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Oromo (African Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Oromo (formerly known as Galla) constitute one of the largest ethnic groups of Ethiopia (c. 26 million), but they are also found in northern Kenya and Somalia. They are divided into subgroups that are based on geographic and social factors, of which regional identity is one of the most important. The Oromo language (also called Afaan Oromoo and Oromiffa) belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Although the Oromo were often perceived as typical exponents of the so-called cattle-complex, they were characterized by a mixed economy with extensive farming. The status of cattle, however, was high; beyond the economic value of cattle, a strong emotional and ritual relationship existed between people and stock. Traditionally, the gadaa system, which included a classification by age groups, was a central institution of social and political organization. Age groups succeeded each other every eight years in assuming military, economic, political, and ritual responsibilities. The male members of Oromo society were classified into generation-sets and gadaa grades. In modern Oromo society, gadaa is no longer in wide practice but it seems to remain influential. In the 16th and 17th centuries a massive expansion of the Oromo took place. An increase in population and demographic pressure as well as ongoing droughts led many Oromo to leave their southern Ethiopian homelands. The expansion was military in character, and, as a result, many Oromo groups started to settle in different regions. They proceeded to develop into a political power. By the end of the 17th century, they were taking an active part in the political formation of the Ethiopian state. A process of mutual assimilation between the Oromo and other inhabitants of the Ethiopian empire started. Over the centuries, Oromo became part of the Ethiopian nobility and some held high leadership positions. The relationship with the Amhara people, who constitute the second-largest ethnic group in Ethiopia and who have dominated the country’s political and economic life, was, however, marked by constant strain. At the beginning of the 20th century, different Oromo groups began to develop a sense of togetherness and a nascent nationalism (Orumumma, “being Oromo”) emerged. In 1973, Oromo discontent with their position led to the formation of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which launched political agitation in the Oromo areas. After the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, an Oromo federal state, called Oromia, was founded.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Most studies include Oromo history, society, and culture in a wider Ethiopian context. Abir 1980 takes into account the contribution of the Oromo to Ethiopian history from 1490 to 1889. Adejumobi 2007 ties in chronologically with the author’s study of late-19th-century and 20th-century Ethiopian history against the background of changing global power configurations. Marcus 2002 also gives an overview of Ethiopian-Oromo history, and includes the 20th century until 2000, whereas Zewde 1991 concentrates on the last century of imperial rule until 1974. Pankhurst 2001 is a political history of Ethiopia. Shinn and Ofcansky 2004 offers a helpful guide for the history of Ethiopia for those with little or no previous knowledge. Ullendorf 1998 gives a useful classical overview, which is a little dated with its focus on the northern population. Levine 2000 is an interdisciplinary study presenting an approach that views Ethiopia as a common cultural region.
  8.  
  9. Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim-European Rivalry in the Region. London: Cass, 1980.
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  11. The book covers subjects often neglected, including the contributions of the Oromo to Ethiopian history between 1490 and 1889.
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  13. Adejumobi, Saheed A. The History of Ethiopia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007.
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  15. The book is intended for both students and general readers and is focused largely on the late 19th and 20th centuries. The author questions of shifting global power configurations and their implications for Ethiopia.
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  17. Levine, Donald N. Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
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  19. This interdisciplinary study combines history, anthropology, and sociology and treats Ethiopia as a common cultural region despite its political, religious, and linguistic diversity. In this second edition of the book originally published in 1974 the author also examines Ethiopia since the overthrow of the monarchy in the 1970s.
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  21. Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
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  23. The book gives a complete overview of Ethiopian history to the fall of the Mengistu government in 1991. First edition published in 1994.
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  25. Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopians: A History. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
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  27. The study focuses on political history and is written by one of the leading specialists on Ethiopian history.
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  29. Shinn, H. David, and Thomas P. Ofcansky. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2004.
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  31. The book is the third and latest on Ethiopia within the Historical Dictionaries of Africa series. It is a reference guide listing historical events, important persons, geographical locations, ethnic groups, and other topics for those with little or no knowledge of Ethiopia.
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  33. Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. 4th ed. Kingston, Jamaica: Headstart, 1998.
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  35. Originally published in 1960, a still quite useful overview book, despite its emphasis on the northern, Semitic-speaking population.
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  37. Zewde, Bahri. A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1991.
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  39. The book focuses on the last century of imperial rule, with an emphasis on the 20th century.
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  41. Bibliographies
  42.  
  43. Literature on the Oromo is usually included in bibliographies dealing with Ethiopia in general. An important and comprehensive older work is Fumagalli 1893. Lockot, et al. 1998 is the most comprehensive and authoritative bibliography of English-language literature on Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Additionally, Munro-Hay and Pankhurst 1995 provides helpful annotations and good indexes. Milkias 1989 includes literature in Ethiopian languages but is not annotated. Other bibliographies are more limited in their scope. The most limited one is Marcus 1972, which lists only articles published in geographical journals before World War I. Abbink 1990 concentrates on literature dealing with all aspects of Ethiopian society and history published between 1957 and 1990. Only Trudnos 1984 is limited to Oromo culture and language.
  44.  
  45. Abbink, J. Ethiopian Society and History: A Bibliography of Ethiopian Studies, 1957–1990. Leiden, The Netherlands: African Studies Centre, 1990.
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  47. Contains a comprehensive overview of publications on Ethiopia published from c. 1957 until 1990. Subject areas include history, cultural geography and demography, politics and law, modernization, communications, industry and economic development, social structure and social change, international relations, and many more.
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  49. Fumagalli, G. Bibliografia etiopica. Milan: Ulrich Hoepli, 1893.
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  51. Fumagalli is the best-known Italian bibliographer of his period. His bibliography of Ethiopia is a very comprehensive one, listing 2,758 printed items. The notes are very useful, and they include full title, size, pagination, and annotations.
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  53. Lockot, Hans Wilhelm, Siegbert Uhlig, and Verena Böll. Bibliographia Aethiopica II: The Horn of Africa in English Literature. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1998.
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  55. With about 24,000 entries this is a major source with an exemplary index and format.
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  57. Marcus, Harold G. The Modern History of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa: A Select and Annotated Bibliography. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press, 1972.
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  59. This bibliography is limited to articles that appeared in geographical journals published before the First World War, compiled from the collection of the Library of Congress.
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  61. Milkias, Paulos. Ethiopia: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989.
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  63. A comprehensive, but not annotated, bibliography containing about 20,000 entries (many in Ethiopian languages).
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  65. Munro-Hay, Stuart, and Richard Pankhurst. Ethiopia. World Bibliographical Series 179. Oxford: Clio, 1995.
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  67. Comprehensive annotated bibliography on all aspects of Ethiopia with good indexes and detailed subject headings. Includes about six hundred titles as well as a chronology, a list of rulers, and an introduction outlining the country’s history.
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  69. Trudnos, A. Oromo Documentation: Bibliography and Maps. Warsaw, Poland: Warsaw University, Department of African Languages and Cultures, Institute of Oriental Studies, 1984.
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  71. Contains an overview of publications on Oromo people, culture, and language published between 1681 and 1980.
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  73. Reference Works
  74.  
  75. A number of useful reference works on African history or other aspects of African society and culture in general also include aspects of Oromo history and society. Bechhaus-Gerst 2005a and Bechhaus-Gerst 2005b are recent works that provide an overview of historical Oromo migrations and Oromo social and economic organization. The most comprehensive and important reference work is Uhlig, et al. 2003–2011, which includes articles on all aspects of Oromo culture, language, and history.
  76.  
  77. Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. “Oromo: Migration and Expansion: Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” In Encyclopedia of African History. Vol. 2. Edited by Kevin Shillington, 1182–1183. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005a.
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  79. Summarizes historical Oromo migrations.
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  81. Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. “Oromo: Origins, Social and Economic Organization.” In Encyclopedia of African History. Vol. 2. Edited by Kevin Shillington, 1181–1182. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005b.
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  83. An overview of Oromo social and economic organization.
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  85. Uhlig, Siegbert, et al., eds. Encyclopedia Aethiopica. 4 vols. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2003–2011.
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  87. This comprehensive reference work for the Horn of Africa includes articles by leading specialists in all the relevant fields. A fifth volume is projected. The five volumes will include approximately four thousand articles covering archaeology, ethnology and anthropology, history, languages and literatures, art, and religion and culture. Articles dealing with many aspects of Oromo studies are found in all the volumes.
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  89. Journals
  90.  
  91. A number of authoritative journals publish current research on northeastern Africa in general and on Ethiopia or Oromo in particular. Rassegna di Studi Etiopici is an important journal that carries on the Italian tradition of scholarship on Ethiopia. Northeast African Studies and Aethiopica are both multidisciplinary journals with articles on all aspects of the history and culture of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. The Journal of Oromo Studies is the one journal specializing in all aspects of Oromo culture, history, and language.
  92.  
  93. Aethiopica.
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  95. Published since 2002, Aethiopica: International Journal of Ethiopian and Eritrean Studies is a multidisciplinary journal dedicated to research and study of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, and topics include historical as well as contemporary subjects.
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  97. Journal of Oromo Studies.
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  99. Biannual multidisciplinary journal published since 1993 by the Oromo Studies Association (OSA) covering all areas of Oromo studies.
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  101. Northeast African Studies.
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  103. An interdisciplinary journal with articles on Ethiopia and its neighbors. Published between 1994 and 2003, publication resumed in 2010.
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  105. Rassegna di Studi Etiopici.
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  107. Famous Italian journal devoted to Ethiopian studies in which articles written by the most famous scholars of Ethiopia of their time can be found. Launched in 1941, the most recent volume was published in 2003.
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  109. History
  110.  
  111. Several general studies of Oromo history are worth reading. Most of these refer to Amharic and Oromo interaction in the course of several centuries. Crummey 2000 covers Ethiopian history over a period of seven centuries and refers to Oromo history as part of it. Hassen 1990 presents a well-informed study of pre-20th-century Oromo history. Tafla’s voluminous edition of the work of Asma Giyorgis, originally published in Amharic and later translated into English (see Tafla 1987), interprets four hundred years of Amhara and Oromo interaction. Melbaa 1999 is a short history representing what might be called the semiofficial, political Oromo historiography. For histories on specific centuries, see Early Records and Oromo Origins, and studies of Oromo history in the 19th and 20th Centuries.
  112.  
  113. Crummey, Donald. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
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  115. The author demonstrates how statehood, religion, and land rights are autonomous but closely linked and denotes the way in which they defined the relationship between production and authority in highland Ethiopia over a period of seven centuries. Many references to Oromo history are found throughout the book.
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  117. Hassen, Mohammed. The Oromo of Ethiopia: A History, 1570–1860. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  119. A useful study of pre-19th-century Oromo history based on unpublished archival as well as published written sources. The author starts with the periods of Oromo migrations in the 16th and 17th centuries and continues with the formation and structure of the Oromo states in the 18th and 19th centuries.
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  121. Melbaa, Gadaa. Oromia: An Introduction to the History of the Oromo People. 2d ed. Minneapolis: Kirk House, 1999.
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  123. A short introduction to Oromo history representing the semi-official Oromo historiography.
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  125. Tafla, Bairu, ed. Aṣma Giyorgis and His Work: History of the Gāllā and the Kingdom of Sawā. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1987.
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  127. This voluminous (over one thousand pages) book contains the Amharic original and an annotated translation of the monumental history written by Aṣma Giyorgis Oromo, which he completed between 1910 and 1915. Giyorgis interpreted four hundred years of Oromo and Amhara interaction and presented the Oromo as an intrinsic force in Ethiopian history.
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  129. Early Records and Oromo Origins
  130.  
  131. The most important source on 16th-century Oromo history written by an Ethiopian monk has been translated and edited (Beckingham and Huntingford 1954). D’Abbadie 2007 is the English translation of an early study of the gadaa system by a 19th-century European scholar. Concerning Oromo origins, different theories have been put forward based on different approaches to sources. Ficquet 2002 discusses the “invention of traditions” with regard to Oromo origins, and Triulzi and Ta’a 2004 gives a textual example of these invented traditions. Trulzi 1994 questions the classification of the Oromo as a homogeneous group in connection with their origin and history. Lewis 1966 is important, because the author reconstructs a southern Ethiopian homeland for the Oromo and Somali.
  132.  
  133. Beckingham, C. F., and George W. B. Huntingford. Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593–1646, Being Extracts from the History of High Ethiopia or Abassia by Manoel de Almeida, Together with Bahrey’s History of the Galla. London: Hakluyt Society, 1954.
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  135. The short work by Abba Bahrey (Bahrəy), a late-16th-century Ethiopian monk, historian, and ethnographer, is considered the ultimate source for information on the 16th-century history of the Oromo.
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  137. d’Abbadie, Antoine. “On the Oromo: Great African Nation Often Designated under the Name ‘Galla.’” Translated by Ayalew Kanno. Journal of Oromo Studies 14.1 (2007): 117–146.
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  139. Antoine d’Abbadie presented this lecture in French on 5 April 1880. It was presumably the first detailed study of the gadaa system by a European scholar and the first to point out that Galla is not the way Oromos refer to themselves. He visited the Oromo in 1843–1844 and again in 1846.
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  141. Ficquet, Eloi. “La fabrique des origines Oromo.” Annales d’Ethiopie 18 (2002): 55–71.
  142. DOI: 10.3406/ethio.2002.1014Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Discusses the different approaches to Oromo origins against the background of what has been called “the invention of tradition” in contemporary historical studies.
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  145. Lewis, Herbert S. “The Origins of the Galla and Somali.” Journal of African History 7 (1966): 27–46.
  146. DOI: 10.1017/S0021853700006058Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. Presents reconstructions of the origins and major movements of the Oromo and Somali. The author departs from earlier works in that he proposes a southern Ethiopian homeland for both the Oromo and the Somali. He further presumes that the Oromo stayed there until about 1530, when their massive migrations started. Available online by subscription.
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  149. Triulzi, Alessandro. “Oromo Traditions of Origin.” In Études éthiopiennes: Actes de la Xe conférence internationale des études éthiopiennes, Paris, 24–28 août 1988. Vol. 1. Edited by Claude Lepage, 593–601. Paris: Société Française des Études Éthiopiennes, 1994.
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  151. Discusses the tendency to consider the Oromo a “monolithic” group when talking about their origin and history.
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  153. Triulzi, Alessandro, and Täsämma Ta’a, eds. YaWalagā yatārik sanadoč: Ka1880woču ’eska1920woču (’E. ’I. ’A.). Vol. 1. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Addis Ababa University Press, 2004.
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  155. These are texts that contain a detailed genealogy of the Oromo and short stories from the lives of personalities. Their creation can be interpreted in the context of “invented traditions,” providing the Oromo with a legitimization of their presence and status in Ethiopian society on the same level as the dominant Amhara. In Amharic, with introductory material in English.
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  157. The 19th and 20th Centuries
  158.  
  159. Most studies of Oromo history of the 19th and 20th centuries deal with different types of conflicts and wars. Jalata 2005 studies Oromo domination by different Ethiopian regimes over more than one hundred years and argues that conditions have worsened since 1993. Reid 2011 analyzes the history of conflicts in northeastern Africa since 1800 with a main focus on the Oromo. Ahmed 2011 deals with Islamization and the disintegration of the gadaa system in the eastern Oromo area after 1880. Gebissa 2002 concentrates on the relationship between the Oromo and the advancing Italian forces in 1936. Lewis 2002 stands out in being a study of an Oromo monarchy in southwestern Ethiopian between 1930 and 1932.
  160.  
  161. Ahmed, Ibsa. The Eastern Oromo in the 19th and 20th Centuries: The History of Islamization and Conquest. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic, 2011.
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  163. This small volume is a case study of occupation, Islamization, and disintegration of the gadaa system that took place after 1880 in the Eastern Oromo region.
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  165. Gebissa, Ezekiel. “The Italian Invasion, the Ethiopian Empire, and Oromo Nationalism: The Significance of the Western Oromo Confederation of 1936.” Northeast African Studies 9.3 (2002): 75–96.
  166. DOI: 10.1353/nas.2007.0011Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Discusses the events of 1936, when Haile Sellassie’s government fell ahead of the advancing Italian forces and Oromos in western Abyssinia joined forces with the Italians to throw out their former Amhara rulers and try to gain international recognition as a nation separate from Ethiopia. Available online by subscription.
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  169. Jalata, Asafa. Oromia and Ethiopia: State Formation and Ethnonational Conflict, 1868–2004. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2005.
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  171. A revised version of the 1993 original with the same title. The author argues that the Oromo people were dominated by successive Ethiopian governments and that conditions have worsened since 1993. The global fight against terrorism has provided the Ethiopian government with new strategic arguments and international support for fighting the Oromo nationalist movement, which is increasingly portrayed as “Muslim” and “fundamentalist.” The author tries to show that colonialism and imperialism have not been successful in destroying the cultural identity of the Oromo; rather, they have succeeded in strengthening Oromo identity and nationalism.
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  173. Lewis, Herbert S. Jimma Abba Jifar: An Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830–1932. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2002.
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  175. With a postscript. A study of the Oromo kingdom of Jimma Abba Jifar, which was established around 1830 in southwestern Ethiopia. It is based on fieldwork by the author and focuses on the history and organization of Jimma under its most powerful ruler, Abba Jifar II (r. 1878–1932).
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  177. Reid, Richard J. Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict since c. 1800. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  178. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211883.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. This recent study offers an historical analysis of violent conflicts in northeastern Africa through the 19th and 20th centuries with many historical and contemporary references to the Oromo.
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  181. Contemporary Studies
  182.  
  183. The situation of the Oromo people in Ethiopia at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century is analyzed in several important studies. A global approach can be found in Jalata 2004, which constitutes a collection of papers by different authors who focus on state crises and state failure in the Horn of Africa at the beginning of the 21st century. Tuso 2006 discusses US foreign policy and the author poses the question of why the United States sided with the Ethiopian government against the Oromo nationalist movement. Truman 2006 introduces the term genocide in a study of Ethiopian state terrorism against the Oromo. In a comparative study Jalata 2002 analyzes the Oromo national movement and African-American nationalism, whereas Yusuf 2009 compares Ethiopian and Oromo nationalism. Baxter 1994 discusses Oromo nationalism and the potential for conflicts in Ethiopia. Keller 1995 studies Oromo nationalism and the different political factions among the Oromo before 1995. Pausewang 2007 discusses the aftermath of the 2005 election and its effect on the Oromos.
  184.  
  185. Baxter, P. T. W. “The Creation & Constitution of Oromo Nationality.” In Ethnicity & Conflict in the Horn of Africa. Edited by Katsuyosh Fukui, 167–186. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1994.
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  187. Discusses the literature on Oromo nationalism and the present situation of the Oromo and possible conflicts in Ethiopia.
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  189. Jalata, Asafa. Fighting against the Injustice of the State and Globalization: Comparing the African American and Oromo Movements. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
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  191. A comparative analysis of the Oromo national movement with that of African-American nationalism in the United States based on theories of globalization and social movements. The author, an Oromo himself as well as a US academic, draws on his dual background.
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  193. Jalata, Asafa, ed. State Crises, Globalisation and National Movements in North-East Africa: The Horn’s Dilemma. London: Routledge, 2004.
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  195. The book examines the internal and global forces responsible for state crises and state failure in states on the Horn of Africa at the beginning of the 21st century. The contributors discuss the different forces that have interacted in the processes of building state power, for example, the role of intervention by global powers and the consequent failure to build the state as a public domain.
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  197. Keller, Edmond J. “The Ethnogenesis of the Oromo Nation and Its Implication for Politics in Ethiopia.” Journal of Modern African Studies 33.4 (1995): 621–634.
  198. DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X00021467Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Takes a historical perspective on Oromo nationalism and discusses the different political groups among the Oromo and their goals in the years immediately before 1995. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  201. Pausewang, Siegfried. “The Oromo and the Coalition of Unity and Democracy.” Journal of Oromo Studies 14.1 (2007): 79–116.
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  203. The article discusses the aftermath of the 2005 election and the relationship between the Oromo and the Coalition for Unity and Democracy.
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  205. Truman, Trevor. “Genocide against the Oromo People.” In Arrested Development in Ethiopia: Essays on Underdevelopment, Democracy, and Self-Determination. Edited by Seyoum Hameso and Mohammed Hassen, 133–148. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2006.
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  207. Deals with human rights violations against the Oromo by the Ethiopian state. The author analyzes the extent and consequences of Ethiopian state terrorism, which is characterized as genocidal and racist.
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  209. Tuso, Hamdesa. “Oromo Problem and the US Foreign Policy.” In Arrested Development in Ethiopia: Essays on Underdevelopment, Democracy, and Self-Determination. Edited by Seyoum Hameso and Mohammed Hassen, 149–199. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2006.
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  211. The author discusses the role of the United States in helping the Ethiopian regimes to survive. He points to what he regards as contradictions in US foreign policy and questions why the United States sided with the Bosnians and Kosovo Albanians against Serbian state terrorism, but sided with the Ethiopian government, which terrorized the Oromo nation.
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  213. Yusuf, Semir. “Contending Nationalisms in a Transnational Era: The Case of Ethiopianist and Oromo Nationalisms.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 44.3 (2009): 299–318.
  214. DOI: 10.1177/0021909609102900Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. This article examines the relationship between transnationalism and nationhood in the global era, focusing on how Ethiopian and Oromo nationalisms interact and contribute to reconstructing nationhood. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  217. Society and Ethnography
  218.  
  219. Two classical ethnological studies of Oromo society are available in German: Jensen 1936 and Haberland 1963. Both are based on fieldwork and both are interesting with regard to the data collected as well as the history of ethnology, but they show outdated approaches and interpretations. Van de Loo and Kola 1991 analyzes the southern Ethiopian Oromo culture of rituals and songs. Baxter, et al. 1996 approaches the question of Oromo identity under various headings and from various directions in a scholarly and informative collection of papers. Due to continuing difficulties in conducting field studies in Ethiopia, most studies deal with Oromo people living in Kenya. Aguilar 1998 focuses on the religious identity of the agro-pastoral Kenyan Oromo, whereas Kassam and Basuma 2004 addresses the marginalization of Waata-Oromo hunter-gatherers, who also live in Kenya. Ensminger 1992 studies economic transformations among the pastoral Orma of eastern Kenya. A more historical perspective on economic and social transformation is found in Ta’a and Griefenow-Mewis 2006, which is also one of the rare studies of central Ethiopian Oromo. Haneke 2000 discusses the various factors contributing to the construction of an Oromo identity. For more specific studies, see the subsections Gadaa and Other Institutions, which focuses on the special political and societal institutions characteristic of Oromo society, Women in Oromo Society, which consists of gender-related studies, and Oromo Refugees and the Creation of Oromo Diasporas, which deals with studies of Oromo migrants all over the world.
  220.  
  221. Aguilar, Mario I. Being Oromo in Kenya. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1998.
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  223. Based on extensive fieldwork, archival research, and collected oral histories, the study deals with the Oromo living in Kenya with a focus on religion and ritual.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Baxter, Paul Trevor William, Jan Hultin, and Alessandro Triulzi, eds. Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1996.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Results from a workshop on Oromo identity. The essays by various scholars from different disciplines studying the Oromo people of Ethiopia and northern Kenya cover a wide range of subjects.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Ensminger, Jean. Making a Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. An anthropological study of economic transformations among the pastoral Orma of eastern Kenya addressing both economists and anthropologists. The book makes a contribution to the literature on development and institutions and contributes to understanding change in Africa.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Haberland, Eike. Galla Süd-Äthiopiens. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 1963.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. A seminal ethnological study of the Oromo of southern Ethiopia based on field research in the 1950s. Haberland wanted to describe the “original” Oromo culture unimpaired by Amhara dominance. An English summary can be found at the end of the book.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Haneke, Georg. “The Multidimensionality of Oromo Identity.” In Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity. Edited by Günther Schlee, 133–153. Münster, Germany: LIT Verlag, 2000.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Discusses the many factors contributing to the construction of an Oromo identity, such as language; common history; a common history of social structure, for example, the gadaa system; and a common consciousness of belonging to a discriminated group.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Jensen, A. E., ed. Im Lande des Gada: Wanderungen zwischen Volkstrümmern Südabessiniens. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder, 1936.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. A classical study in the context of the long outdated Frankfurt school of “cultural morphology.”
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Kassam, Aneesa, and Ali Balla Basuna. “Marginalisation of the Waata-Oromo Hunter-Gatherers of Kenya.” Africa 74.2 (2004): 194–216.
  246. DOI: 10.3366/afr.2004.74.2.194Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. The article brings together a Waata social activist and an anthropologist. It examines how the way of life of the Waata Oromo was brought to an end through British colonial wildlife conservation laws and the creation of national parks in Kenya. The authors argue that the Waata were doubly marginalized, in both economic and political terms. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Ta’a, Tesema, and Catherine Griefenow-Mewis. The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: The Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2006.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. This study focuses on the political economy of the Macca Oromo in central Ethiopia, factors of social transformation, and historical experiences. It is based on Ethiopian archival materials, reports by European travelers and missionaries, as well as oral history collected mainly in Wallagga.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. van de Loo, Joseph, and Bilow Kola. Guji Oromo Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Religious Capabilities in Rituals and Songs. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1991.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A comprehensive study of Oromo rituals and songs against the background of the basic elements of Oromo life, including cattle breeding, cultivation, food preparation, kinship and family, and many more. The author also introduces the gadaa system and the respective songs.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Gadaa and Other Institutions
  258.  
  259. Ever since European scholars first began to study Oromo society, institutions such as the gadaa system have been at the center of attention. Although some of the publications mentioned above also include the gadaa system, additional specialized works must be cited. A comprehensive study of the different institutions and offices among Borana Oromo society is found in Bassi 2005. Legesse 1973 includes three different approaches to gadaa. Legesse 2001 discusses the gadaa system as a democratic institution. An important institution within the gadaa system, the Gumi Gayo assembly of the Borana Oromo, is presented in Shongolo 1994. The gadaa system’s potential for conflict is analyzed in Schlee 1994. Knutsson 1967 focuses on the Kallu institution among the Macha Oromo, which centers on spirit mediums.
  260.  
  261. Bassi, Marco. Decisions in the Shade: Political and Juridical Processes among the Oromo-Borana (Horn of Africa). Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2005.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Originally published in Italian in 1996, the book provides a comprehensive study of Borana culture and society. The author analyzes how the Borana polity and Borana communities function, and how institutions and offices, such as gadaa, hariyaa, gora, hayyuu, and qaalluu, have adapted and endured over the course of time.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Knutsson, Karl Eric. Authority and Change: A Study of the Kallu Institution among the Macha Galla of Ethiopia. Gothenburg, Sweden: Etnografiska Museet, 1967.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. The study focuses on what the author calls “the k’allu institution,” a complex of religious, judicial, political, and economic activities that centers on spirit mediums (k’allu, sg.)
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Legesse, Asmarom. Gada: Three Approaches to the Study of African Society. New York: Free Press, 1973.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Contains a threefold analysis of the gadaa system: an examination of the rules of the system, a statistical analysis of the demographic implications of these rules, and a case study of an election to office within the gadaa system
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Legesse, Asmarom. Oromo Democracy: An Indigenous African Political System. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2001.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A comprehensive study of the gadaa system as a form of participatory democracy.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Schlee, Günther. “Der Islam und das Gada-System als konfliktprägende Kräfte in Nordost-Afrika.” Sociologus 44.2 (1994): 112–135.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Discusses Islam and the gadaa system as factors that shape conflict in northeastern Africa.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Shongolo, Abdullahi A. “The Gumi Gaayo Assembly of the Boran: A Traditional Legislative Organ and Its Relationship to the Ethiopian State and a Modernizing World.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 119 (1994): 127–158.
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  283. Studies the Gumi Gaayo assembly of the Borana, which takes place every eight years, as an important institution within the gadaa system in which decisions are made that are not only ritually important, but also cannot be revised.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Women in Oromo Society
  286.  
  287. Some aspects of Oromo society and culture receive special attention with regard to Oromo women. Deressa 2003 provides a general study of the role of women in Oromo history. Women’s status and rights are discussed in Debsu 2009 and Kumsa 1997. Both point out the subtlety of women’s rights and the fact that women participate actively in ritual and society. Hussein 2004 examines the representation of women in Oromo literature and cultural practices. Yedes, et al. 2004 constitutes a singular study of a coffee ritual by Muslim Oromo women in the United States.
  288.  
  289. Debsu, Dejene N. “Gender and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: An Ethnographic Analysis of Guji-Oromo Women’s Customary Rights.” African Study Monographs 30.1 (2009): 15–36.
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  291. The article argues that Guji-Oromo women have more subtle cultural and economic rights than is immediately apparent and that they participate actively in the ritual aspect of the gadaa generation grade system.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Deressa, Belletech. Oromtitti: The Forgotten Women in Ethiopian History. Raleigh, NC: Ivy House, 2003.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. The book discusses the roles of Oromo women—queens, teachers, martyrs, and pioneers—in the history of Ethiopia.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Hussein, Jeylan W. “A Cultural Representation of Woman in the Oromo Society.” African Study Monographs 25.3 (2004): 103–147.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. The author examines the representation of women in Oromo folk proverbs and folk religion, and analyzes the position of women in traditional Oromo cultural practices.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Kumsa, Kuwee. “The Siiqqee Institution of Oromo Women.” Journal of Oromo Studies 4.1–2 (1997): 115–152.
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  303. Study of the so-called siiqqee stick as a symbol for women’s rights and belonging. The article is based on written material, interviews with anthropologists, custodians of Oromo oral literature, and unpublished studies.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Yedes Janet, Robbin Clamons, and Amal Osman. “Buna: Oromo Women Gathering for Coffee.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33.6 (2004): 675–703.
  306. DOI: 10.1177/0891241604269321Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. The article presents a study on religion in the Oromo diaspora. The authors demonstrate how Muslim Oromo women in the United States gather for the ritual of buna qala, or “coffee slaughter.” Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Oromo Refugees and the Creation of Oromo Diasporas
  310.  
  311. Due to their difficult status under different Ethiopian regimes many Oromos were forced to leave their homeland, building diasporas in different parts of the world. Braukämper 1982–1983 studies the relationship between forced migration and identity construction. Zittelmann 1994 focuses on the various attempts to create and retain an Oromo identity in different African countries. Bulcha 1988 is a comprehensive study of involuntary migration of the Oromo as well as other Ethiopians to the Sudan. Matsuoka and Sorensen 2001 provide the first comprehensive study of the Oromo, other Ethiopians, and Eritreans in the diaspora. Bulcha 2002 presents a global as well as a historical perspective, comparing the Oromo diaspora created by the Red Sea slave trade with the recent diaspora resulting from political oppression. A similar approach is taken in Jalata 2002, which focuses on the “new” Oromo diaspora in the United States and compares it to the “old” diaspora created by the Atlantic slave trade. Gow 2002 stands out as a detailed case study of the Oromo community in the city of Melbourne, Australia.
  312.  
  313. Braukämper, Ulrich. “Ethnic Identity and Social Change among Oromo Refugees in the Horn of Africa.” Northeast African Studies 4 (1982–1983): 1–15.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Discusses the situation of Oromo refugees with regard to identity construction.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Bulcha, Mekuria. Flight and Integration: Causes of Mass Exodus from Ethiopia and Problems of Integration in the Sudan. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1988.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. This book presents a comprehensive study of involuntary migration based on interviews with several hundred Ethiopian refugees in the Sudan. After giving a historical background, causes, dynamics, and obstacles of migrations are discussed. The final part of the work focuses on the dynamics of integration in the new homeland. The study is not restricted to Oromo refugees.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Bulcha, Mekuria. The Making of the Oromo Diaspora: A Historical Sociology of Forced Migration. Minneapolis: Kirk House, 2002.
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  323. The study deals with the Oromo diaspora from a global perspective and over a long period of time. It starts with the Oromo diaspora, which was created by the Red Sea slave trade, and ends with the contemporary Oromo diaspora, which began at the end of the 19th century. The author examines the sociopolitical and economic factors that led to the uprooting and scattering of the Oromo at different times.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Gow, Greg. The Oromo in Exile: From the Horn of Africa to the Suburbs of Australia. Carlton, Australia: Melbourne University Publishing, 2002.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A detailed study of the exiled Oromo community in Melbourne. The author challenges the methodological boundaries of ethnography in employing postmodern and postcolonial theories to analyze the performance by the Oromo of traditional practices in the diaspora.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Jalata, Asafa. “The Place of the Oromo Diaspora in the Oromo National Movement: Lessons from the Agency of the ‘Old’ African Diaspora in the United States.” Northeast African Studies 9.3 (2002): 133–160.
  330. DOI: 10.1353/nas.2007.0014Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. The author compares what he defines as the “new” African diaspora in the United States, consisting of the Oromo fleeing the different political systems in Ethiopia, with the “old” diaspora created by the Atlantic slave trade. He concludes that the new diaspora can live in freedom in the land of their refuge, owing to conditions created by the struggle during the old diaspora. Available online by subscription.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Matsuoka, Atsuko, and John Sorenson. Ghosts and Shadows: Construction of Identity and Community in an African Diaspora. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. The book presents the first comprehensive study of Eritreans, Oromos, and other Ethiopians in the diaspora. Besides the case study, the authors discuss the differences in experiences between forced and voluntary diasporas and go beyond the case study to examine the relationship between refugees, transnationalism, and concepts of diaspora.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Zitelmann, Thomas. Nation der Oromo: Kollektive Identitäten, nationale Konflikte, Wir-Gruppenbildungen: Die Konstruktion kollektiver Identität im Prozess der Flüchtlingsbewegungen am Horn von Afrika. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch, 1994.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A comprehensive German study of identity constructions among the Oromo, Oromo nationalism and the manifold conflicts with the Ethiopian government before 1994. It focuses on Ethiopian refugees in different African countries and their various attempts to create and retain an Oromo identity.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Religion
  342.  
  343. There are Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Protestant Christians, and adherents of traditional beliefs among the Oromo, who also have a rich ritual life. Trimingham 1952 is still the standard reference work on Islam in Ethiopia, including the Oromo. Braukämper 2004 is a recent historical study of Islamic principalities in southern Ethiopia that includes a chapter on the Islamization of the Arsi-Oromo and refers to different Oromo subgroups in other chapters. Abbas 2002 addresses the difficult relationship between both Islam and the Orthodox Church and Oromo nationalism. Two recent studies—Eide 2000 and Eshete 2009—deal with the Protestant evangelical church, which is the fastest growing religion in Ethiopia. Eide focuses on the Mekane Yesus church established by the Oromo early in the 20th century. Gilchrist 2003 is an important study in that it shows how the Ethiopian government as well as American Protestant missionaries involuntarily played a part in the rise of Oromo nationalism. Bartels 1983 and Aguilar 2008 are both studies of the rich ritual life of different Oromo subgroups.
  344.  
  345. Abbas, Haji Gnamo. “Islam, the Orthodox Church and Oromo Nationalism (Ethiopia).” Cahier d’études africaines 165 (2002): 99–120.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. The author addresses the relationship between religions and Oromo nationalist interests from a sociological and historical perspective.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Aguilar, Mario I. The Politics of God in East Africa: Oromo Ritual and Religion. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2008.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. The authors concentrates on the Boorana Oromo in eastern Kenya in a study of their ritual life in connection with initiation, knowledge, identity, divination, performance, dance, and memories, as well as postcolonialism.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Bartels, Lambert. Oromo Religion: Myths and Rites of the Western Oromo of Ethiopia, an Attempt to Understand. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1983.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A detailed study of the rituals and beliefs of the western Macca Oromo as these are constructed as “traditions” by younger as well as older informants.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Braukämper, Ulrich. Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia. Collected Essays. Münster, Germany: LIT Verlag, 2004.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A substantial historical study of Islamic principalities in southeast Ethiopia between the 13th and the 16th centuries based on written records and field research. The author discusses medieval Muslim survival as a stimulating factor in the re-Islamization of southeastern Ethiopia, the Islamization of the Arsi-Oromo, and more.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Eide, Øyvind M. Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia: The Growth and Persecution of the Mekane Yesus Church, 1974–85. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. The book explores the difficult relationship between the Protestant evangelical church, Mekane Yesus, established by the Oromo of western Ethiopia early in the 20th century, and the central authorities of the Ethiopian state. The author discusses the questions of how minority churches relate to the institutions and culture of the majority, and the interaction between churches and revolutionary politics.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Eshete, Tibebe. The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A general study of the evangelical movement in Ethiopia with some references to the Oromos.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Gilchrist, H. E. “Haile Selassie and American Missionaries: Inadvertent Agents of Oromo Identity in Ethiopia.” MA thesis, North Carolina State University, 2003.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. This thesis studies the relationship between the Ethiopian government under Emperor Haile Selassie, American Protestant missionaries, and the Oromo during the period 1960–1975. The author tries to show how the rise of Oromo nationalism was influenced, though without intention, by the different agendas of government and missionaries for supporting the Oromo.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1952.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Although dated, Trimingham’s study is still the standard reference work on this topic. The author regarded Ethiopia as an entity that consists of the whole of the Horn of Africa, and he deals with Muslim history and culture in this region.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Ecology and Environment
  378.  
  379. The ecology and the environment were influenced by both long-distance and short-distance trade as early as the 19th century. Johnson 2002 deals with the involvement of the Oromo in the ivory trade between the Sudan and the Somali coast at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Most recent publications on ecology and environment concerning different Oromo subgroups are based on long- or short-term studies of climatic and economic change. Cossins and Upton 1988 focuses on rainfall variability and length of growing seasons. Coppock 1994 is a comprehensive long-term study of vegetation dynamics, resource use, and traditional tactics for drought mitigation with regard to the Borana Plateau. Anagassa and Oba 2007 analyzes the relationship between rainfall and cattle population dynamics among the Oromo of southern Ethiopia over a period of approximately twenty years. Hogg 1980 contains a short-term study of rapid impoverishment among the Isiolo Boran of northern Kenya. Tache 2008 deals with pastoral production and poverty and the influence of external factors among the Boran, whereas Robinson 2009 focuses on the factors that influence social-ecological resilience among the Gabra Oromo. Kelbessa 2011 stands out as a detailed study of indigenous Oromo environmental ethics.
  380.  
  381. Anagassa, Ayana, and Gufu Oba. “Relating Long-Term Rainfall Variability to Cattle Population Dynamics in Communal Rangelands and a Government Ranch in Southern Ethiopia.” Agricultural Systems 94.3 (2007): 715–725.
  382. DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2007.02.012Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. This study reconstructed twenty-one years of household cattle population data in key resource (tula wells) and non-key resource (pond-water) rangelands in southern Ethiopia, as well as fifteen years of government cattle breed conservation ranch data, to analyze the relationship between long-term rainfall and cattle population dynamics. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Coppock, D. Layne, ed. The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development and Change, 1980–91. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa, 1994.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. The book summarizes results from work conducted in the southern Ethiopian rangelands between 1980 and 1991. It includes an introduction to the Borana Plateau, natural resources, and pastoral society, and it deals with vegetation dynamics and resource use, Borana household economy, and livestock husbandry and production. The effects of drought and traditional tactics for drought mitigation are discussed as well as present development intervention concepts.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Cossins, N. J., and M. Upton. “The Impact of Climatic Variation on the Borana Pastoral System.” Agricultural Systems 27.2 (1988): 117–135.
  390. DOI: 10.1016/0308-521X(88)90025-XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. The article deals with the high variability of rainfall and the length of the growing seasons in the semiarid East African rangelands such as Borana. The authors conclude that survival is possible in dry years by spending the entire household cash income on food. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Johnson, Douglas H. “On the Nilotic Frontier: Imperial Ethiopia in the Southern Sudan, 1898–1936.” In The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia: Essays in History and Social Anthropology. Edited by Donald L. Donham and Wendy James, 219–245. Oxford: James Currey, 2002.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Deals with the Oromo involvement in the ivory trade at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Revised version of papers presented at a workshop of the Cambridge Studies Centre in July 1979 and a conference at Monterey, California, in March 1982.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Hogg, Richard S. “Pastoralism and Impoverishment: The Case of Isiolo Boran in Northern Kenya.” Disasters 4.3 (1980): 299–310.
  398. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7717.1980.tb00117.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The article deals with the effects of rapid impoverishment brought about by drought, disease, and war over a one-year period among the Isiolo Boran pastoralists in northern Kenya. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Kelbessa, Workineh. Indigenous and Modern Environmental Ethics: A Study of the Indigenous Oromo Environmental Ethic and Modern Issues of Environment and Development. Ethiopian Philosophical Studies 1. Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2011.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. The book investigates Oromo environmental ethics and the relationship between indigenous and modern environmental ethics. It explores whether indigenous knowledge systems are essential for the development and health of the natural environment and its inhabitants and whether indigenous and modern environmental ethics are complementary.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Robinson, Lance W. “Participatory Development and the Capacity of Gabra Pastoralist Communities to Influence Resilience.” PhD diss., University of Manitoba, 2009.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. This study examines ways in which the approaches to public participation used by agencies involved in water resources management can affect the collective capacity of pastoralist institutions and communities to influence social-ecological resilience. The research centered on the Kenyan nongovernmental organization Pastoralist Integrated Support Programme (PISP) together with the Gabra communities where PISP works.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Tache, Boku. “Pastoralism under Stress: Resources, Institutions and Poverty among the Borana Oromo in Southern Ethiopia.” PhD diss., Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2008.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. The thesis examines pastoral production and poverty in Borana in southern Ethiopia and analyzes the relationship between external factors, such as government policy and the natural environment, and the pastoral resource base. Inconsistencies between government and local perspectives are interpreted with respect to differing views about development and integration.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Language
  414.  
  415. Oromo is an East Cushitic language and belongs to the Afro-Asiatic phylum. It is spoken by approximately 30 million Oromo in Ethiopia, Kenya, and parts of Somalia. With this high number of speakers, Oromo belongs to the major languages of Africa. A considerable number of dialects exist, such as Borana, Harar, Wellegga, Tulama, Arsi, Gujji, Raya, Orma, Munyo, and Waata. The Oromo language was formerly known under the derogatory term Galla, which was mainly used by non-Oromos. The term is found in most of the older studies of the language, but it has now fallen into disfavor. The language is also known as Afaan Oromo, Oromiffa, and Oromoo, or variant spellings in other languages. Oromo is one of the official national languages of Ethiopia. It is used as a lingua franca in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya and it is also found in both regional and national governmental administration, in national commerce, and in mass media (newspaper, television, radio).
  416.  
  417. Grammatical Studies
  418.  
  419. Cavallera 1939 provides an early introduction to Oromo in Italian. Griefenow-Mewis 2001 is based solely on written Oromo from various sources. Most of the 20th-century grammatical studies of Oromo refer to one or more dialects of the language. Heine 1981 points to the presence of the little-known Waata dialect of Oromo spoken by former hunter-gatherers of northeastern Africa. Owens 1985 and Stroomer 1995 are comprehensive studies of the Harar and Boraana dialects of Oromo, respectively. Stroomer 1987 is important, because it compares three Oromo dialects spoken in Kenya.
  420.  
  421. Cavallera, P. Battista. Grammatica della lingua Oromo. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Scuola Tipografica Missione Consolata, 1939.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Provides an elementary, though no longer completely up-to-date textbook in Italian.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Griefenow-Mewis, Catherine. A Grammatical Sketch of Written Oromo. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2001.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. The book presents a short grammar based on written Oromo, i.e., textbooks for first-language speakers, two novels by Dhaabaa Wayyeessaa, and others.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Heine, Bernd. The Waata Dialect of Oromo. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. 1981.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. This is a study of a little-known dialect of Oromo spoken by former Oromo hunter-gatherers of eastern and northeastern Africa who specialized in elephant hunting. It includes sections on phonology, the sentence, the noun phrase, the adverbial phrase, the verb, derivation, compound and complex sentences, and question formation. It has an English-Waata vocabulary list.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Owens, Jonathan. A Grammar of Harar Oromo (Northeastern Ethiopia). Hamburg, West Germany: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1985.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A comprehensive study of the dialect spoken in Dirre Dawa town, Harar district, in northeastern Ethiopia.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Stroomer, Harry. A Comparative Study of Three Southern Oromo Dialects in Kenya. Hamburg, West Germany: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1987.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A study of phonology, morphology, texts, and vocabulary in the Orma, Waata, and Boraana dialects of Oromo.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Stroomer, Harry. A Grammar of Boraana Oromo (Kenya). Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 1995.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. The study concentrates on phonology, morphology, and vocabulary of the Borana dialect of Oromo spoken in Kenya.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Dictionaries
  446.  
  447. European scholars acquired an interest in the Oromo languages beginning in the mid-19th century. Tutschek 1844 provides the first and a still useful Oromo dictionary. It was compiled before 1850 and so it is also important for those interested in older stages of the language. The language as spoken at the beginning of the 20th century is treated in Foot 1968, which is also an early, but still useful, two-way dictionary. Gragg 1982 and Gamta 1989 are comprehensive modern dictionaries for all kinds of users. Stroomer 2001 is a dictionary restricted to the Orma dialect. It is a two-way dictionary and so it is especially useful for English-speakers who seek to learn Oromo. Bitima 2000 is to date the only dictionary focusing on the natural as well as the social sciences.
  448.  
  449. Bitima, Tamene. A Dictionary of Oromo Technical Terms. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2000.
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  451. This first Oromo-English dictionary of technical terms offers more than 20,000 entries covering twenty-five semantic fields of the natural and the social sciences. The entries are listed according to the official Oromo alphabet “qubee.”
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Foot, E. C. A Galla-English English-Galla Dictionary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
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  455. An early and still useful, but rather short, two-way dictionary. Originally published in 1913.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Gamta, Tilahun. Oromo-English Dictionary. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Addis Ababa University Press, 1989.
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  459. A one-way dictionary of Oromo to English. All Oromo words are listed alphabetically in Roman script. Includes brief grammar and pronunciation notes.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Gragg, Gene B., ed. Oromo Dictionary. East Lansing: African Studies Centre, Michigan State University, 1982.
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  463. Extensive Oromo dictionary with about three thousand main entries; subentries bring the total to well over six thousand words.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Stroomer, Harry. A Concise Vocabulary of Orma Oromo (Kenya): Orma-English, English-Orma. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2001.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Two-way dictionary of the Orma dialect of Oromo. This concise vocabulary contains about two thousand Orma Oromo lexical items.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Tutschek, Karl. Lexicon der Galla-Sprache. Edited by Lorenz Tutschek. Munich: Franz Wild, 1844.
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  471. The first dictionary of the Galla language in a European language based on the language of an Ethiopian boy brought to Munich. Tutschek can be regarded as one of the founders of Oromo studies. His study was published by his brother after his untimely death.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Courses
  474.  
  475. Courses differ concerning advantages and disadvantages for users. Launhardt 1973 provides a comprehensive Oromo course; however, it is in Ethiopic script, with which most users are probably not familiar. Griefenow-Mewis and Bitima 1994 presents a user-friendly text and exercise books for German speakers. Ali and Zaborski 1990 is the most comprehensive course for all learners familiar with the English language. It provides of grammar and exercise studies, a key to exercises, and a two-way vocabulary list.
  476.  
  477. Ali, Mohammed, and Andrzej Zaborski. Handbook of the Oromo Language. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1990.
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  479. This handbook is divided into two sections. Part 1 gives an introduction to the language. Part 2 introduces various basic grammatical aspects of the language and provides exercises. A key to the exercises is included. It also provides an English-Oromo and Oromo-English vocabulary list.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Griefenow-Mewis, Catherine, and Tamene Bitima. Lehrbuch des Oromo: Eine praktische Einführung. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 1994.
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  483. This German textbook provides a basic course in the Oromo language. Together with the Oromo exercise book (Griefenow-Mewis, et al. 1995), it is suitable for language courses as well as for self-instruction. The textbook consists of twenty lessons, each with a grammar and an exercise section.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Griefenow-Mewis, Catherine, and Tamene Bitima. Oromo Übungsbuch. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 1995.
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  487. This exercise book completes the Oromo basic course Lehrbuch des Oromo. It contains translations of the Oromo texts and the key to the exercise part as well as sentence and conversation practice, thus providing the means to develop and expand the learner’s speaking ability. The exercise book serves as a useful support for students who seek to learn Oromo apart from teaching lessons.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Launhardt, Johannes. Guide to Learning the Oromo (Galla) Language. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Launhardt, 1973.
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  491. A course book for Oromo that contains eighty lessons; the lessons contain materials for listening and reading practice, conversation, grammar, and vocabulary, and it includes practical exercises, questions, and answers. It uses Ethiopic script.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Oromo Literature
  494.  
  495. Oromo literature constitutes an important part of Oromo culture and is pivotal for its understanding. Italian scholars have undertaken some classical studies of Oromo folk literature and oral art. Cerulli 1922 is an important one, because it includes many primary sources for different genres with English translation and commentary. Borello 1947 (and subsequent articles) focuses on proverbs, which are given with translations into Italian. A more recent comprehensive collection with English translation is provided by Cotter 1997. Hussein 2005 and Tolesa 1999 are studies on the function of Oromo oral art in the context of Oromo society, philosophy, and politics. Dibaba 2010 analyzes Oromo national and resistance literature using the example of oral poet Jarso Waqo.
  496.  
  497. Borello, M. “Proverbi galla.” Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 5 (1947): 103–121.
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  499. Continued in Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 7 (1948): 68–88, and Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 25 (1971): 40–73. Comprehensive collection of Oromo proverbs with Italian translation.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Cerulli, Enrico. Folk-Literature of the Galla of Southern Abyssinia. Cambridge, MA: African Department of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, 1922.
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  503. An important primary source for folk tales, history, legends, and culture of the Oromo. The texts are presented in the original Oromo, with translations and detailed notes and explanations.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Cotter, George. Ethiopian Wisdom: Proverbs and Sayings of the Oromo People. Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa Press, 1997.
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  507. This volume presents a selection 1,500 Oromo proverbs and sayings with English translation.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Dibaba, Asafa. Beyond Adversities: Towards a Sociology of Oromo Literature: Jarso Waqo’s Poetry. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2010.
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  511. Characterizes the work of Oromo oral poet Jarso Waqo of Borana as resistance literature and places it in the context of a sociology of Oromo written and oral literature.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Hussein, Jeylan W. “The Functions of African Oral Arts: The Arsi-Oromo Oral Arts in Focus.” African Study Monographs 26.1 (2005): 15–58.
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  515. Discusses the extensive use of oral arts in Arsi-Oromo society and argues for its use to symbolize Oromo religious philosophy.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Tolesa, Addisu. Geerarsa Folksong as the Oromo National Literature: A Study of Ethnography, Folklore, and Folklife in the Context of the Ethiopian Colonization of Oromia. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1999.
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  519. This study explores the verbal art of the geerarsa folksongs in the context of the social base and political scope of Oromo folklore.
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