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Military Government in Latin America, 1959–1990

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Latin America’s armed forces have played a central role in the region’s political history. This selective annotated bibliography focuses on key sources, with varying theoretical, empirical, and normative treatments of the military governments in the region, from the Cuban Revolution (1959) until the end of the Cold War (1989–1990). The article is limited to those cases in which military governments or “civil-military” governments were in power. This excludes personalist dictatorships, party dictatorships, and civilian governments in which the armed forces exercised considerable influence but did not rule directly. No pretense is made of comprehensiveness or of treating the “causes” of military coups (a vast literature) and of civil-military relations under civilian governments. Likewise, the closely related topics of guerrilla movements during this period, human rights violations under the military governments, US policy and support for many of the military governments, and the transitions back to civilian government are not covered in depth, but some of the selections do treat these topics and direct the reader to a more extensive literature on these subjects. Long-term military governments, with changing leadership in most cases, controlled eleven Latin American nations for significant periods from 1964 to 1990: Ecuador, 1963–1966 and 1972–1978; Guatemala, 1963–1985 (with an interlude from 1966–1969); Brazil, 1964–1985; Bolivia, 1964–1970 and 1971–1982; Argentina, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983; Peru, 1968–1980; Panama, 1968–1989; Honduras, 1963–1966 and 1972–1982; Chile, 1973–1990; and Uruguay, 1973–1984. In El Salvador the military dominated government from 1948 until 1984, but the last “episode” was from 1979 to 1984. Military governments, though inevitably authoritarian, implemented varying economic, social, and foreign policies. They had staunch supporters and intense opponents, and they were usually subject to internal factionalism and ideological as well as policy disagreements. The sources discussed in this article reflect that diversity.
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  5. General Treatments and Comparative Studies
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  7. The literature on military governments in Latin America from 1959 to 1990 sought to differentiate these regimes from the military governments that periodically and recurrently took power in the region before the Cuban Revolution. Varying theoretical and historical discussions of these differences focus on the structural and institutional conditions that gave rise to “bureaucratic-authoritarian” regimes, a term first explored in O’Donnell 1973. Stepan 1986 and Nunn 1992 question whether the concept “bureaucratic-authoritarian” was useful, and whether, and in what fashion, a new military ideology and “new professionalism” focused on internal security rather than national defense existed. Empirical studies like Rouquié 1987 and Loveman 1999 take into account both historical patterns and the effects of the Cold War in bringing these governments to power, and Remmer 1989 and Biglaiser 2002 provide comparative studies of the policies and practices of these military governments, including, among others, economic policy, internal security, human rights violations, and institutional reform. Stepan 1988 offers comparative analysis of military autonomy and intelligence systems, with a special emphasis on Brazil. McSherry 2005 considers the transnational collaboration of these regimes in state terrorism against opponents of the military governments.
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  9. Biglaiser, Glen. Guardians of the Nation? Economists, Generals, and Economic Reform in Latin America. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002
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  11. Seeks to explain why the military rulers in Latin America adopted particular economic policies; discusses policy choices, appointments to government posts of economists favoring neoliberal policies, policy formulation, privatization, and the role of ideas and ideology under military governments in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Also includes some comparative material on Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico.
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  13. Loveman, Brian. For la Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999.
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  15. A political scientist and historian presents a history of the role of the armed forces in Latin American politics. Chapters 6–9 focus on the policies and ideology of military governments from 1960 to 1990, as well as transition to civilian government and constraints on democratic consolidation. Treats national security doctrine and human rights violations by military regimes. Extensive bibliography.
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  17. McSherry, J. Patrice. Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.
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  19. Important investigation of Operation Condor by a political scientist who relates the transnational antisubversive scheme carried out by Latin American military governments with the support of the United States. On the same topic, by a well-known journalist, see John Dinges’s The Condor Years: How Pinochet and His Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents (New York: New Press 2004).
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  21. Nunn, Frederick. The Time of the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
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  23. Comparative study of the role and consequences of professional militarism in Latin America from 1964 to 1989 by one of most prominent experts on Latin American military institutions. Special attention given to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru. Relies heavily on official military journals in Latin America, Canada, Asia, and Europe.
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  25. O’Donnell, Guillermo. Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1973.
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  27. Presents an Argentine political scientist’s formulation of the concept of “bureaucratic-authoritarian” regimes, which became widely applied to Latin American military governments—as well as the subject of extensive theoretical debate—and then a reconsideration of the concept by O’Donnell himself. The Argentine case was important as an inspiration of the concept, but the concept was then applied by many authors to other military governments.
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  29. Remmer, Karen L. Military Rule in Latin America. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989.
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  31. Remmer, a political scientist, analyzes the origins and political and economic consequences of military rule, and compares and contrasts the policies of military governments and civilian regimes. Creates a typology of military regimes often cited in the literature. Part two of the book focuses on the Chilean case.
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  33. Rouquié, Alain. The Military and the State in Latin America. Translated by Paul Sigmund. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
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  35. Historical treatment of the armed forces in Latin America by the outstanding French expert; chapters 8–11 focus on the 1959–1990 period. Also examines the role of US policy in the region.
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  37. Stepan, Alfred. “The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion.” In Armies and Politics in Latin America. Rev. ed. Edited by Abraham F. Lowenthal and J. Samuel Fitch, 134–150. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986.
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  39. Often-cited article on the “new professionalism” of the Latin American military, focused on internal order and counterinsurgency. Stepan’s seminal work is sometimes compared to Nunn 1992, which emphasizes the continuity of professional values and long-term focus on internal security.
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  41. Stepan, Alfred. Rethinking Military Politics, Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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  43. Comparative analysis, by a leading theorist on civil-military relations and military government, of military prerogatives and transition toward civilian government in Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile, with special attention given to the Brazilian case. Keen focus on military autonomy and the system of military intelligence
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  45. Edited Collections
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  47. Edited collections treating the military regimes from 1959 to 1990 reflect the theoretical turns in the social sciences and also the geographical shifts in military coups, the establishment of military governments, and a gradual awareness that the policies and consequences of military governments shared some features but also varied significantly throughout the region. Attention to the “bureaucratic-authoritarian” model is considered repeatedly, perhaps most notably in Collier 1979. So too are alternative explanations (modernization theory, dependency theory, and the “new professionalism” arising out of the Cold War) for the rise of military governments, as in Kruijt and Torres-Rivas 1991. The edited collections usually include theoretical considerations as well as comparative and single-case empirical studies. Some volumes appear in multiple editions with significantly altered content. Of these, Lowenthal 1976, Lowenthal and Fitch 1986, and Loveman and Davies 1997 (previously published in 1978 and 1989) were widely adopted in university courses on the military governments in Latin America. Other edited volumes, like Handelman and Sanders 1981, reflect more the moment in which they were published, with increasing focus on the timing and mechanics of return to civilian rule. Wesson 1982 includes both overviews on military government and cases studies for South America just as Peru returned to civilian government. Varas 1988, with some revisions in the English edition published in 1989, emphasized the theme of growing military institutional autonomy in the region, a development which buffered the armed forces from easy subordination to civilian governments as the military formally left power and the theme of “transition to democracy” became more prominent in the literature.
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  49. Collier, David. ed. The New Authoritarianism in Latin America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979.
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  51. Leading scholars reconsider the work of Guillermo O’Donnell on “bureaucratic authoritarianism” and military rule in Latin America. Collier’s introduction provides an overview of the model. Includes theoretical essays on the sources of bureaucratic authoritarianism, the applicability of the concept to the military regimes in Latin America, and directions for future research. Often cited in the academic literature on the military regimes of this period. Extensive bibliography by theme and country.
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  53. Handleman, Howard, and Thomas Sanders. ed. Military Government and the Movement Toward Democracy in South America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
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  55. Accounts of politics and military rule in Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile during the late 1970s, with attention to internal opposition and prospects for return to civilian rule. Early treatment of the eventual return to civilian rule in the region.
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  57. Kruijt, Dirk, and Edelberto Torres-Rivas, eds. América Latina: Militares y Sociedad. 2 vols. San José, Costa Rica: FLACSO, 1991.
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  59. Analysis of the “modern dictatorships” of the 1970s and 1980s. Surveys approaches to study of the military from modernization theory and dependency theory to bureaucratic authoritarianism and the “new professionalism” (see Stepan 1986, under General Treatments and Comparative Studies). Volume I treats the Central American cases; Volume II treats Brazil and Peru (contrasting “rightist” and “progressive” military governments) and includes chapters on civil-military relations and regional security.
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  61. Loveman, Brian, and Thomas M. Davies Jr., eds. The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America. 3d ed. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997.
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  63. Regional and country experts consider the historical background to the military regimes after 1959, the origins of the military governments, professional and ideological motivations for establishing military governments, and the consequences of military rule. Includes translations of military speeches and proclamations in a section called “the military speaks for itself.” Includes material on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, El Salvador, Guatemala. Earlier editions (1978, 1985) include speeches and articles on Bolivia.
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  65. Lowenthal, Abraham, ed. Armies and Politics in Latin America. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1976.
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  67. Theoretical consideration on the military in Latin America and case studies (Chile, Argentina, Brazil); also treats civil-military relations in Mexico and the Dominican Republic. Essays by well-known theorists and country experts. One of the first edited collections to consider the military governments of this period.
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  69. Lowenthal, Abraham, and J. Samuel Fitch, eds. Armies and Politics in Latin America. Rev. ed. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986.
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  71. Collection of theoretical and empirical treatments of the military in Latin America, including Lowenthal’s review of the literature to 1974 from the first edition (Lowenthal 1976), and Fitch’s first chapter “Armies and Politics in Latin America: 1975–1985,” which frames discussion of changes in the role of military in the region from 1975 to 1985. Useful for source citations and case studies.
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  73. Varas, Augusto, ed. La autonomía militar en America Latina. Caracas, Venezuela: Nueva Sociedad, 1988.
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  75. Comparative studies of institutional autonomy and civil-military relations after the era of military dictatorships. Includes chapters with theoretical considerations and case studies for most of South America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic. See also, in English, Augusto Varas’s edited collection Democracy Under Siege: New Military Power in Latin America (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989).
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  77. Wesson, Robert, ed. New Military Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger, 1982.
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  79. Case studies of military government in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and role of the military in Colombia and Venezuela. Essays by Edwin Lieuwen on the problem of military government; Wesson on populism and military coups; and Martin Needler on problems facing military governments.
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  81. Country Case Studies
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  83. The sources cited in this section are limited to those countries in which military governments (or “elected” military presidents) ruled directly, with substantial participation of the military institutions in policymaking and administration, between 1959 and 1990. The Stroessner dictatorship in Paraguay and the sometimes highly militarized (but always civilian) governments of Colombia and Venezuela are excluded. In all cases, civilians collaborated with military rulers (to varying degrees) as advisers, cabinet ministers, technicians, and publicists—even serving as “faces” (presidents), as in Uruguay from 1973 to 1976 and Panama from 1968 to 1989. Some cases involved periodic elections orchestrated by military rulers and their allies or, in the case of Guatemala and El Salvador, the rotation of military presidents after periodic elections. For some cases (e.g., Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) there is an extensive literature in professional journals, books, monographs, press coverage, the accounts of nongovernmental organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and declassified sources gradually revealed by the National Security Archive (a private research organization) declassification project at George Washington University (see Guatemala). For other cases, such as Bolivia, Ecuador, and Honduras, the existing literature is sparser, though still useful for understanding the periods of military rule and US policy toward the military regimes. This section also covers case studies in Peru.
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  85. Argentina
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  87. Military coups were common in Argentina before 1976. No strictly military government endured long before the so-called proceso (1976–1983). Nevertheless, the military coups and governments of the 1960s anticipated the fiercer military governments of the 1976–1983 period, and were also responses (since 1955) to the threat of a return of “Peronismo” and, then, to the threat of Marxism. The leaders of the military coup of 1976 promised to transform Argentine society and to extirpate the subversives who threatened the very existence of “la patria.” This section includes key documents from the military government (Asociación Americana de Juristas 1988), sources expressing the military leaders’ views and objectives (Díaz Bessone 1988) as well as critics of the “proceso” and analysis of the consequences of military rule (Canelo 2008, García 1995, Vázquez 1985). Lewis 2002 is among the most balanced treatments in English of the military government. Influential journalistic accounts of the “dirty war” (Andersen 1993, Pedano and Palermo 2003) explore the rise of the military regime and its massive violations of human rights.
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  89. Andersen, Martin Edwin. Dossier Secreto: Argentina’s Desaparecidos and the Myth of the “Dirty War.” Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993.
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  91. Anderson, a journalist, examines the development of Argentine military national security doctrine and the role of US policy and the CIA in Argentina. Argues that there was never a serious enough threat to justify the “dirty war” that left thousands dead and disappeared and thousands more tortured. The military continued to insist the guerrillas were a threat even after their destruction in order to justify further repression. Controversial book in both the United States and Argentina.
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  93. Argentina Junta de Gobierno Militar. Documento Final de la Junta Militar Sobre la Guerra Contra la Subversión y el Terrorismo. Buenos Aires: Junta de Gobierno Militar, 1983.
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  95. Final official document of the military junta, providing rationale and justification for policies and implementation from 1976 to 1983. Valuable source on military “mentality” and self-identification as saviors of the Patria.
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  97. Asociación Americana de Juristas. Argentina: Juicio a los Militares: Documentos Secretos, Decretos-Leyes, Jurisprudencia. Buenos Aires: Argentine Branch of the Asociación Americana de Juristas, 1988.
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  99. Reprints key documents and decrees of the military junta, trials of military officers after return to civilian government, and amnesty decrees in the 1980s. Useful for primary sources on the Argentine military governments.
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  101. Canelo, Paula. El Proceso en su Laberinto: La Interna Militar de Videla a Bignone. Buenos Aires: Promoteo Libros, 2008.
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  103. Argentine social scientist argues that the “antisubversive battle” sustained cohesion within the armed forces and, to some extent, legitimated the military regime despite internal dissensus. Examines unattained objectives of the proceso. Good contemporary bibliography.
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  105. Díaz Bessone, Ramón Genaro. Guerra Revolucionaria en la Argentina, 1959–1978. 2d ed. Buenos Aires: Círculo Militar, Biblioteca del Oficial, 1988.
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  107. An Argentine general presents a hard-line military view of ‘fighting subversion” and the first years of the military government. Illustrative of Argentine version of national security doctrine (DSN) and the need to extirpate subversion and save la Patria from international communism. Compares the Argentine experience with the French counterinsurgency efforts in Algeria, and notes the influence of French advisors for Argentina officers.
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  109. García, Prudencio. El Drama de la Autonomía Militar: Argentina Bajo las Juntas Militares. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1995.
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  111. Essential source on Southern Cone dictatorships and Argentina by Spanish army colonel. Finds that the repression unleashed by the military to carry out the “process of national reorganization” (PRN) factionalized the military and alienated civil society from the armed forces, while leaving a legacy of human rights violations.
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  113. Lewis, Paul H. Guerrillas and Generals: The “Dirty War” in Argentina. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.
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  115. This political scientist considers violence from the mid-1960s to the trials of military officers for human rights violations after the transition to civilian government. Takes seriously into account the military and civilian political right-wing view of the subversive threat and the attack by revolutionaries on the existing regime. Discusses ideologies of all sides in the “dirty war.” Very useful source citations and bibliography.
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  117. Pedano, Gonzalo, and Vicente Palermo. La Dictadura Militar, 1976–1983: Del Golpe de Estado a la Restauración Democrática. Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2003.
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  119. A human rights lawyer and political scientist analyzes the conditions leading to military dictatorship, characteristics of the military regime, and factors that led to the withdrawal of the military from control of the state. Compares and contrasts the Argentine case to other military governments, and assesses the successes and failures of the regime from the perspective of the military.
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  121. Vázquez, Enrique. PRN, La última: Origen, Apogeo y Caída de la Dictadura Militar. Buenos Aires: EUDEBA, 1985.
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  123. Critique of the Argentine military regime by a prominent Argentine journalist. Examines the complexity of the “proceso” (1976–1983), from military messianism, factionalism, and corruption to state terrorism and human rights violations. Includes biographical portraits of General Jorge Videla and José Martínez de Hoz, the civilian economic policymaker responsible for economic reforms. Appendices include key official documents, some previously secret or classified.
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  125. Bolivia
  126.  
  127. There is less published research on Bolivia’s military governments than for most cases in South America, despite the fact that Bolivian militarism has been endemic since independence. Perhaps the two best sources in English connecting the history of militarism to the regimes from 1964 to 1985, and especially to the first government of General Hugo Banzer (1971–1978), are Dunkerley 1984 and Malloy and Gamarra 1988. Prado Salmón 1984 is an overview of recent militarism and the governments after 1964, viewed from the perspective of a Bolivian military officer. There are many journalistic and political critiques of the particular military governments, as well as assessments of the various coups, during this period. Of these, Knudson 1974 and Sivak 1997 are important sources on the brief populist government of General Juan José Torres, and Selser 1982 is often cited, including in US congressional testimony, regarding the impact of the war on drugs and Cold War politics on the Bolivian case. Sandoval Rodríguez 1987 analyzes the impact and variations in the Bolivian version of national security doctrine that influenced the military governments from 1971 to 1982. As with the other cases, the speeches and official documents of the military governments, such as the speeches in Loveman and Davies 1989 and the Comando Junto Documentos (Bolivia Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas 1980) allow the military to “speak for themselves.”
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  129. Bolivia Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas. Documentos fundamentales para la reconstrucción nacional. Bolivia: Junta de Comandantes de las Fuerzas Armadas de la Nación, 1980.
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  131. Policy statements and justification for coup by the commanders of the military junta in 1980. Useful for comparison of military ideology and discourse with other South American military regimes.
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  133. Dunkerley, James. Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952–1982. London: Verso, 1984.
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  135. British academic expert on Bolivia provides political history from 1952 to 1982, with chapters on each of the military governments from 1964 to 1982. Perhaps the best available narrative and chronological analysis of Bolivian politics and military governments. Graphic detail on human rights violations and the role of former Nazis and Argentine military advisers, especially in the García Meza government.
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  137. Knudson, Jerry W. Bolivia’s Popular Assembly of 1971 and the Overthrow of General Juan José Torres. Buffalo: Council of International Studies, State University of New York, 1974.
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  139. Informative source on the brief populist government of General Torres and his overthrow. Useful for comparative work on the role of the United States in the overthrow of nationalist and leftist governments in Latin America.
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  141. Malloy, James M., and Eduardo Gamarra. Revolution and Reaction: Bolivia, 1964–1985. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988.
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  143. Two political scientists analyze the alternatives available to Bolivian policymakers (sixteen different governments) and political constraints on development from the Barrientos government until 1985. Excellent source on the Banzer government (1971–1978). Discusses the particularities and policies of varying military governments over twenty years.
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  145. Loveman, Brian, and Thomas M. Davies. ed. The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989.
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  147. Illustrative policy statements by Bolivian military presidents from 1966 to 1982, translated into English by the authors. Also contains translated speeches from military leaders in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, El Salvador, and Guatemala.
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  149. Prado Salmón, Gary. Poder y Fuerzas Armadas, 1949–1982. La Paz: Editorial Los Amigos del Libro, 1984.
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  151. An army general and minister of planning (1978–1979) provides the best available Bolivian survey of the role of the military in recent Bolivian history. Deals with individual administrations and personalities, policy differences, motives for repeated coups, and relations with civil society. Author was “accidentally” shot during García Meza government and flown to the United States for treatment; he returned to Bolivia after the ouster of García Meza (1982). Second edition published in 1987.
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  153. Sandoval Rodríguez, Isaac. El proyecto político militar, 1971–1982: El estado de la seguridad nacional en Bolivia. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Universidad Boliviana Gabriel René Moreno, 1987.
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  155. A critic of Bolivian militarism and military governments provides one of the few overviews of the military regimes from 1971 to 1982, with a focus on the role of national security doctrine in Bolivia in defining the objectives and practices of Bolivian military governments.
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  157. Selser, Gregorio. Bolivia, el cuartelazo de los cocadólares. Coyoacán, México: Mex-Sur Editorial, 1982.
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  159. Argentine journalist, historian, and political activist treats the role of the Argentine military and cocaine politics in the Bolivian military coup of 1980, as well as support for the García Meza government to prevent the creation of “another Cuba” in South America.
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  161. Sivak, Martín. El asesinato de Juan José Torres: Banzer y el Mercosur de la muerte. Buenos Aires: Ediciones del Pensamiento Nacional, 1997.
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  163. Argentine journalist and human rights activist recalls the Latin American military dictatorships of the 1970s, Operation Condor, and the assassination in 1976 of the former populist president of Bolivia, General Juan José Torres. Argues that Torres was killed for his revolutionary nationalism as well as because he was a personal enemy of the dictator Hugo Banzer. Insight into factions in Bolivian armed forces and Operation Condor.
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  165. Brazil
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  167. The Brazilian armed forces long considered themselves the “moderating force” of the nation. From the 1930s until 1964 they remained a key force in national politics. In the context of the Cold War, with a populist president (João Goulart) who threatened to move Brazilian politics and foreign policy leftward, align the country with Cuba, and carry out a large-scale agrarian reform, the Brazilian armed forces ousted the president in 1964, supported by the government of the United States. The military remained in power until 1985, though there were periodic changes of presidents. Torture and imprisonment of regime opponents became routine during this period. The journalistic and academic literature on the policies and performance of the Brazilian military governments is extensive, as are collections of declassified documents and works by international, regional, and Brazilian human rights organizations. There are excellent overviews and histories of the Brazilian military governments in English and Portuguese. Among the best in English, with a focus on institutional changes and tensions within the military regimes, are Stepan 1971, Skidmore 1988, and Bacchus 1990. In Portuguese, Gaspari 2002 (and Gaspari’s subsequent volumes) is a prize-winning journalistic account of the period 1964–1977. Couto 2001 provides in-depth analysis of the military governments’ policies, supplemented by documentation and interviews with key actors. Censorship and repression of journalists, along with analysis of why it took so long to return to civilian rule, is treated in Kucinski 2001. Pereira 1998 offers a careful investigation of the use of “legal repression” by the military governments and contrasts the Brazil regime with those in Chile and Argentina. Massive human rights violations during military rule are documented in Brasil Nunca Mais (Arquidiocese de São Paulo 1985, while Ustra 2007 relates the military vision of the necessity for a coup in 1964, the objectives of military rule, and its results.
  168.  
  169. Arquidiocese de São Paulo. Brasil: Nunca Mais. Petropolis, Brazil: Ed. Vozes, 1985.
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  171. This volume is based on over a million documents obtained by a secret project carried out from 1979 to 1985 to investigate human rights abuses by Brazilian military governments. Coordinated by Cardinal Paulo Evaristo Arns (who wrote the preface to this volume), the project documented the routine use of torture against opponents of the military regime. Includes graphic descriptions of torture methods and institutions involved.
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  173. Bacchus, Wilfred A. Mission in Mufti: Brazil’s Military Regimes, 1964–1985. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
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  175. Political scientist focuses on “unique features” of the Brazilian military regime. Assesses the policies, constraints, internal debates, and relative success of five governments from 1964 to 1985. Includes chapters on “The Political Influence of the Escola Superior de Guerra” and the legacies of military rule. Also contains a chronology of major events. Author is not unsympathetic to the objectives of the Brazilian military governments.
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  177. Couto, Ronaldo Costa. História Indiscreta da Ditadura e da Abertura: Brasil; 1964–1985. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Record, 2001.
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  179. Based on author’s doctoral thesis (1997) at the Sorbonne, this is a history of the era of military rule, drawing on interviews, documents, and publications of all political and ideological sectors. Includes many photographs from the period. Author was secretary of planning department of the state of Rio de Janeiro (1975–1979), and minister of interior in the government of José Sarney (15 March 1985–30 April 1987).
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  181. Gaspari, Elio. A Ditadura Envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002.
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  183. First volume in a study of the Brazilian military regime by prominent Brazilian journalist. Based on extensive research, private archives, and interviews with key actors. Sympathetic toward the military’s salvation of Brazil from subversion, if not the methods used. Volume 2: A Ditadura Escarnada, 2002 (covering 1969–1974); Volume 3: A Ditadura Derrotada, 2003 (focused on Geisel and Couto e Silva); Volume 4: A Ditadura Encurralada, 2004 (covering 1975–1977).
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  185. Kucinski, Bernardo. O fim da ditadura militar. São Paulo: Editora Contexto, 2001.
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  187. Political narrative by a celebrated journalist (in exile in London from 1971 to 1974) who opposed the military regime. Recounts why and how the transition back to civilian government took fifteen years (1970–1985), from the presidency of Geisel to that of Figueiredo, the collapse of the “economic miracle,” and the struggle that followed the return to civilian rule. Important referent for role of journalism, censorship, and repression in the Brazilian case.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Pereira, Anthony W. “O Monstro Algemado? Violência do Estado e Repressão Legal no Brasil, 1964–1997.” In Democracia e Instituçoes Políticas Brasileiras no Final do Século XX. Edited by Jorge Zaverucha, 13–61. Recife: Bargaço, 1998.
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  191. Political scientist provides incisive overview of “legal repression” under military rule, including use of the institutional acts, military tribunals, and national security legislation. Notes that legal repression continued after transition to civilian government (1985) against other “enemies” (narcotraffickers, labor movement, and peasants). Good contemporary bibliography. For comparative analysis see also Political (In)justice: Authoritarianism and the Rule of Law in Brazil, Chile, and Argentina. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press,2005.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Skidmore, Thomas. The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–85. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  195. The foremost Brazilianist in the United States provides a detailed account of the origins of the 1964 coup, policies and internal dilemmas of military governments in Brazil, and constraints on the democratization process. Arguably the best single source on the Brazilian military governments from 1964 to 1985. Extensive chapter endnotes with bibliographical references and explanatory narrative.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Stepan, Alfred. The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971.
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  199. Leading expert on the role of the military in Latin American politics considers the institutional background and patterns of civil-military relations before the 1964 coup, the breakdown of the “moderating pattern” of military influence in politics, and the first four years of military government (1964–1968). Seminal work in the effort to theorize about the precipitating factors in military coups and the limits of military government.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Ustra, Carlos Alberto Brilhante. A Verdade Sufocada: História que a esquerda não quer que o Brasil conheça. 4th ed. Brasília: Editora Ser, 2007.
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  203. Alternative history of the military regime by a retired army colonel. Relates the battle against communism and guerrillas in Brazil and tells “the history that the left doesn’t want Brazilians to know.” Polemical defense of the military regime, not an academic study. Author was the first army officer convicted (2008) of kidnapping and torture during the period of military rule.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Chile
  206.  
  207. There is perhaps more written on the Chilean military government than any other of the military regimes from 1959 to 1990. Polarization of Chilean politics greatly intensified from 1964 to 1973, when a military coup ousted President Salvador Allende, leader of the Popular Unity Coalition. The US government intervened directly to undermine the Allende government and encourage a military coup, which finally occurred on 11 September 1973. Defenders of the military coup and the policies of the regime abound; Valdivieso 1988 is an excellent exponent of this view, while the Chilean army’s presentation to the Truth Commission, Presentación del Ejército de Chile a la Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación (Ejército de Chile 1990) iterates both the need for a coup and defends the record of the military government. As it left office in 1990, the military government published the three-volume Memoria de Gobierno 1973–1990 (República de Chile 1990), favorably reviewing its own record during the dictatorship. Huneeus 2000 (translated into English in 2006) is arguably the best single summary of the military government, its policies, and its opposition, while Barros 2002 uniquely focuses on the institutional foundations of military rule and “self-restraint” exercised by the Junta. In Varas 1987, Chile’s leading expert, Augusto Varas, analyzes policies, military budgets, and prospects for the opposition before 1988. Of the many edited volumes on Chilean military rule, Drake and Jaksić 1995 is perhaps the best overview of policy, constraints, and opposition to military rule. Kornbluh 2003 makes available and interprets declassified documents attesting to US intervention in Chile and the internal workings of the regime. Cavallo, et al. 1997, a journalist’s account of the underside of military rule, has gone through a number of editions in Chile and was an important element itself in the politics of transition after return to civilian rule.
  208.  
  209. Barros, Robert. Constitutionalism and Dictatorship: Pinochet, the Junta, and the 1980 Constitution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  210. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511606298Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Barros focuses on the institutions created by the military dictatorship and the way in which the regime imposed certain constraints upon itself. He argues that power was not as personalized in Pinochet’s Chile as often supposed, and that the government was bound, eventually, by a constitution of its own making. An important alternative interpretation of the institutions and operation of the Chilean military government.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Cavallo, Ascanio, Manuel Salazar, and Oscar Sepúlveda. Historia Oculta del Régimen Militar: Memoria de una Época, 1973–1988. Santiago: Grijalbo, 1997.
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  215. Best-selling journalistic account of the military dictatorship in Chile, with short dramatic chapters on episodes of state terrorism and insider accounts of the military regime. Useful source for researchers and popular audience.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Drake, Paul, and Iván Jaksić, ed. The Struggle for Democracy in Chile. Rev. ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
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  219. Perhaps the best edited volume on military rule and the transition to civilian government in Chile. Includes chapters by leading experts on Chile on the consolidation of one-man rule (Pinochet), neoliberal policies, entrepreneurs under the military regime, the role of women, unions and labor, political parties, opposition to the dictatorship, and constraints on the transition to full democracy.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Ejército de Chile. Presentación del Ejército de Chile a la Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación. 4 vols. Santiago: Ejército de Chile, 1990.
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  223. Massive documentary submission by the army to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission created in the first months of the civilian government. Rejects the interpretations of the commission, defends the necessity of the coup and the measures taken during almost seventeen years to transform Chile under military rule. Volume 3 reprints numerous documents concerning the prevailing “chaos” that, according to the army leaders, made the coup necessary.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Huneeus, Carlos. El Régimen de Pinochet. Santiago: Editorial Sudamericana, 2000.
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  227. Arguably the single best overview of the military regime in Chile from 1973 to 1990, by a leading Christian Democratic intellectual and former Chilean ambassador to Germany. Extensive bibliography. Translated into English by Lake Sagaris as The Pinochet Regime (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006).
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Kornbluh, Peter. The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability. New York: New Press, 2003.
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  231. An essential source on Pinochet’s Chile and US policy before, during, and after the coup of 11 September 1973. Based on numerous declassified documents (some of which are reprinted in the book) and analysis by the author. Kornbluh’s work on this project has contributed to establishment of archives in Chile and ongoing research on the military regime.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. República de Chile. Memoria de Gobierno 1973–1990. 3 vols. Santiago: República de Chile, Presidencia, 1990.
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  235. This three-volume collection is an incredible, last-minute summary of regime accomplishments under Pinochet in every imaginable policy area, from health, education, housing, nutrition, economic reform, and constitutional and political transformation. It proclaims the military government successful—in the words of Pinochet, having achieved an “eminently foundational work” (“una obra . . . eminentemete fundacional”).
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Valdivieso Ariztía, Rafael. Crónica de un Rescate: Chile, 1973–1988. Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1988.
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  239. Pro-military account of the “rescue” of Chile from Marxism and international communism and the policies of the military government by a prominent journalist. Author was a member of Acción Chilena Anticomunista (ACHA) in the late 1940s and had a long career in anti-Marxist causes. Very useful as an emblematic version of the Chilean military regime’s mission of salvation from the standpoint of the political right and military institutions.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Varas, Augusto. Los militares en el poder: Régimen y gobierno militar en Chile, 1973–1986. Santiago: Pehuén/FLACSO, 1987.
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  243. Analysis of the Chilean military regime by the most prominent expert on civil-military relations in Chile. Considers military budgets, importation and production of armaments, foreign policy, internal debates, and erosion of the social base of the dictatorship in the 1980s. Written before the 1988 plebiscite, the analysis captures both the hopes of and constraints on the opposition to the military regime in the mid-1980s.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Ecuador
  246.  
  247. Military coups have been common in Ecuadorian history. But only the governments from 1963 to 1966, and then from 1972 to 1979—the latter self-characterized as “revolutionary and nationalist”—were cases of direct rule by military institutions. The social science and historical literature on military government in Ecuador is much less developed than for countries of the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay), Brazil, and Peru. Likewise, a lack of massive human rights violations under military rule like those in the Southern Cone and Guatemala means that a separate literature on political repression by the military governments is very thin. Fitch 1977 is the best source on the virtual institutionalization of military coups as part of the Ecuadorian political process before 1967. Like their counterparts in the Southern Cone, the Ecuadorian military elites blamed civilian politicians and corruption for the lack of development in the country. They also adapted national security doctrine to local circumstances. Moncayo Gallegos 1995 is the most systematic expression of the Ecuadorian version of DSN, and the Plan Político de la Junta Militar de Gobierno (Ecuador Junta Militar de Gobierno 1963) and the Filosofía y Plan de Acción del Gobierno (Gobierno Revolucionario y Nacionalista del Ecuador 1972) are the official rationale for the 1963 and 1972 coups and statements of military government objectives. Corkill 1977 explains what was “new” about the 1972 coup and policies of the military government (1972–1976), while Egas R. 1975 compares the Ecuadorian military regime to the Peruvian military government (1968–1975). Varas and Bustamante 1978 provide analysis of military security doctrine and factionalism of Ecuadorian armed forces, with a useful political chronology and statistical appendices. Bustamante 2003 analyzes the formal arrangements and informal pact that shaped post-1979 civil-military relations. The best overview of the Ecuadorian military governments and transition to civilian rule is Isaacs 1993.
  248.  
  249. Bustamante, Fernando. “Tensiones en la relación civil-militar en el Ecuador del siglo XXI.” Universitas 3.11 (2003): 1–21.
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  251. Leading expert on civil-military relations in Ecuador explains the “pact” that made possible the transition to civilian government in 1979 by guaranteeing military autonomy and a number of “corporate enclaves” immune from civilian control and oversight.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Corkill, David. “The Politics of Military Government in Ecuador: The Rodríguez Lara Regime, 1972–1976.” Bulletin of the Society for Latin American Studies 26 (1977): 44–63.
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  255. Argues that motivations for the 1972 coup included both traditional factors (antipopulism, anti-Marxism, caudillismo, factionalism) and new factors (oil policy, emulation of the Peruvian model, nationalism, developmentalism, national security doctrine). Analyzes oil policy and agrarian reform to illustrate the factionalism within the army and obstacles to achieving policy objectives elaborated in the 1972 plan announced by the government (Gobierno Revolucionario y Nacionalista del Ecuador 1972). Contrasts the Ecuadorian case with Peru (1968–1975).
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Ecuador Junta Militar de Gobierno. Plan Político de la Junta Militar de Gobierno. Quito: Talleres Gráficos Nacionales, 1963.
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  259. Official government document stating the policy plans of the military junta that seized power by a golpe de estado in 1963. This junta promised to be in office only for the time necessary to repress the wave of terrorism and subversion afflicting the country. It outlawed the Communist Party in 1966. See also La Junta Militar de Gobierno al Pueblo del Ecuador (Quito: Talleres Gráficos Naciionales, 1963).
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Egas R., José María. Ecuador y el Gobierno de la Junta Militar. Buenos Aires: Tierra Nueva, 1975.
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  263. This Ecuadorian political scientist compares the government of army commander Guillermo Rodríguez Lara (1972–1976) to the Velasco government (1968–1975) in Peru. Includes appendices with economic data and a chronology of principal events during the military government, and a useful bibliography.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Fitch, John Samuel. The Military Coup d’Etat as a Political Process: Ecuador, 1948–1966. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.
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  267. A political scientist and expert on Ecuadorian civil-military relations describes the recurrent pattern of coups and return to civilian government that characterized Ecuador’s politics from 1948 to 1966. He suggests that coups became a routine part of the political process, virtually an alternative to elections.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Gobierno Revolucionario y Nacionalista del Ecuador. Filosofía y Plan de Acción del Gobierno Revolucionario y Nacionalista de Ecuador. Quito: Imprenta Nacional, 1972.
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  271. Official proclamation of the military junta in 1972, with a rationale for the installation of a military government and an “action plan” for the country.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Isaacs, Anita. Military Rule and Transition in Ecuador, 1972–92. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993.
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  275. Reviews the literature on civil-military relations in Latin America, and then considers the Ecuadorian military in detail, including the military governments, civilian opposition, and the transition back to civilian rule. Essential source on the military governments in Ecuador during this period. Useful bibliography on Ecuadorian politics.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Moncayo Gallegos, Paco. “Fuerzas Armadas y Desarrollo.” In Fuerzas Armadas: Desarrollo y Democracia. Edited by Hernán Andrade Tobar, 71–85. Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales (ILDIS), 1995.
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  279. Statement of the role of the armed forces in national development by a former Ecuadorian army commander. Moncayo, like other “developmentalist” officers has reservations about liberal democracy; a modified version of national security doctrine for the Ecuadorian case. Copublished by Abya-Yala, CELA, and Academia de Guerra de la Fuerza Terrestre.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Varas, Augusto, and Fernando Bustamante. Fuerzas Armadas y Política en Ecuador. Quito: Ediciones Latinoamérica, 1978.
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  283. Detailed analysis of the evolution of doctrine, ideology, and connection to civil society of the Ecuadorian armed forces by leading Chilean and Ecuadorian experts on the armed forces and civil-military relations. Notes fragmentation and factionalism in the army. Appendices include tables on US military assistance to Ecuador and neighboring states; social and regional base of recruitment for the army; and a “political glossary” and political chronology from 1895.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. El Salvador
  286.  
  287. Military officers, in alliance with the county’s civilian elite, governed El Salvador beginning in the early 1930s. These were never strictly military governments, and elections, however fraudulent, punctuated political life while selecting the next military president. In October 1960 a group of junior military officers and civilian professionals overturned the Salvadoran government in a “progressive” military coup. President John F. Kennedy of the United States proclaimed “governments of the civil-military type of El Salvador are the most effective in containing Communist penetration in Latin America.” Colonel, then president, Julio Adalberto Rivera, chose the clasped hands of the Alliance for Progress as the logo for the new ruling party (PCN, or Party of National Reconciliation). Three military officers followed Rivera as president: General Fidel Sánchez Hernández (1967–1972); Colonel Arturo Armando Molina (1972–1977); General Carlos Humberto Romero (1977–1979). Before the 1970s, literature on the Salvadoran armed forces and military governments was negligible. Baloyra 1982 and Dunkerley 1982 are the most insightful historical backgrounds to the post-1959 military governments and to events from 1961 to 1979. Castro Morán 1987 is the most coherent treatment of the army and politics by a Salvadoran military officer. Bosch 1999 is the only serious published study of the internal workings of the officer corps by a former US military attaché to El Salvador. Schwarz 1991 examines the connection between the Salvadoran military and US counterinsurgency strategy, while Williams and Walter 1997 provides historical background on the military in Salvadoran politics and is a key source on US policy in El Salvador and the dilemmas of transition to civilian rule. The essays in Tulchin and Bland 1992 also offer insight into challenges of transition and the human rights violations during the 1979–1992 period. The National Security Archive’s El Salvador 1977–1984 (National Security Archive 1989) is an invaluable treasure chest of official documents on the Salvadoran armed forces, politics, and US policy before 1985. Americas Watch El Salvador’s Decade of Terror (Americas Watch 1991) focuses on human rights violations by the armed forces and insurgents during the civil war before the 1992 peace accords.
  288.  
  289. Americas Watch. El Salvador’s Decade of Terror: Human Rights Since the Assassination of Archbishop Romero. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991
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  291. Examines the human rights consequences of ongoing civil war in El Salvador and the role of the United States. Includes appendices with data on US military assistance and event chronology from 1979 to 1992.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Baloyra, Enrique A. El Salvador in Transition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982.
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  295. Excellent political history of El Salvador from 1948 to 1981. Chapters 4–5 treat the governments of Arturo Molina (1972–1977) and Carlos Humberto Romero (1977–1979), increasing militarization of the state and political repression. Compares and contrasts Salvadoran case to military regimes in post-1968 Brazil, Pinochet’s Chile, and Argentina post-1976. Assesses the turning point in 1979, the ensuring civil war, and the policies of Reagan administration toward El Salvador. Many primary documentary sources.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Bosch, Brian J. The Salvadoran Officer Corps and the Final Offensive of 1981. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Company Inc, 1999.
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  299. Former US defense and army attaché in El Salvador describes internal factionalism and the effects of the tanda system on the officer corps and politics. Focuses on the “final offensive” of 1981, but offers much broader understanding of the Salvadoran military and its participation in politics. Arguably the best discussion in English of the Salvadoran officer corps from 1931 to 1979.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Castro Morán, Mariano. Función polítca del ejército Salvadoreno en el presente siglo. San Salvador: UCA Editores, 1987.
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  303. History of the military and politics in El Salvador in the 20th century by a Salvadoran military officer (vice-minister for defense, member of civic-military government in 1960–1961) and author of various books and articles on militarism, security, and military institutions. See also “La seguridad nacional.” Estudios Estratégicos 1.2, (August 1995): 2–14. Essential source for civil-military relations in El Salvador.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Dunkerley, James. The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador. London: Junction Books, 1982.
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  307. Provides background to the civil war of 1979–1992, including the origins of military rule in the 1930s, the “readjusted” system of 1948, and developments into the 1970s. Describes human rights violations and the impacts of US policy in El Salvador. Unique insights into civil-military rule from 1961 to 1979 and the challenge from the left, guerrilla movements, and the impact in El Salvador of the Nicaraguan Revolution.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. National Security Archive. El Salvador 1977–1984: The Making of U.S. Policy. Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey, 1989.
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  311. Reproduces on microfiche over twenty-seven thousand pages of government documents. Drawn from the files of more than a dozen top-level government agencies, the collection of declassified documents presents a unique lens on the United States’ political, economic, and military involvement through the Carter and Reagan administrations.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Schwarz, Benjamin. American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and El Salvador: the Frustrations of Reform and the Illusions of Nation Building. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1991.
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  315. Focuses on US efforts to transform the Salvadoran army, with important material on tanda system, lack of doctrine, need for modernization, and efforts to overcome corruption and “ghost units” in the Salvadoran army. Discusses military economic enclaves and consequences of the army being the most powerful social and economic institution in the country.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Tulchin, Joseph, and Gary Bland. ed. Is There a Transition to Democracy in El Salvador? Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992.
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  319. Essays on the challenges in the transition to democracy, including the legacy of human rights violations, the institutional role of the armed forces, and economic development from 1979 to 1992.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Williams, Philip J., and Knut Walter. Militarization and Demilitarization in El Salvador’s Transition to Democracy. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997.
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  323. Excellent source on the role of the military in El Salvador from 1931 until the peace accords of 1992, and on the difficulties of demilitarizing the Salvadoran state at the end of the internal wars of the 1980s. Also includes much material on US policy and military rule. Good contemporary bibliography.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Guatemala
  326.  
  327. After the US-directed overthrow of President Jacobo Arbenz in 1954, Guatemala had no civilian president until the 1980s, with the exception of a brief interlude from 1966 to 1969. A sequence of “elected” military presidents governed the country from 1970 to 1984. Despite factionalism and occasional internal coups, the military was the most powerful political force in Guatemala and faced revolutionary insurgencies from the early 1960s until 1996, long after the transition to civilian government in 1985. Much of the literature on the Guatemalan military governments is focused on counterinsurgency, human rights violations, corruption, the US connection to military rule, and the ongoing influence of the armed forces in the country into the 21st century. As in the rest of Latin America, military officers and their conservative supporters justified hard-line policies against subversives, and this is also reflected in the literature on Guatemalan military governments. Rosada 1999 provides an excellent overview of the armed forces and politics after 1944, and Black, et al. 1984 is a critical assessment of the military governments from 1972 to 1984, with attention to the US role in Guatemala. Gramajo Morales 1995 is the most articulate exponent of a version of the Guatemalan national security doctrine. Schirmer 1998 is the best summary of the vision and doctrine of the military regimes—and the consequences of them. Delli Sante 1996 and Garrard-Burnett 2010 document the workings of military government, human rights violations, and the refugee diaspora, based on extensive primary sources and interviews. A unique ethnographic analysis of the consequences of military rule for indigenous peoples is Manz 1988. Both McClintock 1985 and the National Security Archive’s The Guatemalan Military (National Security Archive 2002) examine the connection between military rule and US policy toward Guatemala and Central America.
  328.  
  329. Black, George, with Milton Jamail, and Norma Stoltz Chinchilla. Garrison Guatemala. New York: Monthly Review, 1984.
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  331. This critical history provides background to military regimes from 1960s to 1980s, including the ouster of the Arbenz government (1954) and the CIA role in Guatemala. Focus is on three military governments from 1970 to 1984, with special attention given to the government of Efraín Ríos Montt —de facto president from March 1982 to August 1983 and known as the “Guatemalan Pinochet”—and the scorched-earth counterinsurgency campaign. Also critiques US policy in Guatemala, and contains appendices with Guatemalan government documents, including the national security plan (1982).
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Delli Sante, Angela. Nightmare or Reality: Guatemala in the 1980s. Amsterdam: Thela Publishers, 1996.
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  335. Based on over ten years of research and interviews in Europe, the United States, and the Western Hemisphere, the author offers a detailed description and denunciation of military rule and human rights violations in the 1980s. Special attention is given to the refugee diaspora. Includes extensive bibliography of academic, journalistic, documentary, and official sources, and a critical assessment of US and Israeli support for military governments.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Garrard-Burnett, Virginia. Terror in the Land of the Holy Spirit: Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, 1982–1983. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  339. Much broader than the title suggests. Considers the “descent into violence,” the creation of military governments, and the ideological, psychological, and military offensive of the Ríos Montt government to extirpate the insurgency in Guatemala. Explores the connection of government policies to Ríos Montt’s evangelical Protestantism. Based on primary sources such as guerrilla movement documents, evangelical pamphlets, speech transcripts, and declassified US government records; includes extensive notes and bibliography.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Gramajo Morales, Héctor Alejandro. De la guerra . . . a la guerra: La difícil transición política en Guatemala. Guatemala: Fondo de Cultura Editorial, 1995.
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  343. Analysis of insurgency and counterinsurgency in Guatemala by a former commander of the Guatemalan Army. Discusses the dilemmas faced in combating Marxist insurgents and the eventual transition to civilian rule. A retrospective contribution to Guatemalan national security doctrine and the role of the armed forces in national development.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Manz, Beatriz. Refugees of a Hidden War: The Aftermath of Counterinsurgency in Guatemala. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988.
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  347. Excellent ethnographic study of impacts of the civil war in indigenous communities in Guatemala. Offers a “bottom up” view of military rule and its consequences for the Maya majority in the country’s rural towns and villages.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. McClintock, Michael. The American Connection. Vol. 2, State Terror and Popular Resistance in Guatemala. London: Zed Press, 1985.
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  351. Detailed critique of state terrorism under military rule in Guatemala, with a focus on US support for repression. First volume treats the same topic in El Salvador. Highly critical of US policies. Extensive bibliographical sources.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. National Security Archive. The Guatemalan Military: What the U.S. Files Reveal. National Security Archive, George Washington University, 2002
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  355. An electronic version of the National Security Archive’s Electronic Briefing Book No. 32, which presents declassified US documents on the Guatemalan military’s traditional secrecy and clarifies US responsibility for the violence in Guatemala. Includes a hypertext summary of topics and documents available within the site that can be clicked on at any time.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Rosada, Héctor Roberto. Soldados en el Poder: Proyecto Militar en Guatemala, 1944–1990. PhD diss., Universiteit Utrecht, 1999.
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  359. The former president of the Guatemalan Commission for Peace examines the role of the armed forces in Guatemalan politics from the 1944 reformist experiment until 1990. Extensive bibliography and local knowledge of the Guatemalan experience under military rule.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Schirmer, Jennifer G. The Guatemalan Military Project: A Violence Called Democracy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998.
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  363. This is an essential source on the military and politics in Guatemala. Author relies on fieldwork and interviews with key military officers and others in Guatemala. Includes interviews available nowhere else. Extensive bibliography.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Honduras
  366.  
  367. Professional military institutions developed very late in Honduras (perhaps as late as the 1950s) in comparison with most of Latin America. The first coup by the army as an institution, rather than as a personalist/caudillo-type coup, occurred in 1957. In the 1970s the Honduran military emulated, to some extent, the military nationalist reformism of Peru and Panama, but serious studies of the Honduran armed forces and military governments are rare. Funes 1995 provides a rare historical view of the armed forces in Honduran politics, and Morris 1984 is a unique overview of the topic in English. Ropp 1974 emphasizes the relatively recent (1950s) emergence of professional militarism in Honduras, while Bowman 2001 discusses the public debate over the tipping point in Honduran civil-military relations framed by the Cuban Revolution and US policy. Bowman 2002, meanwhile, assesses the negative impacts of militarization in Honduras (compared with Costa Rica) from 1948 to 1998. Salomón 1992 is a synthesis of civil-military relations, and Salomón 1997 is a plea for subordination of military power to civilian control. Sieder 1995 is among the few serious studies of policy under military rule in Honduras in the 1970s, and Centro de Documentación de Hondura 1985 is a critical evaluation of the dictatorship of General Gustavo Álvarez (1982–1984; assassinated in Tegucigalpa, 1989).
  368.  
  369. Bowman, Kirk S. “The Public Battles over Militarisation and Democracy in Honduras, 1954–1963.” Journal of Latin American Studies 33.3 (2001): 539–560.
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  371. Bowman, a political scientist, argues that no hegemonic military ideology existed before the 1954–1963 period, and that democratization would have been possible if Cold War concerns had not enhanced police and military power. He examines public opinion and debate over “demilitarization” (on the Costa Rican model) in Honduran periodicals and newspapers before the 1963 coup, and describes increasing autonomy and participation of the military in politics during this period.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Bowman, Kirk S. Militarisation, Democracy and Development: the Perils of Praetorianism in Latin America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002.
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  375. Compares the cases of Costa Rica and Honduras (1948–1998), arguing that militarization has had a negative effect on democracy, economic growth, and equity. Includes quantitative indicators for seventy-six developing countries and eighteen Latin American nations. Important source on Honduran development and military. Good bibliography.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Centro de Documentación de Hondura (CEDOH). Militarismo en Honduras: El reinado de Gustavo Álvarez, 1982–1984. Cronologías 2. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: CEDOH, 1985.
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  379. Analysis by the Honduran think tank, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, of the military dictatorship in Honduras from 1982 to 1984 and the influence of General Gustavo Álvarez.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Funes, Matías. Los deliberantes: El poder militar en Honduras. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Editorial Guaymuras, 1995.
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  383. Rare history of civil-military relations in Honduras, with long-term view of the armed forces in Honduran politics. Ends with the return to civilian government in 1982.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Morris, James A. Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984.
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  387. Historical treatment by political scientist of the role of the military in Honduras; chapters 3–4 focus on the period 1956–1982. One of the very few monographs in English on the Honduran military. Useful contemporary (1980s) bibliography.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Ropp, Steve C. “The Honduran Army in the Sociopolitical Evolution of the Honduran State.” The Americas 30.4 (April 1974): 504–528.
  390. DOI: 10.2307/980035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Leading expert on Central American military institutions details the history of civil-military relations and the relatively recent (1950s) emergence of professional militarism in Honduras. Very useful reminder of the need for empirical research on particular cases rather than generalizing about all military institutions and governments in Central and South America.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Salomón, Leticia. Política y militares en Honduras. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: CEDOH, 1992.
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  395. A short review of civil-military relations in Honduras by the best-known expert on the Honduran armed forces.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Salomón, Leticia. Poder civil y fuerzas armadas en Honduras. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: CEDOH-CRIES, 1997.
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  399. This work by the most prominent expert on Honduran civil-military relations focuses on the need for consolidation of civilian control of the military, something that had not occurred despite the end of direct military rule.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Sieder, Rachel. “Honduras: The Politics of Exception and Military Reformism (1972–1978).” Journal of Latin American Studies 27.1 (February 1995): 99–127.
  402. DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X0001018XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Argues that military government reformism was a continuation of caudillismo, clientelism, and patronage, utilizing agrarian reform to co-opt emergent social sectors and defuse peasant discontent. Compares Honduran military populism with Peru (1968–1975) and Panama under Oscar Torrijos (1968–1978/81), including the internal divisions within the army, extensive corruption, and the gradual end of the reformist experiment. [The dual end of reign for Torrijos occurs because he had various official positions between 1968 and 1981, when he died in a plane crash. He was never “president” but headed the national guard. In 1978, he stepped down as head of the government, but remained de facto ruler of the country while another one of his followers, Aristides Royo, was a figurehead president.]
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Panama
  406.  
  407. Beginning with its creation as an independent nation in 1903, Panama was dominated by the United States and divided by the Canal Zone, conceded to the US in virtual perpetuity. Establishing real sovereignty and securing control over the canal became a shared goal of most Panamanians, and the US-Panama connection is central to the literature on the Panamanian constabulary, which evolved into the Panamanian Defense Force. With the implementation of the treaty, the American-owned Panama Canal Company, the Canal Zone government (which had an American general as governor), and the zone itself were abolished. Responsibility for operating the canal until the year 2000 was assumed by a binational commission. Panama asserted its sovereignty over the entire 533 square miles of territory that constituted the zone, and renamed it Area Canalera (Canal Area). The United States retained the use of military bases and other space and facilities necessary to operate and defend the canal until 2000 (officially, at noon on 31 December 1999) when any US sovereignty over the zone was eliminated. Pereira 1979 details the growth and missions of the Guardia. Guevara Mann 1996 and Harding 2001 provide alternative visions of militarism in Panamanian history up to the beginning of the 21st century, including the military governments after 1968. Ropp 1982 is the most accessible source in English on the Panamanian military until the death of Oscar Torrijos, and Ropp 1992 provides the most persuasive explanation of the continuation of military rule until the US invasion in 1989. Torrijos 1974 provides the flavor of the regime’s populism. Scranton 1991 is a balanced assessment of the legacies of military rule and of US involvement in Panama. In contrast, Dinges 1990 is a deeply researched, novel-like investigative exposé of the US connection to drug trafficking, corruption, and military government in Panama. Sosa 1999 offers unique insight by a former Panamanian ambassador in Washington, DC, to the politics and personalities of military rule in Panama.
  408.  
  409. Dinges, John. Our Man in Panama: How General Noriega Used the United States and Made Millions in Drugs and Arms. New York: Random House, 1990.
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  411. A prize-winning journalist relates the history of Panamanian dictator Noriega, his connection to the CIA, Fidel Castro, international drug trafficking, the Contra war against Nicaragua, and the causes of the US invasion of Panama in 1989.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Guevara Mann, Carlos. Panamanian Militarism: A Historical Interpretation. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1996.
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  415. A Panamanian researcher analyzes the so-called professionalization of the armed forces and policies developed by the 1968–1989 military regime, framed by the continuity of militarism in Panama’s history. He also examines the US role in shaping and encouraging militarism and military government in Panama as part of its regional security agenda, and questions the solidity of transition to democratic government after 1989. Useful bibliography.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Harding, Robert C., II. Military Foundations of Panamanian Politics. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2001.
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  419. Examines the uniqueness of Panamanian politics and civil-military relations from the founding of the nation under the aegis of US gunboats until Panama assumed full control of the Canal (at noon on 31 December 1999). Well-researched political analysis of Panamanian politics and the military; ends with chapter on the military legacy, the canal, and the prospects for democracy in Panama. Useful political chronology and bibliography.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Pereira, Renato. Fuerzas Armadas y Política. Panama City: Ediciones Nueva Universidad, 1979.
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  423. Key study of the growth and evolution in mission and operations of the Panamanian Guardia Nacional. Ends before Manuel Noriega transformed the Guardia into the Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF) in 1983.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Ropp, Steve C. Panamanian Politics: From Guarded Nation to National Guard. New York: Praeger, 1982.
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  427. Historical background to the 1968 coup that brought Omar Torrijos to power; treats emergence of the Guardia Nacional as Panama’s most important political institution. Discusses the canal treaty negotiations and ends with death of Torrijos. General bibliography on Panama.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Ropp, Steve C. “Explaining the Long-term Maintenance of a Military Regime: Panama before the U.S. Invasion.” World Politics 44.2 (January 1992): 210–234.
  430. DOI: 10.2307/2010447Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Expert on Panamanian politics and armed forces explains why and how the military regime sustained its autonomy and resisted the trend toward return to civilian governments in Latin America until the US invasion in 1989. Compares and contrasts Panamanian case to Paraguay and Chile. Focuses on corruption in the Panamanian defense forces and the dominance of drug trafficking, as well as the regime’s preferential access to foreign capital.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Scranton, Margaret E. The Noriega Years: U.S.-Panamanian Relations, 1981–1990. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991.
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  435. Considers why the US government tolerated the Noriega regime for so long, and why it was so difficult to oust him (requiring an invasion). Discusses international and regional security context, nature of the Panamanian military government, increased corruption and authoritarianism after 1983, and politics in the United States during the Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations. Also assesses the political legacies of the Torrijos and Noriega governments.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Sosa, Juan B. In Defiance. The Battle Against General Noriega Fought from Panama’s Embassy in Washington. Washington, DC: Francis Press, 1999.
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  439. Panama’s ambassador to the United States in the last years of the Noriega government (who opposed Noriega and was named by the civilian president) recounts the intimate inside history of the Noriega government and changes in US policy that led to the invasion of Panama in 1989. Unusual insight into the personalities and operations of the Guardia Nacional and US diplomacy.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Torrijos, Omar. Nuestra Revolución: Discursos Fundamentales del General Omar Torrijos Herrera, Jefe de Gobierno de la República de Panama. Panama: Departamento de Información, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 1974.
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  443. Speeches by General Torrijos that provide “flavor” among the Panamanian version of military nationalism and reformism.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Peru
  446.  
  447. Peru has had numerous military presidents in its history (almost 70 percent since 1821), but only from 1968 to 1975 did military institutions assume responsibility for governing the country directly. The first phase of this military government, under the leadership of General Juan Velasco Alvarado, was the subject of much attention because of its “radical” and nationalist orientation and the extensive transformation of Peruvian society it intended to achieve. In the academic and journalistic literature, it was often contrasted with the Brazilian, Argentine, and Chilean military governments, and comparisons were made to subsequent military governments in Ecuador, Honduras, and Panama. In its second phase, under General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti, the Peruvian military government became much more moderate. The sources cited in this section reflect diverse interpretations of the Peruvian military regime during this period. Masterson 1991 is a starting place for background to the 1968 coup and provides an overall assessment of the military governments. Philip 1978 is an early evaluation of the achievements and limitations of the Velasco government, while Franco 1983 and Kruijt 1994 are excellent later assessments of the 1968–1975 period, both for analysis and primary sources. In Velasco Alvarado 1972 and Morales Bermúdez Cerruti 1982, the heads of the military governments speak for themselves on objectives and policies. The collected essays in McClintock and Lowenthal 1983 present an outstanding sample of the varying evaluations of military rule in Peru. Angell 1984 and Palmer 1982 are arguably the best short analyses of Peruvian military governments from 1968 to1982.
  448.  
  449. Angell, Alan. “El gobierno militar peruano de 1968 a 1980: El fracaso de la revolución desde arriba.” Foro Internacional 25.1 (July/September 1984): 33–56.
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  451. A British expert on Latin American politics and labor movements provides an excellent and concise overview of military rule in Peru from 1968 to 1980, including an evaluation of the policies and difficulties of the Velasco and Morales Bermúdez Cerruti administrations.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Franco, Carlos, ed. El Perú de Velasco. 3 vols. Lima: CEDEP, 1983.
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  455. Key actors and policymakers in the Velasco administration join with academics to consider almost every imaginable aspect of the Velasco government and to reevaluate the “revolution from above.” Volume 1 covers background up to 1968; Volume 2 looks at the policies, intentions (including “destruction of the oligarchical model” and “construction of a new national State”), and achievements of the government; and Volume 3 covers SINAMOS, agrarian reform, labor policy, policy toward mass media, education reform, and more.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Kruijt, Dirk. Revolution by Decree: Peru, 1968–1975. Amsterdam: Thela Publishers, 1994.
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  459. Describes the policies of the Velasco government in detail, including interviews with key policymakers of the era, including military officers, cabinet ministers, ambassadors, and administrators in many of the government’s new agencies. Contains a biographical portrait of Velasco, and a foreword by two of Velasco’s cabinet ministers. In Spanish: La revolución por decreto (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1988).
  460. Find this resource:
  461. McClintock, Cynthia, and Abraham Lowenthal, ed. The Peruvian Experiment Reconsidered. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
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  463. Experts on Peru and the military reconsider the sincerity, achievements, and legacies of the military government. The title refers to an earlier edited volume on the same topic published at the end of the Velasco government: see, Abraham Lowenthal’s The Peruvian Experiment: Continuity and Change under Military Rule (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975). Useful source; better if consulted together with the 1975 volume.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Masterson, Daniel M. Militarism and Politics in Latin America: Peru from Sánchez Cerro to Sendero Luminoso. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
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  467. Historian provides background to the 1968–1976 period; last chapter focuses on the “unfilled mission” of the Velasco government (1968–1975) and assessment of the 1968–1980 military government as the “longest continuous rule by any 20th century Peruvian regime.” Many interviews with armed forces personnel. Extensive bibliography, including many primary sources.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Morales Bermúdez Cerruti, Francisco. El Proyecto Nacional. Lima: Centro de Documentación y Información Andina, 1982.
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  471. A former army commander, minister of war under the Velasco government, and president (1976–1980) explains his views on the military and Peruvian development. See also his “Rol de las Fuerzas Armadas en la Vida Nacional,” in Enrique Obando’s edited volume Fuerzas Armadas y Constitución (Lima: Centro Peruano de Estudios Internacionales, 1993), 23–33.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Palmer, David Scott. “Reformist Military Rule in Peru, 1968–80.” In New Military Politics in Latin America. Edited by Robert Wesson, 131–149. New York: Praeger, 1982.
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  475. Leading expert on Peruvian politics evaluates the twelve years of military rule. Despite failure of many reforms introduced by the military governments, author speculates that civilian government may build on some military policy initiatives and institutional innovation. Excellent concise overview of Peruvian military governments.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Philip, George D. E. The Rise and Fall of the Peruvian Military Radicals, 1968–1976. London: Athlone Press, 1978.
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  479. British expert on South American military and Latin American politics discusses the conditions leading to the coup of 1968, especially the crisis over the International Petroleum Corporation, the accomplishments and limits of the Velasco Alvarado government, and internal debates within the armed forces. Argues that the “radical” officers were supplanted by “developmentalist” officers led by Morales Bermúdez Cerruti in 1976.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Velasco Alvarado, Juan. La Voz de la Revolución: Discursos del presidente de la República General de División Juan Velasco Alvarado. 2 vols. Lima: Editorial Ausonia, 1972.
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  483. Selected speeches from the first years in power of the leader of Peru’s military “nationalist and revolutionary government.” Speeches provide insight into the fervor and drama of the “revolution by decree.”
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Uruguay
  486.  
  487. The initial phases of military government in Uruguay after 1973 maintained the face of civilian rule under a special regime of constitutional exception, often called a civil-military dictatorship. The National Security Council (Consejo de Seguridad Nacional, or COSENA) was created as an advisory body to the executive branch, and a de facto dictatorship installed. Subversion (Uruguayan Armed Forces 1977) is a translation of the Uruguayan military’s vision of the subversive threat and the need for repression to save the country from international communism. Lessa 2010 is a journalist’s best-selling account of the first phase of the dictatorship (1973–1976). After voters rejected a military-inspired new constitution in 1980, General Gregorio Álvarez took control as de facto president from 1981 to 1985. Álvarez 1984 presents statements by Uruguay’s military dictator regarding the mission and objectives of the military regime. Astori 1996 surveys the economic policies and neoliberal reforms of the military regime, while Caetano and Rilla 1998 describes the three main phases of the dictatorship (1973–1977, 1976 to the plebiscite, and 1980–1985). Demasi, et al. 2009 provides more comprehensive analysis of the policies and consequences of military rule. Martínez 2005 reminds readers of the social and political support for the dictatorship while recounting the massive human rights violations and resistance to the regime. Gillespie 1991 is the best single volume in English on the period 1973–1985 and the return to civilian rule. Servicio Paz y Justicia 1992 is an essential source on the installation of military rule, transformation of government institutions, and human rights violations under military government.
  488.  
  489. Álvarez, Gregorio. El rol de las Fuerzas Armadas en el Proceso Político Uruguayo: (Texto de las conferencias pronunciadas por el Sr. Presidente de la República Oriental de Uruguay). Buenos Aires: Instituto de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 1984.
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  491. Presents the views of the de facto military president (1981–1985) of Uruguay on civil-military relations and public policy shortly before the transition back to civilian government. Álvarez was indicted for human rights violations in 2007 and was convicted and sentenced to twenty-five years in prison on 22 October 2009, for thirty-seven counts of murder and human rights violations.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Astori, Daniel. El Uruguay de la Dictadura. Montevideo: Ediciones De La Banda Oriental, 1996.
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  495. Excellent summary of the economic policies of the military regime from 1973 to 1985. Raises questions regarding the linkage between neoliberal policies and authoritarian politics. Also considers the role of civilian politicians, administrators, and economists in the military government.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Caetano, Gerardo, and José Rilla, eds. Breve historia de la dictadura, 1973–1985. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1998.
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  499. Chronological history of military rule, divided into three periods: 1973–1976; 1976–1980; and the “transition to democracy,” 1980–1985. Useful appendices with documents issued by military regime. Focus is on the legacies of military rule.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Demasi, Carlos, Aldo Marchesi, Vania Markarian, Alvaro Rico, and Jaime Yaffé. La dictadura Cívico Militar: Uruguay, 1973–1985. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2009.
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  503. A group of Uruguayan historians and political scientists examine in detail the policies of the military government, particularly economic policies, cultural policies, institutional changes, foreign relations, and human rights violations. Updated bibliography on the military government period. Includes primary sources, contemporary press reports, and official documents.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Gillespie, Charles. Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  506. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511528200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Perhaps the best single volume in English on the breakdown of Uruguayan democracy, the failure of the military to institutionalize a new political system, and the negotiated transition to civilian rule. Chapter 4, on the survival of the political parties and the politics of the period 1981–1984, is excellent.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Lessa, Alfonso. Estado de guerra: De la gestación del golpe de 73 a la caída de Bordaberry. Montevideo: Editorial Fin del Siglo, 2010.
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  511. A well-known journalist recounts the events leading to the civil-military coup of 1973 and the first years of the Uruguayan dictatorship, ending with the ouster of President Bordaberry in 1976. First published in 1996, it became a best-seller in Uruguay. The 2003 edition includes previously unpublished documents and interviews with protagonists such as Bordaberry, former Tupumaro guerrillas, and military officers.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Martínez, Virginia. Tiempos de Dictadura: Hechos, Voces y Documentos; La Represión y la Resistencia Día a Día. Montevideo: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2005.
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  515. Describes daily life under the dictatorship, including decrees, proclamations, speeches, press censorship, violations of human rights, and resistance to the military regime. Reminds readers of the social and economic foundations of the Uruguayan military government, especially among the business associations and rightist political groups.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Servicio Paz y Justicia. Uruguay Nunca Más: Human Rights Violations, 1972–1985. Translated by Elizabeth Hampsten. Introduction by Lawrence Weschler. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1992.
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  519. Translation of a report on human rights violations in Uruguay under military rule. Insightful introduction on the breakdown of democracy and ascendancy of the military, public policy under the dictatorship, and the transition back to elected civilian government. Considers in detail the practices of state terrorism, collaboration of doctors and psychologists, and coordination of repression by Southern Cone military governments.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Uruguayan Armed Forces. Subversion: Uruguayan Armed Forces Summary of Subversive Movement in Latin America. Parts 1–3. Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1977.
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  523. This is a translation of La Subversión, published by the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Uruguayan Armed Forces. The report summarizes the military assessment of the subversive movement in Latin America and the threat to national security.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. National Security Doctrine
  526.  
  527. The military governments during the 1959–1990 period shared certain ideological premises and strategic doctrines related to the relationship between political stability, prosperity, development, and “national security,” broadly understood. These premises were identified during the period as the “doctrine of national security” (DSN, in Spanish or Portuguese). Much of the DSN was borrowed from French and US military and counterinsurgency doctrine and practices, then given national interpretations at the region’s military academies. Securing “national security” justified military coups, harsh repression of regime opponents, and direct military rule. The sources below include national variants of DSN for most of the military regimes in the region and critical analysis of DNS and its consequences. Arriagada Herrera 1981 (on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay), Calvo 1979 (on the Southern Cone), Corlazzoli 1987 (on Brasil, Chile, and Uruguay), and Tapia Valdés 1986 (special attention to Chile) are comparative assessments of national security doctrine for several countries, while Gramajo Morales 1989, Mercado Jarrín 1974, Villanueva Valencia 1972, and Silva 1967 are exponents of national security doctrine for, respectively, Guatemala, Peru, and Brazil.
  528.  
  529. Arriagada Herrera, Genaro. El pensamiento político de los militares: Estudios sobre Chile, Argentina, Brasil y Uruguay. Santiago: Centro de Investigaciones Socioeconómicas (CISEC), 1981.
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  531. Insightful study of military professionalization and doctrine in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. Chapter on counterinsurgency warfare from 1960 to 1980 of particular interest.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Calvo, Roberto. La doctrina militar de la seguridad nacional (autoritarismo político y liberalismo económico en el Cono Sur). Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, 1979.
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  535. Explains the “theoretico-ideological” melding of authoritarian politics and neoliberal economic policy, framed by the Doctrine of National Security, which justified the political role of the military in Brazil and Chile. Explores the intellectual origins of the DSN, its connection to “developmentalism,” and academic and religious critiques of the DSN.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Corlazzoli, Pablo. Los regimenes militares en América Latina: Estructuración e ideología; Los casos de Brasil, Chile y Uruguay. Montevideo: Ediciones del Nuevo Mundo, 1987.
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  539. Comparative analysis of the influence and policy consequences of national security doctrine in three cases and the US connection. Useful citations in the footnotes. Published after transition to civilian government in Uruguay (1985).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Gramajo Morales, Héctor Alejandro. La Tesis de la Estabilidad Nacional. Guatemala: Editorial del Ejército, 1989.
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  543. Guatemalan variant of national security doctrine by former army commander responsible for creating civilian patrols (patrullas civiles) and modifying the counterinsurgency strategy. Gramajo was defense minister (1987–1990) and army chief-of-staff during the early-1980s counterinsurgency campaigns.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Mercado Jarrín, Edgardo, Gen. Ensayos. Lima: Biblioteca Militar del Oficial, 1974.
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  547. Includes the essay “ La seguridad integral en el proceso revolucionario peruano” (pp. 145–161), in which Mercado Jarrín, as Army Chief of Staff (Jefe del Estado Mayor), explains the essential role of the armed forces in national development and the way in which the Center for Advanced Military Studies (CAEM) imparts national security doctrine to army officers. Author played a central role in Peruvian military government after 1968.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Silva, Golbery do Couto E. Geopolítica do Brasil. Rio Janeiro: José Olympio, 1967.
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  551. Author was key leader of Brazilian coup of 1964 and a seminal thinker on national security doctrine. Book describes a world divided into two opposing blocs—the capitalist and Christian West, and the communist and “atheistic” East—each with its own values that were considered irreconcilable. Translated into Spanish, often for use in Latin American military academies and war colleges.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Tapia Valdés, Jorge. Estrategocracia: el Gobierno de los Generales. Santiago: Ediciones del Ornitorrinco, 1986.
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  555. This former minister of justice and education in government of Salvador Allende (1970–1973) elaborates the major elements of national security doctrine (DSN, or DOSENA) and its consequences for human rights in Latin America. Final chapter analyzes Chile’s 1980 constitution as a case of “institutionalized militarism.” Useful bibliography on theoretical considerations and empirical case studies on this topic.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Villanueva Valencia, Víctor. EL CAEM y la Revolución de la Fuerza Armada. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (IEP), 1972.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Expert on Peruvian military institutions analyzes the doctrinal and ideological influence of the Peruvian Center for Advanced Military Studies (CAEM) on the origins and implementation of military rule after 1968. Introduction by the Peruvian sociologist Julio Cotler is also useful. Copublished by Campodónico Ediciones.
  560. Find this resource:
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