of archaeological components and comparative material has been made in McKenzie, et al. 2004.
  228.  
  229. Fraser, Peter M. Ptolemaic Alexandria. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
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  231. Discussion of the religious cults of the city and the innovations of the Ptolemaic dynasty. See pp. 246–254.
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  233. McKenzie, Judith S., Sheila Gibson, and A. T. Reyes. “Reconstructing the Serapeum in Alexandria from the Archaeological Evidence.” Journal of Roman Studies 94 (2004): 73–114.
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  235. Detailed survey of the archaeological remains and literary attestations. The authors reconstruct the Serapeum through to its destruction in 391 and renovation for Christian use. The appendix examines photographs of columns taken in archaeological investigations from 1898 to 1901, indicating a classically Greek style. With an appendix on pp. 115–119 by Judith S. McKenzie and Günter Grimm.
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  237. Stambaugh, John E. Sarapis under the Early Ptolemies. Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l’Empire Romain 25. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1972.
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  239. Explores how Serapis was a fusion of Osiris and Apis, which was not invented by the Ptolemies but developed by them with reference to Dionysus and others deities and could have different presentations.
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  241. Tran Tam Tinh, V. Sérapis Debout: Corpus des monuments de Sérapis debout et étude iconographique. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1983.
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  243. Broad assembly and discussion of a great range of evidence about the ancient cult of Serapis.
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  245. Alexandrian Intellectual Life
  246.  
  247. With the Museon and Library at its center, Alexandria was home to a great many important philosophers: it was here that allegorical reading, first developed by the Stoics on the work of Homer, became a key form of Jewish and Christian interpretation. Dawson 1992 and Niehoff 2011 consider how there were interesting influences from this scholarship on Jewish hermeneutics, and van den Hoek 1997 explores similar Christian interpretations. The diversity and cross-fertilization of ideas within the city resulted in innovations and fusions, and Méla and Möri 2014 explore these with a particular focus on the city itself and its intellectual ambiance. The question of the library’s foundation and its vicissitudes has been debated by Parsons 1952 and MacLeod 2001, with questions raised regarding attestations that it suffered some damage at the time of Octavian’s arrival. Progressiveness in gender roles within Jewish philosophy has been explored in Taylor 2003, and a somewhat syncretistic spiritual philosophy of Alexandrian Judaism has been defined in the seminal study Goodenough 1935.
  248.  
  249. Dawson, David. Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
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  251. Important examination of the allegorical technique from its origins to the work of Philo and Clement, with an argument concerning its relationship to a philosophy espousing social and cultural change.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Goodenough, Erwin R. By Light, Light: The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1935.
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  255. Explores the work of Philo and other Jewish Alexandrian writers within a mystical tradition that essentially converts Judaism into a Hellenistic mystery religion.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. MacLeod, Roy, ed. The Library of Alexandria: Centre of Learning in the Ancient World. London: I. B. Tauris, 2001.
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  259. Collection of articles on the single theme of the library, largely focusing on the Hellenistic era, and encompassing features of distinctively Alexandrian scholarship.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Méla, Charles, and Frédérick Möri, eds. Alexandrie la divine. Geneva, Switzerland: La Balconnière, 2014.
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  263. The volume presents a rich collection of sixty scholars and their interdisciplinary research, all dedicated to the cultural, philosophical, and intellectual legacy of Alexandria from its Ptolemaic origins until the end of the Roman period.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Niehoff, Maren. Jewish Exegesis and Homeric Scholarship in Alexandria. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  266. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511732324Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Examines Jewish exegesis and demonstrates how it responds to Homeric scholarship and questions of textual integrity as developed in the Alexandrian Museon by interpreters such as Aristarchus. An influential study showing the cross-fertilization of ideas in the Alexandrian intellectual milieu.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Parsons, Edward A. The Library of Alexandria: Glory of the Hellenic World. London: Cleaver-Hume, 1952.
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  271. With this history of the library from its origins to its destruction, Parsons is skeptical of sources that suggest that there was significant damage done to the library at the time of Octavian’s arrival in 30 CE, seeing this evidence as late and inconsistent.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Taylor, Joan. Jewish Women Philosophers of First-Century Alexandria: Philo’s “Therapeutae” Reconsidered. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  275. A contextualizing investigation into the “Therapeutae” of Philo’s De Vita Contemplativa, situating the group within the wider Jewish allegorical school in Alexandria. Particular emphasis on aspects of society and gender.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. van den Hoek, Annewies. “The Catechetical School of Early Christian Alexandria and its Philonic Heritage.” Harvard Theological Review 90 (1997): 59–87.
  278. DOI: 10.1017/S0017816000006180Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Explores the writings of Eusebius to distinguish the catechetical school and how it was closely connected with Philonic exegesis as practiced by Clement and Origen, with Philo being considered an antecedent.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Literature
  282.  
  283. The Alexandrian Library and Museon provided such an outstanding intellectual center that it is no wonder that numerous writers worked productively in the city. Most importantly, it was where the Greek translation of Hebrew Bible, the Septuagint, was completed, the circumstances of which are told in the quasi-legendary account of the Letter of Aristeas. Both Stoic and Jewish allegorists produced copious studies, the latter most extensively represented by the surviving corpus of Philo of Alexandria. Christian literature built on this tradition, whether proto-orthodox or Gnostic.
  284.  
  285. The Septuagint
  286.  
  287. In terms of biblical literature, the most important aspect of ancient Alexandria is that it was the locus for the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Why exactly this was done remains elusive. Was it entirely an initiative of the Ptolemy II Philadelphus, against the wishes of Jews in the city, as argued in Collins 2000, or were Jews themselves actually needing a Greek version for their communities (Honigman 2003)? Dines 2004 considers it understandable with the intellectual environment of Alexandria. Its legacy was enormous within Christian tradition, as explored in Blowers 1997 and Law 2013.
  288.  
  289. Blowers, M. Paul, ed. and trans. The Bible in Greek Christian Antiquity. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997.
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  291. The twenty essays cover the influence of the Septuagint in the life of the Greek-speaking churches. Reflections on the role of the Bible (largely the LXX, but in due course including the New Testament) in the development of Christianity, the cultural setting of the Mediterranean, and religious devotion.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Collins, Nina. The Library in Alexandria and the Bible in Greek. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: Brill, 2000.
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  295. Argues for a date of 281 BCE for the translation of the Septuagint, done under the auspices of the librarian Demetrius of Phalerum against Jewish wishes, to increase the status of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Since there was already a librarian, it would have been founded previously under Ptolemy I Lagus.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Dines, Jennifer M. The Septuagint. London: Continuum, 2004.
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  299. A general introduction, tracing the origins and continuing importance of the Septuagint. Dines asks why it was done when the scriptures were not translated into Aramaic but sees this as “natural” in an Alexandrian intellectual milieu, blending the genres of a legislative document, metaphrase (of Homer), and exegetical rewriting.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Honigman, Sylvie. Septuagint and Homeric Scholarship in Alexandria. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  303. Analyzes the Letter of Aristeas and the myth of the translation of the Septuagint to argue that the myth reflects the quest for an authoritative text for diaspora Judaism, initiated by Jews, informed by a similar quest to define the authoritative text of Homer in Alexandria.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Law, T. Michael. When God Spoke Greek: The Septuagint and the Making of the Christian Bible. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
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  307. A history of the Septuagint and an exploration of its authority within Christian communities. Law notes that the Hebrew text was still evolving at the time of the Septuagint’s production, requiring key choices on the part of the translators.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Jewish Literature
  310.  
  311. While it is clear that there was a thriving Jewish oeuvre of allegorical exegesis in Alexandria, as well as compositions on biblical themes and history, the survival of this literature depended on its success with the later Christian groups, and most of it has been lost. Some, such as the Testament of Job, have been redacted with a Christian slant. Most important among material that has survived without modification is the work of Philo, who is given a separate entry in the OBO database (although see a good introduction in Hadas-Lebel 2012). Other Jewish literature has been gathered in Charlesworth 1983. Most significant here in terms of the Alexandrian context are the Sibylline Oracles, discussed in Collins 1974, 2 Maccabees, in Doran 2012, and 2 Maccabees in Croy 2006).
  312.  
  313. Charlesworth, James A. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. 2 vols. Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1983.
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  315. Contains English translations and introductions to important works of Jewish literature largely written in Greek. The Alexandrian provenance of some of this corpus cannot be established beyond doubt; however, this is likely in, for example, the Letter of Aristeas, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, Pseudo-Phocylides, the Sibylline Oracles, Ezekiel the Tragedian and Aristobulus. Volume 2 was published in 1985.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Collins, John J. The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism. SBL Dissertation Series. Missoula, MT: Scholars, 1974.
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  319. Focuses on Book 3 and Book 5 of the Sibylline Oracles. Situates Book 3 in the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometer, who supported the establishment of the Onias temple. Book V should be placed during the reign of Hadrian. Collins explores the composite nature of the Sibylline literature and their political concerns.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Croy, N. Clayton. 3 Maccabees. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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  323. Clearly Alexandrian and concerned with the history of Jews in the city, 3 Maccabees is a text of Greek Orthodox and Slavonic Bibles, appearing in the Codex Alexandrianus. It has three episodes that culminate in Ptolemy IV Philopator’s persecution of Jews (late 3rd century BCE) and their protection by divine intervention.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Doran, Robert. 2 Maccabees. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2012.
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  327. Originally written in Greek, 2 Maccabees is a canonical book in the Catholic and Orthodox tradition. It is a reworking of the same subject matter of 1 Maccabees but with a narrower focus. Doran’s commentary is particularly good on the philological and historical aspects of the work.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Hadas-Lebel, Mireille. Philo of Alexandria: A Thinker in the Jewish Diaspora. Translated by Robyn Frechet. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  330. DOI: 10.1163/9789004232372Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Introduction to Philo and his works with a significant discussion of the city of Alexandria and its cultural features, as well as the Jewish community, with a careful consideration of Philo’s place within his world. Originally published in 2003 (Paris: Librarie Arthème Fayard).
  332. Find this resource:
  333. New Testament and Apocryphal Literature
  334.  
  335. Since Alexandria was a leading intellectual center of the ancient world and not far from Judea/Palestine, it attracted a number of various Christian missionaries, though little is known of the earliest period of the Christian church here. Assigning provenance to Alexandria for Christian documents is not easy. Some version of Mark could have originated in Alexandria, according to Brown 2005. The Epistle of Barnabas appears most likely to have been written here, and was considered canonical in the NT by Clement and Origen, as Carleton-Paget 1994 and Pearson 1986 have suggested. Thompson 1982 and Pearson 1986 propose that the Letter to the Hebrews may also have arisen in this city. Leading Gnostics composed work here but it has survived only partially.
  336.  
  337. Brown, G. Scot. Mark’s Other Gospel: Rethinking Morton’s Smith Controversial Discovery. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2005.
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  339. According to a letter ascribed to Clement of Alexandria, Mark created a second, more spiritual edition of his gospel for theologically advanced Christians in Alexandria. After critiquing the five competing scholarly paradigms regarding the “other” Mark, the author argues that surviving excerpts employ Mark’s distinctive literary techniques, deepening this gospel’s theology.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Carleton-Paget, James. The Epistle of Barnabas: Outlook and Background. WUNT II.64. Tübingen, Germany: JCB Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1994.
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  343. Carleton-Paget considers the tradition that esteems the letter in Alexandria (pp. 36–42) and that Barnabas came here on a mission (Ps. Clem. Homilies 1: 9), and notes that Barnabas has parallels with passages in Philo. Emphasis also on Clement’s commentary on Barnabas as a canonical work.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Pearson, Birger. “Christians and Jews in First-Century Alexandra.” Harvard Theological Review 79 (1986): 206–216.
  346. DOI: 10.1017/S0017816000020472Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Notes that Western text (D) of Acts 18:25 reads that Apollos had been “instructed in his own country in the Way of the Lord.” Suggests that Stephen and other Hellenists from Jerusalem came from Alexandria, likewise the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Egerton Gospel, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the Teachings of Silvanus.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Thompson, James W. The Beginnings of Christian Philosophy: The Epistle to the Hebrews. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1982.
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  351. Situates the letter within the Alexandrian school of exegesis, with Philo being particularly important for its milieu. Explores its dualism and philosophic dimensions, and the letter’s use of allegorical reading that leads to a valuing of transcendent realities.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Christian Literature
  354.  
  355. Studies of Christian origins in Alexandria and early Christian theologians of this city have contextualized the emerging theological trajectories in Alexandria and then, in Egypt, for example in the case of Ashwin-Siejkowski 2010 and Boulluec 2012 regarding Clement, Heine 2010 and Boulluec 2012 regarding Origen, Gwynn 2012 regarding Athanasius and Weinandy and Daniel 2003 regarding Athanasius. The writings of the thriving Gnostic schools of Roman Egypt have largely been lost, though the discovery of the Nag Hammadi codices in 1945 provides a glimpse of the kind of writings that would have been produced and read in Alexandria. Meyer 2007, in passing, notes that some are specifically assigned to an Alexandrian provenance.
  356.  
  357. Ashwin-Siejkowski, Piotr. Clement of Alexandria on Trial: The Evidence of “Heresy” from Photius’ Bibliotheca. Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  358. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004176270.i-186Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Drawing on Photius’s synopsis of the eight errors contained in Clement of Alexandria’s lost work “Hypotyposeis,” this book offers a reexamination of 2nd-century theology. The book stresses the importance understanding Clement’s work in its original Alexandrian context.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Boulluec, Le Alain. Alexandrie Antique et Chrétienne. Clément et Origène. Deuxième édition revue et augmentée. Collection des Etudes Augustiniennes, Série Antiquité 178. Paris: Institut d’Etudes Augustiniennes, 2012.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. This volume contains twenty-seven articles dedicated to the origin of the Catechetical School in Alexandria and to the contribution to Alexandrian intellectual life by Clement and Origen. The author contextualizes early Christian theologians and discusses their interaction with Jewish and Greco-Roman philosophers.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Gwynn, M. David. Athanasius of Alexandria: Bishop, Theologian, Ascetic, Father (Christian Theology in Context). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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  367. Draws together the richness of thought and life of one of the most important Christian theologians of Alexandria. Discusses Athanasius’s various roles as theologian, bishop, exegete, and ascetic writer; it also reviews his legacy. The presentation offers direct access to many of Athanasius’s writings by a great number of quotes facilitating the contact with his own words.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Heine, E. Ronald. Origen. Scholarship in the Service of the Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  371. This is a new survey of Origen’s life and thought in the prism of his presence in two important intellectual centers: Alexandria and Caesarea. The book also analyzes the impact of both milieus on Origen’s intellectual work.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Meyer, Marvin, ed. The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: The Revised and Updated Translation of Sacred Gnostic Texts Complete in One Volume. New York: HarperCollins, 2007.
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  375. Contains Gnostic literature discovered in Egypt in 1945. It is suggested that Alexandrian works include: the Secret Book of James, the Gospel of Truth (Valentinian), the Nature of the Rulers, On the Origin of the World, Exegesis on the Soul, Thunder Perfect Mind, Authoritative Discourse, Allogenes, the Sentences of Sextus.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Weinandy, G. Thomas, and Keating A. Daniel, eds. The Theology of St. Cyril of Alexandria: A Critical Appreciation. London: T&T Continuum, 2003.
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  379. An international group of leading scholars provides a fresh examination of all main themes of Cyril’s theology. The volume, made of nine papers, embraces the crucial aspects of Cyril’s contribution to Christian doctrine.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Non-Christian Literature in Late Antiquity
  382.  
  383. Although Christianity dominated many areas of Egypt, other communities both in Alexandria and elsewhere, though marginalized, continued to exist and a produce significant amount of literature. This literature continued the distinctive features of the Greco-Roman philosophical tradition and Egyptian culture, as Dzielska 1996 explores in the life of Hypatia, while Fowden 1993 shows the continuing vibrancy of Hermetic thought
  384.  
  385. Dzielska, Maria. Hypatia of Alexandria. Translated by F. Lyra. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
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  387. In this book, the Polish author searches for the real story of Hypatia’s life and death. The book explores the Alexandrian Neoplatonic milieu where Hypatia was an active philosopher and teacher. The study also examines the possible tensions between the pagans and Christians of the city providing the readers with the author’s interpretations of the factors that lead to Hypatia’s murder.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Fowden, Garth. The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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  391. Explores Hermetism’s synthesis of philosophical and religious trends into a Greco-Egyptian cult and also its social milieu. The complex Hermetica can be seen as expressions of a single “way of Hermes,” as encapsulated by Fowden 1993 (p. 75), aiming for the same goal: this of one reason why the Hermetica flourished and was assimilated by some Christians.
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