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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, Latin America’s fourth most populous nation. The 2010 census enumerated 7.3 million residents, but estimates place the metropolitan population at well over 8 million. The sprawling city includes twenty districts and 2,344 neighborhoods (as of 2005) that encompass some 1,600 square kilometers (617 square miles) along the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental mountain range, dominated by the peaks of Guadalupe and Monserrate. It is located at just over 2,600 meters (8,500 feet) above sea level and dominates the 25,000-square-kilometer (15,500 square miles) “Sabana de Bogotá,” a well-watered, highly fertile agricultural plain. The sabana and mountains dictated Bogotá’s growth along a north-south axis; not until the mid-20th century did the city experience significant expansion toward the west. Spanish conquistadores established Santa Fé de Bogotá in August 1538. As Santa Fé, the community served as the capital of the Kingdom of New Granada and the Vice-Royalty of New Granada; independence brought the shortened name of Bogotá, save for a short period in the 1990s when the city again became Santa Fé de Bogotá. Throughout, the city’s administrative function served as a foundation of its importance. The highly centralized constitution of 1886 amplified Bogotá’s importance; not until after World War II did the city become Colombia’s leading industrial, commercial, and service center. Bogotá earned the nickname the “Athens of South America” in the late 19th century. Today, Bogotá is home to over one hundred institutions of higher education (including the National University, Universidad Javeriana, and the Universidad de los Andes); the nation’s leading newspapers; cultural centers such as the National Museum (1823), Cristobal Colón Theater (1892), the National School of Beaux Arts (1886), the Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango (1958), and other centers of fine and performing arts. The 20th century saw exponential growth, leading to the status of global city by the second millennium. The pace of population growth mirrors that of other developing world cities, with 120,000 persons in 1912, 235,000 in 1928, 715,000 in 1951, 2.8 million in 1973, 5.4 million in 1999, and 7.5 million in 2012. This phenomenal increase is linked to improvements in public health, flight from extraordinary violence in the countryside, and the attractiveness of economic opportunities. Historical scholarship follows a periodization corresponding to the colonial era, the 19th century, and the modern city that emerged in the 20th century. Subdivisions in each period reflect distinct categories of analysis. The author gratefully acknowledges the research assistance of Ms. Mackenzie D. Coulter-Kern.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. The 450th anniversary of the establishment of Santa Fé de Bogotá spawned a series of valuable but often eclectic overviews of the city’s history, notably Iriarte 1988. Carlos Martínez, an architect with strong skills as a historian, dominates the field with his two-volume overview, Martínez 1976–1978. The historical atlas Escovar, et al. 2004 is one of the most mature scholarly works on the city. Bohórquez de Briceño and Angel Giraldo 1988 is a useful bibliography aimed at the Colombian audience, while Greenfield 1994 is readily accessible to English readers.
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  9. Amaya Arias, Bernardo. Historias de Santafé y Bogotá. Bogotá: Educultural La Rueca, 2011.
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  11. An eclectic series of snapshots of the social and cultural history of the city. The rise and fall of the corn beer (chichi) culture offers fascinating insights into colonial popular culture, and the manner by which control of the drink represented the conquest of the 19th century “café culture.” Includes a detailed account of the urban tram system. A final essay focuses upon “la loca Margarita.”
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  13. Bohórquez de Briceño, Fabioloa, and Rubby Angel Giraldo. Bibliografía sobre historia de Bogotá. Bogotá: Cámara de Comercio de Bogotá, 1988.
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  15. A survey of 251 accounts of the history of Bogotá, with a strong focus on historic almanacs, traveler’s accounts, and memoirs. The April 9, 1948, riot following the assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaítan receives special attention. Each citation is briefly annotated with call numbers for the Biblioteca Luís Angel Arango in Bogotá. Includes a thematic index.
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  17. Escovar, Alberto, Margarita Mariño, and César Peña. Atlas histórico de Bogotá, 1535–1910. Bogotá: Editorial Planeta, 2004.
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  19. This finely presented atlas documents eleven themes (government, health, industry, public works, etc.) of the city. Each theme is introduced by a ten-to-fifteen page essay, and includes maps of the city in 1600 and 1910 that illustrate the theme, such as the location of roads, bridges, tramways, or carriage paths. Profusely illustrated and carefully documented, this is an essential source of information on the city.
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  21. Gouëset, Vincent. Bogotá, nacimiento de una metrópoli: La originalidad del proceso de concentración urbana en Colombia en el siglo XX. Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores, 1998.
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  23. Outstanding analysis of Colombia’s urban cuadricefalia of Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Bogotá. Though urbanization and economic opportunity spurred the growth of each city, Bogotá’s growth was accelerated more by the increase of public and private service industries. Public management of communication and transportation networks added impetus to the capital’s expansion. Contains numerous graphs, maps, and tables, all based upon extensive primary and secondary research.
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  25. Greenfield, Gerald Michael. “Colombia.” In Latin American Urbanization: Historical Profiles of Major Cities. Edited by Gerald Michael Greenfield, 134–158. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994.
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  27. Useful but brief survey of Colombian patterns of urbanization, which depart from the primary city characteristics of many other Latin American countries in favor of regional centers. Bogotá grew as an administrative center in the colonial era, a situation that persists into the national period. Focuses upon the era of rapid growth in the 20th century.
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  29. Iriarte, Alfredo. Breve historia de Bogotá. Bogotá: Fundación Misión Colombia, 1988.
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  31. An indispensable overview of the history of Bogotá from the era of the Muiscas through the establishment of the National Front in 1958. The work lacks citations, but it is based upon extensive secondary research and the collaboration of leading scholars. Iriarte tends toward a top-down, institutional, and political account of the city, though social and quotidian lives of residents are woven into the well-written narrative.
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  33. Martínez, Carlos. Bogotá: Sinopsis sobre su evolución urbana. 2 vols. Bogotá: Escala Fondo Editorial, 1976–1978.
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  35. Volume 1, 1536–1900, offers an invaluable introduction to the physical development of Bogotá by the leading historian of the city. Generously illustrated with maps, drawings of historical buildings, and images of the city and region, Martínez offers a balanced textual history of the city through the 19th century. Volume 2, Bogotá reseñada por cronistas y viajeros ilustres, 1572–1948, offers brief observations of the city by forty-three travelers, making it a singular collection. Most of the travel accounts date from the 19th and early 20th centuries.
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  37. Colonial Era
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  39. The Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada established Santa Fé de Bogotá on August 6, 1538, near the Chibcha town of Teusaquillo in the region of Bacatá. Santa Fé de Bogotá served as the capital of the New Kingdom of Granada, a territory that included most of present-day Colombia and some of Venezuela. It served as the seat of the audiencia (1550) and the archbishopric (1562), and housed numerous education and religious facilities. Striking topographic features quickly divided the New Kingdom into regions, with Bogotá dominating the highland region that included Tunja, Leiva, Vélez, and Sogamoso. The first count to estimate the total number of residents, in 1666, totaled 13,000, ten out of thirteen of whom were said to be Indians. King Phillip V created the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717, only to rescind the cedula four years later. The lasting viceroyalty was ordained in 1739 with jurisdiction over Quito, Panama, Guyana, Surinam, parts of Central America, and Venezuela. Thirty-three churches served 20,000 residents at the end of the colonial period. Scholarship tends to cluster around distinct periods and themes: the Founding and 16th Century; general works on political and social structures (see Colonial Politics and Society); and changes in the late colonial period associated with the era of Bourbon Reform (see Late Colonial Society).
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  41. Founding and 16th Century
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  43. Sebastián de Balcalzar performed the official founding of the town on April 27, 1539, mapping the central plaza and the principal streets (Corradine Angulo 2001). In 1550 the Plaza Mayor (now Bolívar) was relocated to its present location. The San Francisco and San Agustín Rivers served as boundaries to the town, which initially included four neighborhoods. The Plaza de las Yierbas (now Santander) was located to the north along the Royal Road (now Calle Septima), a two-plaza system that shaped the character of the colonial city. At the end of the colonial period, the town included eight neighborhoods around the rivers bounding the historic center. The city grew quite slowly. Some eight hundred Hispanics lived in the town in 1575, a number that more than doubled over the next forty years. Many Muisca-speaking natives lived in the community. Rodríguez Jiménez 2002 and Zambrano Escovar 2008 demonstrate their gradual acceptance of Hispanic norms, as well as the intimate role between the town and rural encomiendas of the sabana. Villamarín and Villamarín 1981 and Villamarín and Villamarín 1992 demonstrate the high susceptibility of natives to European diseases, so that Santa Fé became more of a mestizo and Spanish community over time. Within twenty years of its founding, officials established a full array of colonial institutions, including an audiencia documented by Friede 1950, an archbishopric, and a treasury. Silvestre Sánchez 1950 examines this dual economic function—as an administrative center and link to a regional agricultural economy—that lasted well into the 19th century.
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  45. Corradine Angulo, Alberto. “La fundación de Bogotá.” Revista Javeriana 137.680 (November/December 2001): 819–832.
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  47. Explores the confusion that surrounds the date of the founding of Santa Fé de Bogotá. The meticulous survey concludes that the official date of August 6, 1538, marks the assertion of power over the region by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, but that Belcazar performed the urban foundation ceremony on April 27, 1539.
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  49. Friede, Juan. Descubrimiento del Nuevo Reino de Granada y fundación de Bogotá (1536–1539), según documentos del Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla (revelaciones y rectificaciones). Bogotá: Imprenta del Banco de la República, 1950.
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  51. Classic account of Bogotá’s founding by one of the giants of Colombian history. Friede divides the work into three sections: a narrative account deeply rooted in archival research, a series of documents associated with the founding of the colony and city, and a set of illustrations.
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  53. Libro de acuerdos públicos y privados de la Real Audiencia de Santafé en el Nuevo Reino de Granada/Real Audiencia de Bogotá. Bogotá: Tipografía Colón, 1938.
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  55. Partial transcription of scores of documents produced by the Audiencia de Santa Fé between 1573 and 1603. Large numbers of the documents treat diezmo obligations, the repartamiento de indios, rulings on judicial disputes, or gremio appeals. The lack of a table of contents or index hampers the utility of this collection.
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  57. Rodríguez Jiménez, Pablo. Testamentos indígenas de Santafé de Bogotá, siglos XVI–XVII. Bogotá: Alcaldía Mayor de Bogotá, 2002.
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  59. Essential collection of Spanish-language documents from indigenous people from the New Kingdom of Granada from 1567 through 1668. The testimonials consist mainly of last wills and testaments from more colonized urban residents. The documents reveal the activities of the early colonial church, the priorities of saving indigenous souls, and the gradual accumulation of debts and resources among the indigenous majority of nascent urban centers.
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  61. Silvestre Sánchez, Franciso. Descripción del Reyno de Santa Fé de Bogotá. Bogota: Ministerio de Educación Nacional, 1950.
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  63. Eighteenth-century account of the first two hundred years of Bogotá’s history. The development and functions of municipal and regional governments occupies much of the work. Extensive analysis of the Indian communities of the sabana region dominated by Santa Fé.
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  65. Villamarín, Juan, and Judith Villamarín. “Colonial Censuses and Tributary Lists of the Sabana de Bogotá Chibcha: Sources and Issues.” In Studies in Spanish American Population History. Edited by David J. Robinson, 45–92. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981.
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  67. Authoritative analysis of indigenous demographic patterns in urban areas of the Sabana de Bogotá during the colonial era, based largely upon tribute documents. All towns evidenced a sharp population decline from the conquest through the start of the 18th century, with epidemic disease the single greatest cause of death. The authors carefully place demographic patterns within social and economic contexts.
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  69. Villamarín, Juan A., and Judith E. Villamarín. “Epidemic Disease in the Sabana de Bogotá.” In Secret Judgments of God: Old World Disease in Colonial Spanish America. Edited by Noble David Cook and W. George Lovell, 122–135. Norman: Oklahoma University Press, 1992.
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  71. A brief survey of epidemic diseases in the Bogotá region during the colonial period. The smallpox epidemic of 1801–1803 receives the most sustained attention. This valuable overview demonstrates the catastrophic impact of smallpox upon urban residents, especially those of indigenous ancestry. Based upon intensive archival research.
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  73. Zambrano Escovar, Marta. Trabajadores, villanos y amantes: encuentros entre indígenas y españoles en la ciudad letrada, Santa Fe de Bogotá (1550–1650). Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia, 2008.
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  75. Significant contribution to the reconception of the early colonial city to include Muisca indigenous peoples as both subalterns and actors in the construction of the urban space. Study is particularly strong in legal mechanisms of social control and gendered relations between indigenous women and colonial men. Includes a series of colored plates from the era. Based upon extensive primary research in Colombian and Roman juridical and legal archives.
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  77. Colonial Politics and Society
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  79. During what might be seen as the core years of colonial Santa Fé, the town experienced slow population increase from about 3,000 in the 1610s to some 20,000 people in the 1770s. Disease and social forces reduced the percentage of Indians in the city; mestizos rose to over 50 percent. (Rappaport 2011 analyzes the fluidity of these labels.) Administrative and elite social sectors stabilized, enhancing the relationships between the city and the Kingdom of New Granada region, as described by McFarlane 1993 and Vázquez Varela 2010. White educational facilities laid the foundation for the “Athens of South America,” with the establishment of three key universities. (Universida Tomística, 1926; Colegio del Rosario, 1651; Colegio Máximo, 1658) Vargas Lesmes 1990 offers a penetrating analysis of various dimensions of colonial administration and life, while Díaz Díaz 2000 studies slavery in the era, again noting the strong urban-rural connections. Characteristic of the colonial core were the “Santa Fé” houses, elite residences in areas surrounding the Plaza Mayor, with two stories and a large interior patio. The first floor facing the street was often used as a shop. In the late 19th century, these houses would be subdivided into low-income residences as the elite moved northward toward new residential zones.
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  81. Díaz Díaz, Rafael Antonio. Esclavitud, región y ciudad: El sistema esclavista urbano-regional en Santafé de Bogotá, 1700–1750. Bogotá: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Departemento de Historia, 2000.
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  83. Díaz Díaz provides detailed insights into slavery in early-18th-century Bogotá through the integration of four perspectives: special, demographic, economic, and social. He takes pains to view enslaved peoples as historical actors that shaped their lives within the boundaries of the institution, which linked the city with an extensive regional infrastructure. The volume is based upon intensive research in colonial archives and the notary publics of the city.
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  85. Ibáñez, Pedro María. Crónicas de Bogotá, 4 vols. Bogotá: Biblioteca Popular de Cultura Colombiana, 1951.
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  87. Classic history of Bogotá by one of the city’s leading 19th-century intellectuals. Volumes 1 and 2 cover the colonial period from the perspective of the colonial elite. Full of anecdotes, legends, and insights into family histories. Volumes 3 and 4 focus on the Independence era through 1826. Ibáñez did considerable archival research in the preparation of this masterpiece.
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  89. Martínez, Carlos. Santafé: Capital del Nuevo Reino de Granada. Bogotá: Banco Popular, 1987.
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  91. An authoritative account of colonial Santa Fé, with magnificent illustrations and numerous historical maps. Martínez includes chapters on the Hispanic urban tradition, the founding of the city, its spatial development, its economic and administrative history, and overviews of public and social services. As always, he is keenly attentive to Bogotá’s architectural heritage. An annex includes detailed studies of various plazas, religious buildings, and several critical historical documents.
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  93. McFarlane, Anthony. Colombia before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  94. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511529122Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. An excellent reader on the 18th-century history of colonial New Granada, offering a crucial contextual understanding of the development of Bogotá. McFarlane is especially helpful in describing the relationship between Santa Fé and its highland hinterland. Based upon extensive archival and secondary research. Includes tables on economic data and appendices on population, gold production, and commercial trends.
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  97. Rappaport, Joanne. “‘Asi lo paresçe por su aspeto’: Physiognomy and the Construction of Difference in Colonial Bogotá.” Hispanic American Historical Review 91.4 (November 2011): 601–631.
  98. DOI: 10.1215/00182168-1416648Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. A penetrating analysis of the “ethnophysiognomic eye” produced by colonialism in the description of subjects of New Granada. The author compares physical descriptions in travel documents to Bogotá and civil documents produced by colonial officials to illustrate how colonial settings altered ethno-racial features. Though most documents relate to individuals in Bogotá or Tunja, the article has broad implications for the epistemology of racial descriptors in the early colonial era.
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  101. Vargas Lesmes, Julián. La sociedad de Santafé colonial. Bogotá: Cinep, 1990.
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  103. Innovative and essential collection of essays by a pathbreaking historical sociologist on late-colonial Bogotá. Vargas Lesmes focuses upon social and cultural dimensions of the city—festivals, chicherías, public assistance, daily life, or social deviance—but not to the exclusion of population records, the urban labor obligation, or cabildo financial patterns. Helped to launch a generation of scholars to utilize colonial archives to explore distinct aspects of urban life.
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  105. Vázquez Varela, Ainara. “De la primera sangre de este reino”: Las élites dirigentes de Santa Fé (1700–1750). Bogotá: Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2010.
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  107. An important analysis of the sources of elite power focusing upon officials associated with the audiencia, cabildo, and cathedral. In addition to showing intimate relationships (and points of conflict) among different elites, the author offers excellent insights into the administrative structure. Scores of charts and graphs illustrate the analysis. Based upon extensive research in Colombian and Spanish archives. The appendix includes over three dozen genealogical trees of leading citizens.
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  109. Late Colonial Society
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  111. Scholars have paid increased attention to the last two generations of the colonial period, especially as many reforms produced a broader range of documents that illuminate social tensions. Rodríguez Ávila 2007 focuses upon social discipline through institutions of charity. Alzate Echeverri 2007 illustrates the tendency of Bourbon reforms to regulate the “health” of society, a process that revealed a complex social structure. A census in this era identifies 8,122 whites, 1,721 Indians, 7,350 mestizos,” and 762 enslaved people, a socio-racial mixture with more fluid boundaries than the early colonial period. Cogollos Amaya and Vargas Poo 1993 trace burial patterns, linking an increased awareness of death to population growth. Himelda Ramírez 2000 illustrates the increased attention toward women in this era, supplemented by Dueñas 1996 and its examination of patterns of marriage and sexual behavior. Ortega Ricaurte 2002 illuminates the lives and activities of enslaved Bogotanos.
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  113. Alzate Echeverri, Adriana María. Suciedad y orden: Reformas sanitarias borbónicas en la Nueva Granada, 1760–1810. Bogotá: Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2007.
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  115. Analyzes Bourbon sanitary reforms, with an emphasis upon the capital of Santa Fé. Efforts focused upon improved access to water supplies, the control of “unhealthy” consumption of chicha, and the regulation of burial practices. The author utilizes Foucault to trace the development of biopower, and also subaltern theories to trace the popular reaction against these mechanisms of control. Based upon extensive archival research in Madrid, Sevilla, Medellín, and Bogotá.
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  117. Cogollos Amaya, Claudia Silvia, and Martín Eduardo Vargas Poo. “Sociedad, muerte y prácticas de enterramiento en el Santafé colonial.” Universitas Humanística 37 (January–June 1993): 35–42.
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  119. Brief overview of church practices and legislation that shaped burial practices in colonial Bogotá. Suggests that high rates of morality made awareness of death a central feature of urban mentalities.
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  121. Dueñas, Guiomar. “Adulterios, amancebamientos, divorcios y abandono: La fluidez de la vida familiar santafereña, 1750–1810.” Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 23 (1996): 33–48.
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  123. Judicial archives from the late colonial period reveal widespread “abnormal” sexual conduct and patterns of familial relationships. Outside the social elite, most couples appear not to have wed, but instead lived together in long-term relationships governed by social convention. Women as well as men helped to shape family relationships that might be classified as adulterous concubinage or abandonment, but which often drew few legal responses.
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  125. Himelda Ramírez, María. Las mujeres y la sociedad colonial de Santa Fé de Bogotá, 1750–1810. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia, 2000.
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  127. Offers a narrative analysis of the multiple roles of women in Bogotá at the end of the colonial era. Separate chapters examine children and the home, girl’s education at the Colegio “La Esperanza,” women and work, the feminization of urban conflict, and illness and death. Twenty-eight tables support the analysis. The work is based upon extensive archival research, with extensive materials drawn from the Santa Bárbara and Las Nieves parochial archives.
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  129. Ortega Ricaurte, Carmen. Negros, mulatos y zambos en Santafé y Bogotá: Sucesos, peronajes y anécdotas. Bogotá: Academía Colombiana de Historia, 2002.
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  131. Insightful analysis of slavery in Bogotá until the 1851 emancipation, with a focus upon the experiences of enslaved persons. Ortega Ricaurte locates the institution of slavery, and the lives of enslaved Colombians within the broad history of the city and country. Based upon detailed research in various archives in Bogotá. Appendices include key documents associated with the 19th-century liberation process.
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  133. Rodríguez Ávila, Sandra Patricia. Sujeción corrección y disciplina: Pedagogía social de masas en Santa Fé de Bogotá, 1780–1820. Bogotá: Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, 2007.
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  135. Engaging study of late colonial mechanisms of social control of the urban poor. The author focuses upon the intersection of enlightened Christian charity for the poor through hospices and municipal control of the lazy through municipal policing agencies. Police paid particular attention to urban streets, chicherias, and gaming houses. Efforts by Church and municipal activities constructed a system of urban discipline—the education of the public based upon “proper” social conduct.
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  137. 19th Century
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  139. Architectural change around the Plaza de Bolívar indicates the slow and uneven pace of change brought by Colombian independence in 1819. The cathedral was completed in 1823, but the capital building that houses the congress was eighty years in construction (1846–1926). The Central University—established in 1827—lasted only a few years, though it became the foundation of the National University, established in 1867. The colonial use of the Plaza Bolívar as a marketplace was ended in 1840s, becoming instead a ceremonial public space. The political instability that ravaged the nation no doubt affected the capital, with sharp swings from federalist Liberal control (1849–1880) to centralizing Conservative rule under the Regeneración (1886–1899). The country suffered similar economic fluctuations before coffee emerged as a stable export crop in the 1880s.
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  141. General Works and Demographic Trends
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  143. The population of Bogotá increased from 21,000 people in 1800 to 90,000 eighty years later, though the physical boundaries of the city barely changed. Population density reached its peak of almost 450 persons per hectare in 1890, up from 161 persons in 1810. As population density increased, many colonial Santa Fé houses were subdivided into tenements, with multiple families, dense population, crowded conditions, and poor sanitation. This helped propel elites northward toward Chapinero, especially with the development of a tramway after the 1880s. Mejía Pavony 2000 penned the most complete study of the period, including a close analysis of demographic trends. Sowell 2012 suggests a distinct demographic trajectory, highlighting increased migration to the city, whereas Friedel and Jiménez 1971 links growth to the fate of the export economy. Páramo and Cuervo 2006 offers excellent insight into the changing nature of public spaces in republican Bogotá.
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  145. Friedel, Edward, and Michael F. Jiménez. “Colombia.” In The Urban Development of Latin America, 1750–1920. Edited by Richard M. Morse, 61–76. Stanford, CA: Center for Latin American Studies, Stanford University, 1971.
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  147. The authors utilize a modified dependency analysis to identify three eras of urban development correlated to economic activity; 1750–1845, 1845–1880, and 1880–1920. Bogotá’s regional isolation from zones of economic activity in the first two eras permitted limited growth, though civil wars afflicted the capital less so than other regions. A growing coffee economy and nascent industrial projects permitted the demographic expansion that would characterize the 20th century.
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  149. Mejía Pavony, Germán Rodrigo. Los años del cambio: Historia urbana de Bogotá, 1820–1910. 2d ed. Bogotá: CEJA, 2000.
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  151. Award-winning analysis of 19th-century Bogotá that chronicles the transition of the colonial to the modern city. Mejía Pavony documents the constructed city and its growing connection to regional and national economies. Chapters on the inhabitants of the city and the use of public space are particularly strong. Based upon exhaustive archival research and secondary readings.
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  153. Páramo, Pablo, and Mónica Cuervo. Historia social situada en el espacio público de Bogotá desde su fundación hasta el siglo XIX. Bogotá: Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, 2006.
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  155. An analysis of “public space” as a source of urban identity in the pre-Columbian, colonial, and national periods. Public plazas constitute the central focus of analysis, with attentiveness to changing religious, political, policing, economic, and social activities. The Plaza de Bolívar becomes the site of numerous political activities, or of the demonstration of force through executions. Based upon secondary sources and print materials from the late colonial period and 19th century.
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  157. Sowell, David. “Population Growth in Late Nineteenth Century Bogotá: Insights on a Demographic Dilemma.” Journal of Urban History 38.4 (July 2012): 720–730.
  158. DOI: 10.1177/0096144211434990Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Analyzes data from the 1880s to suggest that rural in-migration accounted for basic patterns of demographic expansion of 19th-century Bogotá. Sowell is critical of other studies that rely upon questionable census data that suggest rapid fluctuations of the numbers of urban residents in favor of more stable growth patterns until the 1870s.
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  161. Social Tensions and Collective Violence
  162.  
  163. Significant riots in 1872, 1875, and 1893 attest to the relationship between unsettling social change and a dynamic partisan political environment. Writers of the day—notably José María Córdevez Moure and Miguel Samper—expressed concern about the urban condition, with both arguing for the need for civic and economic improvements (see Córdevez Moure 1978 and Samper 1969). Iriarte 1987 offers an overview of 20th-century social observations. Sowell 1998 offers an overview of urban violence, including an 1872 riot involving a lay healer and a coalition of bakers that drove up bread prices, which also draws intensive analysis in Polo Buitrago 2008. Aguilera Peña 1997 presents a detailed study of a January 1893 riot that revealed deep tensions among the artisan sector and set in motion two years of political unrests that culminated in an abortive rebellion in 1895.
  164.  
  165. Aguilera Peña, Mario. Insurgencia urbana en Bogotá: Motín, conspiración y guerra civil, 1893–1895. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Cultura, 1997.
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  167. Authoritative account the riot of January 15–16, 1893, locating it within attitudes held by elite and popular artisans. The next two themes are of a planned uprising in April 1894 and popular foundations of the civil war of 1895. Throughout, the activities are skillfully situated within Bogotá’s economic, social, and political contexts. Based upon exhaustive archival and periodical research, and includes numerous tables outlining social actors in these events.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Córdevez Moure, José María. Remiscencias Santafé y Bogotá. 4 vols. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Cultura, 1978.
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  171. Essential collection of insights into 19th-century Bogotá by a long-lived observer of the city. The author includes short sections on scores of events, crimes, political scandals, dances, and antagonism that reflect the social tensions of the city.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Iriarte, Alfredo. Episodios Bogotanos. Bogotá: Editorial Oveja Negra, 1987.
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  175. Engaging account of the social and political history of 20th-century Bogotá by a leading Colombian intellectual. Written in a lyrical, precise style, the author comments upon political leaders, social events, the development of transportation, and a broad range of personalities.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Polo Buitrago, Sandra Milena. “Movilización popular en Bogotá en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX: El caso del Motín del Pan del 23 de enero de 1875.” Historia Crítica 35 (January–June 2008): 16–33.
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  179. Close analysis of the “pan de a cuarto” riot of January 1875 to lower prices and return to the production of smaller-sized bread so important to the popular sector. The author includes an analysis of the partisan press that yielded information about the riot and the historiography of the event before concluding that the action should be understood within concepts about the “moral economy” of food.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Samper, Miguel. La miseria en Bogotá y otros escritos. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional, Dirección de Divulgación Cultural Publicaciones, 1969.
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  183. Penetrating critique of Bogotá’s social decay by a Liberal polemicist, originally published in 1867. It contributed to the widely repeated belief that the city stagnated in the latter half of the 19th century, though the volume includes a postscript by Samper from the 1890s that addressed “progress” toward the end of the century.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Sowell, David. “Political Impulses: Popular Participation in Formal and Informal Politics, Bogotá, Colombia, 1870–1930.” In Cities of Hope: People, Protests, and Progress in Urbanizing Latin America, 1870–1930. Edited by Ronn Pineo and James A. Baer, 15–29. San Francisco: Westview, 1998.
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  187. Synthetic analysis of crowd behavior in Bogotá from the late colonial era into the 1920s. Argues that riots and other “popular” disturbances were correlated to the lack of access to formal political participation, which increased with large-scale social changes in the early 20th century. Based largely upon secondary sources.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Public Health and Hygiene
  190.  
  191. The history of medicine has undergone sweeping changes in the last generation, moving away from the heroic narrative represented in Ibáñez 1968 to a penetrating analysis of workers’ neighborhoods as a mechanism of social control in Noguera R. 1998, or a study of death in the late colonial period in Rodríguez González 1999. Múñoz V. and Pachón C. 1988–1991 focuses upon declining rates of infant mortality in the 20th century. An institutional overview from the late colonial period can be gained from Quevedo and Duque 2002, Obregón Torres 1992, and Abel 1994. Sowell 2003 offers a long-term perspective tracing the emergence of “biomedicine” and creation of a system of medical pluralism.
  192.  
  193. Abel, Christopher. Health Care in Colombia, c. 1920–c. 1950: A Preliminary Analysis. Research Papers 36. London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1994.
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  195. Important survey of Colombian medical history from the late colonial period through the mid-20th century. After a quick overview of 19th-century developments, Abel concentrates on public policies and their impact upon public health trends. Valuable speculation on the epidemiologic transition based upon extensive primary and secondary research.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Ibáñez, Pedro María. Memorias para la historia de la medicine en Santafe de Bogotá. Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional, 1968.
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  199. Ibáñez penned this indispensable classic account of the history of medicine in Bogotá in 1882. As with most early histories of medicine, it focuses upon institutional history, but it also offers important information about disease and mortality in the city. Most of the work focuses upon the years after independence, but it includes a survey of the colonial era. Originally published in 1884.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Múñoz V., Cecilia, and Ximena Pachón C. “Mortalidad infantil, crecimiento demográfico y control de la natalidad: Una lucha por la supervivencia de la infancia bogotana (1900–1989).” Maguaré 6.6–7 (1988–1991): 101–152.
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  203. This valuable essay traces infant mortality by decade from 1900 through the 1980s. The authors demonstrate the causes of death early in the century from poor sanitation, epidemic diseases, and substandard houses. Public health and sanitation programs led to declining infant mortality rates by midcentury, to be replaced by concerns over high birth rates and mandatory vaccinations. Public health activities were aimed principally at the poor and working classes.
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  205. Noguera R., Carlos Ernesto. “La higiene como política; Barrios obreros y dispositivo higiénico: Bogotá y Medellín a comienzos del siglo XX.” Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 25 (1998): 187–215.
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  207. An engaging and thoughtful analysis of the mechanisms of social control seen in the construction of “worker’s neighborhoods,” systems of urban hygiene, and moral education in Bogotá and Medellín from the 1910s through the 1950s. Based upon extensive research in municipal archives, the article includes tables and detailed discussion of municipal legislation. Analysis focuses upon the process of creating “urbanized” workers.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Obregón Torres, Diana. Sociedades científicas en Colombia: La invención de una tradición, 1859–1936. Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1992.
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  211. Essential overview of the development of scientific societies in Colombia. Many such societies—most notably the Society of Medicine and Natural Sciences of Bogotá—were located in the national capital and reflected the interests of the Bogotano scientific elite. Obregón Torres argues that most scientific societies shaped state policies, and were in turn shaped by the development of the state in the 20th century. Based upon archival research, publications from various societies, and extensive secondary readings.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Quevedo, Emilio, and Camilo Duque. Historia de la Cátedra de Medicina en el Colegio Mayor del Rosario durante la Colonia y la República, 1653–1865. Bogotá: Centro Editorial de la Universidad del Rosario, 2002.
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  215. A sweeping analysis of Bogotá’s initial school of medicine. Quevedo and Duque locate the Rosario within both European and American medical practices, with a focus upon the renewed scientific focus of the Bourbon reform era, especially José Celestino Mútis. This work offers detailed insight into the sixty years after the refounding of the school in 1802, an era the authors argue represents the institutionalization of scientific medicine.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Rodríguez González, Ana Luz. Cofradías, capellanías, epidemias y funerales: Una mirada al tejido social de la Independencia. Bogotá: El Áncora Editores, 1999.
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  219. Patterns of health and approaches to death constitute the analytical foundation for this innovation history of the “social fabric” of independence era (1802–1830) Bogotá. Rodríguez González pays particular attention to the roles of cofradias and capellanías in supporting persons in the Lazaretto, especially during the 1801–1802 smallpox epidemics, and during mortal illnesses. Wills and testimonials provide insight into attitudes toward death. Based upon extensive archival research, especially in notarial archives. Includes extensive tables and graphs.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Sowell, David. “Contending Medical Ideologies and State Formation: The Nineteenth-Century Origins of Medical Pluralism in Contemporary Colombia.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77.4 (Winter 2003): 900–926.
  222. DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2003.0194Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Locates contemporary medical pluralism in the mid-19th-century efforts by recently graduated and titled physicians from Bogotá’s School of Medicine to suppress curanderos such as Miguel Perdomo Neira. An explosive moment came in 1872 when the traditional healer began to practice in the capital city, the site of the emerging scientific-political paradigm. This gap between lay healers and their university-trained counterparts persisted well into the 20th century.
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  225. 1900 to the Present
  226.  
  227. The year 1900 symbolizes the expansion of Bogotá beyond the physical boundaries of the colonial era and the emergence of the “modern” city. Population pressures and urban transportation pushed the city both southward and northward, though the latter expansion opened a far greater geographical area. Northward residential expansion tended to be guided more by private developers; to the south there was more public construction and self-construction; and to the west development was guided by a mix of private developers and municipal planners, with Ciudad Kennedy a prime example of the latter. The city lost much of its physical isolation in the period, with a telegraph connection to the Magdalena River in 1866, and a rail line in 1909. Amato 1968, Montezuma 2008, and Barriga Alarcón 1987 exemplify the tendency among scholars to link transportation changes to the expansion of the city. Many studies focus upon changing social conditions in this era, including Sánchez 1998 and Villar Lozano, et al. 2009. Gilbert 1996 and Suárez Mayorga 2006 argues for the key role of urban planners in the expansion of the city.
  228.  
  229. Amato, Peter Walter. “An Analysis of the Changing Patterns of Elite Residential Areas in Bogotá, Colombia.” PhD diss., Cornell University, 1968.
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  231. Pathbreaking analysis of the elite-driven northward expansion of the city that helped create the spatial socioeconomic divisions still visible in Bogotá. The establishment of Chapinero symbolized the first stage of the expansion, facilitated by a tram line. Agricultural holdings in the sabana directed the elite expansion. An “English” brick architecture characterizes the “zona rosa” of the new neighborhoods. Covers the first half of the 20th-century.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Barriga Alarcón, Julio. Del Bogotá de ayer y de antier. Bogotá: Ediciones Tercer Mundo, 1987.
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  235. Collection of impressionistic essays about Bogotá’s 20th-century social life. Topics include the theater, the tramway, movies, and several notable personages. Lacks footnotes or sources, but includes several interesting photographs.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Gilbert, Alan. “Santa Fe de Bogota: a Latin American Special Case?” In Mega-city in Latin America. Edited by Alan Gilbert, 241–269. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1996.
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  239. Argues that Bogotá departs in significant ways from patterns of other national capitals in Latin America, especially in terms of its reaction to neoliberal economic changes and the gradual lowering of rates of poverty. Gilbert provides a handy “snap-shot” of the city in the 1990s, suggesting the role of policymakers in managing growth.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Montezuma, Ricardo. La Ciudad del Tranvía, 1880–1920: Bogotá, transformaciones urbanas y movilidad. Bogotá: Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2008.
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  243. From 1880 to 1920, transportation in Bogotá underwent a transformation from “colonial” to “modern” practices. Mule-pulled and electric trams highlighted this urban transformation, which reoriented public spaces throughout the city and stimulated its northward expansion. The development of a rail system on the sabana complemented changes in urban transportation. An engaging analysis based primarily upon secondary sources and generously illustrated with photographs and maps.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Sánchez, Consuelo. De la aldea a la metrópoli: Seis décadas de vida cotidiana en Bogotá, 1900–1959. Bogotá: Instituto Distrital de Cultura y Turismo, 1998.
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  247. Episodes from daily activities in the city as reported in the press and secondary sources. Written from a journalistic perspective, the book is divided into accounts of each decade. It tends to examine political unrest more systematically than other themes.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Suárez Mayorga, Adriana María. La ciudad de los elegidos: Crecimiento urbano, jerarquización social y poder político, Bogotá, 1910–1950. Bogotá: Editorial Guadalupe, 2006.
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  251. Important work asserts that urban expansion responded to commercial and service sector activities. Special attention is paid to spatial differentiation, with a focus upon the planned development of workers’ neighborhoods. Municipal planners directed the “modernization” of the city from above, with occasional influence from popular sector influences. Illustrated with numerous maps, and sustained by graphs and tables based upon extensive research in municipal and notarial archives.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Villar Lozano, Mayerly Rosa, Martha Isabel Triviño, and Myriam Monroy Leal. Transformaciones urbanas en Bogotá, 1930–1948: Incidencia de la mentalidad colectiva. Bogotá: Universidad La Gran Colombia, 2009.
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  255. Interesting set of readings that examine the broad context of Bogotá’s expansion, public policy that facilitated urban growth, architectural patterns, and socio-spatial dimensions of the northward expansion of the city. Particular attention is placed upon the “Zona Rosa” in the Chapinero sector. Over one hundred images, maps, and graphs greatly expand the value of this collection, which is based upon substantive primary and secondary research.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Social Tensions
  258.  
  259. The outrage and violence that followed the April 9, 1948, assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán epitomizes the tensions that accompanied the incorporation of more citizens into Bogotá’s political life. Aprile Gniset 1983 and Braun 1985 offer excellent insights into the infamous 9 de Abril. Torres Carrillo 1993 narrates the continuing struggle between popular sectors and authorities during the National Front era. Carrigan 1993 provides a sensitive account of the November 1985 seizure of the Palace of Justice and the death of over one hundred people as the army retook the building from M-19 militants. These violent outbursts overshadow day-to-day struggles, as seen in Múñoz V. 1990, which documents the effort to control gamines (street children). Talcott 2004, an analysis of the resistance by women in the flower industry to extraordinary levels of exploitation, or Zeiderman 2013, which analyzes the struggle by municipal authorities to control political activities in parks, invasion communities, and public plazas.
  260.  
  261. Aprile Gniset, Jacques. El impacto del 9 de abril sobre el centro de Bogotá. Bogotá: Centro Cultural Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, 1983.
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  263. Valuable Marxist analysis of how the 9 de abril riot altered the development of Bogotá, suggesting that the destruction of some 136 buildings allowed for “modern” commercial activity to dominate the center of the city. The “North American” style of construction is clearly visible in the most damaged areas of the city, a renovation sustained by urban planning committees. Based largely on information from newspapers, the work includes numerous maps.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Braun, Herbert. The Assassination of Gaitán: Public Life and Urban Violence in Colombia. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
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  267. Braun authors an authoritative investigation of the life of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán and the violence in Bogotá that accompanied his April 9, 1948, assassination. Gaitán created a “middle” political space between traditional Conservatives and Liberals, a space that drew popular sectors into Colombian politics. His assassination dashed their hopes, symbolizing a rejection of both parties visible in their outraged violence after the assassination. Keen analysis of Bogotá’s political culture and socioeconomic structure.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Carrigan, Ana. The Palace of Justice: a Colombian Tragedy. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1993.
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  271. A sensitive and engaging account of the November 6, 1985, seizure of the Palace of Justice (home of the supreme court) by M-19 guerrillas and the assault by the Colombian military to regain control of the building. Carrigan uses a first-person voice as she interviews survivors, military and government officials, and citizens, and describes M-19 activities, to narrate the horrific chain of events that cost over one hundred people and eleven justices their lives.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Múñoz V., Cecilia. “Los chinos bogotanos a comienzos del siglo, 1900–1930: Un problema vigente.” Biblioteca Vitural: Biblioteca Luis ÁRANGO (December 1990): 1–5.
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  275. Brief overview of the phenomena of street children at the beginning of the 20th century. The “chinos” (or gamines) seldom engaged in criminal activities, but might be recruited for political activities or small-scale street commerce. Chinos attracted literary and poetic attention, or were the objects of photographers, some of which are reproduced here.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Talcott, Molly. “Gendered Webs of Development and Resistance: Women, Children, and Flowers in Bogotá.” In Special Issue: Development Cultures: New Environments, New Realities, New Strategies. Edited by Françoise Lionnet, Obioma Nnaemeka, Susan H. Perry, and Celeste Schenck. Signs 29.2 (Winter 2004): 465–489.
  278. DOI: 10.1086/378107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Discusses how the flower industry in the plains near Bogotá is indicative of the gendered impact of globalization. Using first-person experiences of individuals within the flower industry, activist NGO organizers, and workers with the “community mothers” program, the author draws out the intimacy of “webs of gendered development” and strategies for improving the situation of women.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Torres Carrillo, Alfonso. La ciudad en la sombra: Barrios y luchas populares en Bogotá, 1950–1977. Bogotá: CINEP, 1993.
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  283. This volume examines the efforts of urban migrants to establish “popular” neighborhoods in Bogotá during the years of “the Violence” and the industrialization of the city. The era under study saw the urban population increase sixfold, resulting in serious employment problems and a lack of housing, resolved in many cases by collective land “invasions” and multiple individual strategies. Torres Carrillo argues that urban dwellers developed an autonomous identity as a result of their struggles.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Zeiderman, Austin. “Living Dangerously: Biopolitics and Urban Citizenship in Bogotá, Colombia.” American Ethnologist 40.1 (February 2013): 71–87.
  286. DOI: 10.1111/amet.12006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Provocative analysis of a biopolitical urban landscape shaped by concerns for security using three case studies—of a woman in a zone at risk of landslides, of an invasion community, and of the efforts of displaced persons (desplazados) to gain housing and employment. The threatened “vitality” of these communities afford them access to certain public rights and—perhaps—offers a formula for “living well” within a threatening city.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Public Spaces
  290.  
  291. Public spaces such as parks, plazas, and streets have increasingly become contested spaces—between municipal authorities who seek enhanced social control and citizens who seek to define their own sense of public conduct. Williams Castro 2013 reveals how nightclubs demonstrate deeply vested patterns of racism. Cuervo Prados 2009 offers an excellent introduction to the topic, while González Pérez 2005 provides a historical overview of changing popular uses of public spaces. Concerned about congested sidewalks and informal venders, the city banned car parking on streets and expelled venders from these public spaces after 1988, driving many to economic ruin. (Donovan 2008) These contestations parallel the more traditional spaces, including Independence Park just north of the city center, the Jardín Botánico de Bogotá (Mutis), and Parque Jaime Duque. In the 1970s, urban officials closed Calle Septima on Sundays to all motorized traffic, creating the “Cyclovía” tradition that now closes 120 kilometers of urban streets every Sunday, creating a festive opportunity for walkers, bicyclists, and venders. The city also boasts some 400 kilometers of dedicated bike paths.
  292.  
  293. Cuervo Prados, Mónica. “Del espacio público en Bogotá en el siglo XX: Una mirada histórica desde las prácticas sociales.” Folios, Revista de la Facultad de Comunicaciones 18–20 (June 2009): 69–82.
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  295. Theoretical consideration of public space in Bogotá as a potential source of education and the creation of democratic citizenship. Surveys theories of public space and then offers a conceptual framework for an interpretation of the city.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Donovan, Michael G. “Informal Cities and the Contestation of Public Space: The Case of Bogotá’s Street Vendors, 1988–2003.” Urban Studies 45.1 (January 2008): 29–51.
  298. DOI: 10.1177/0042098007085100Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Penetrating analysis of largely successful efforts to remove streets venders to restore public order and create new public spaces. This campaign, one of the largest in Latin America, “recovered” one million meters of public space by the removal of thousands of street venders into controllable enclosed markets. Mayors used the issue of crime and public order to recast the image of the Colombian capital.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. González Pérez, Marcos. Carnestolendas y carnavales en Santa Fé y Bogotá. Bogotá: Intercultura, 2005.
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  303. Engaging study of carnivals as a dynamic Bogotano social space. It includes extensive analysis of colonial carnivals, dominated by the church and various cofradias. The author tracks the general redefinition of carnivals in 20th-century Bogotá to include political gatherings and formal national and social fairs. Based upon research in colonial archives and extensive secondary readings. Includes some twenty photographs.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Williams Castro, Fatimah. “Afro-Colombians and the Cosmopolitan City: New Negotiations of Race and Space in Bogotá, Colombia.” Latin American Perspectives 40.2 (March 2013): 105–117.
  306. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X12468868Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Depicts Bogotá as a “cosmopolitan global city [that hides] structured racism against Afro-Colombian residents.” Using nightclubs in the Zona Rosa district as sites of investigation, the author examines the concept of cosmopolitanism as an ideology that both promotes and denies racial diversity.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Municipal Planning and Services
  310.  
  311. Santana 1988 and Vargas Lesmes and Zambrano P. 1988 demonstrate how effective municipal planning developed in the late 1930s and guided Bogotá from the worst urban problems that afflict many Latin American cities. Gilbert 1978 focuses upon planning in the 1970s. Zoning laws separate residential, commercial, and industrial districts. Even before the city government undertook systematic planning, it sponsored the development of various “workers’ neighborhoods” in support of the working class. Major development initiatives include the development of El Dorado Airport; “University City,” which encompasses the National University; and the vast Ciudad Kennedy project. The “ring road” of Calle100/Avenida 68 enabled the city to move toward the west, avoiding problems of overcrowding neighborhoods but promoting urban sprawl and the necessity for a vast transportation system of buses, busetas, taxis, and private automobiles. Bassett and Marpillero-Colomina 2013 describes the TransMilenio project that created private bus lanes and subway-like transit zones that support extensive commercial services. The city created six economic and residential categories that charge residents different amounts for various public service bills.
  312.  
  313. Bassett, Thomas E., and Andrea Marpillero-Colomina. “Sustaining Mobility: Bus Rapid Transit and the Role of Local Politics in Bogotá.” Latin American Perspectives 40.2 (March 2013): 135–145.
  314. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X12468867Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. The TransMilenio project of Mayor Enrique Peñalosa has been touted as a model urban transportation system for cash-strapped cities. The bus system operates on exclusive lanes with series of fixed stations equipped with parks, libraries, and a range of commercial facilities. The system has lowered transit fares and increased ridership, but has failed to address the needs of poorer neighborhoods, many of which are now threatened by gentrification.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Gilbert, Alan. “Bogotá: Politics, Planning, and the Crisis of Lost Opportunities.” In Latin American Urban Research. Vol. 6. Edited by Wayne A. Cornelius and Robert V. Kemper, 87–126. Beverly Hills: SAGE, 1978.
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  319. Detailed and valuable analysis of residential patterns, health-care opportunities, and socioeconomic conditions of Bogotá in the 1960s and 1970s. The article pays close attention to public policies that have affected the development of the city, and warns of the need to undertake serious planning if the city is to avoid urban conditions found elsewhere in Latin America. Most analysis is placed in historical and comparative perspective, adding to the value of the piece.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Santana, R. Pedro. Bogotá, 450 años: Retos y realidades. Bogotá: Foro Nacional por Colombia, 1988.
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  323. A valuable collection of seven articles that focus upon the development of public services over the course of the 20th century. Topics include an overview of the historical development of public services, the economic and administrative structure of the city, political activities in the 1970s and 1980s, and a call for financial reform.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Vargas Lesmes, Julián, and Fabio Zambrano P. “Santa Fe y Bogotá: Evolución histórica y servicios públicos (1600–1957).” In Bogotá, 450 años: retos y realidades. Edited by R. Pedro Santana, 11–92. Bogotá: Foro Nacional por Colombia, 1988.
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  327. The authors contend that Bogotá experienced a brief expansion after its founding, then again in the 18th century, but that major expansion began only with the development of the republican state. Municipal and state authorities cooperated to develop water and sewer systems, an electrical network, and a transportation network that mixed private automobiles with trams, buses, and rail service. Supported by solid primary research.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Migration and Poverty
  330.  
  331. Hundreds of thousands of people have migrated to Bogotá over the past 150 years. Until well into the 20th century, as shown by Simmons and Ramiro Cardona G. 1972, Corno 1983, and Flinn 1971, most came from small towns and cities of the Colombian highlands in search of economic and social opportunity, swelling the population of the city. Since the 1980s, many people from throughout the country displaced by guerrilla and paramilitary violence in the countryside have sought sanctuary in Bogotá. This migration—and fears that it feeds urban poverty—have drawn the attention of numerous scholars who write from a modernization theory perspective (see, for example Lipman 1965 and Udall 1980). In addition, Mohan 1980 and Mohan and Hartline 1984 are valuable studies for the World Bank written in this vein. Moser 1980 focuses upon poverty in the 1970s, while Rueda-García 2003 stands out as a work on the changing locations of poverty in the last twenty years of the 20th century.
  332.  
  333. Corno, Robert. “The Adjustment of Migrants to Bogotá, Colombia.” In Urban Migrants in Developing Nations: Patterns and Problems of Adjustment. Edited by C. Goldscheider, 141–184. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1983.
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  335. An analysis that shows higher levels of job placement and satisfaction among migrants to the city in the 1950s and 1960s than among native residents. These differences were greater among migrants who had lived in the city for longer periods of time, and more reflective of male experiences. Dense statistical analysis based upon large data sets, questionnaires, and secondary literature.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Flinn, William L. “Rural and Intra-urban Migration in Colombia: Two Case Studies in Bogotá.” In Latin American Urban Research. Vol. 1. Edited by Francine F. Rabinowitz and Felicity M. Trueblood, 83–93. Beverly Hills: SAGE, 1971.
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  339. This late 1960s study of two poorer urban neighborhoods found that most migrants moved directly to Bogotá from small-town or rural districts and lived in inexpensive downtown rental apartments. When financially feasible, they then sought to build small houses further away from the city center, where they could own their own homes.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Lipman, Aaron. “Social Backgrounds of the Bogotá Entrepreneur.” Journal of Inter-American Studies 7.2 (April 1965): 227–235.
  342. DOI: 10.2307/165147Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Sociological analysis within a “modernization” framework of sixty-one members of ANDI (National Association of Industrialists) in terms of social origins, education, business values.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Mohan, Rakesh. The People of Bogotá: Who They Are, What They Earn, Where They Live. World Bank Staff Working Paper 390. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1980.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Analyzes the demographic features of Bogotá in the 1970s. The research is based upon the 1973 census and extensive use of DANE data, especially a housing survey of 1977. The work focuses on the spatial distribution of different income groups, types of laborers, industries, and migrants to the city. Migrants tended to have certain levels of social capital, and not to occupy the most distressed neighborhoods of the city.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Mohan, Rakesh, and Nancy Hartline. The Poor of Bogotá: Who They Are, What They Do, and Where They Live. World Bank Staff Working Papers 635. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1984.
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  351. Valuable study by the World Bank on labor, family structures, and spatial distribution. Argues that inadequate social services in poorer neighborhoods limits the opportunity for social and economic advancement. Based upon careful study of national and municipal statistics and sustained by extensive tables and graphs.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Moser, Caroline O. N. “Why the Poor Remain Poor: the Experience of Bogotá Market Traders in the 1970s.” Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs 22.3 (August 1980): 365–387.
  354. DOI: 10.2307/165494Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Ethnographic examination of informal, small-scale traders in an urban marketplace during the 1970s. Demonstrates that both personal factors—illnesses, family responsibilities, and other opportunities—interact with structural developments to limit capital accumulation and opportunities for any social improvement.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Rueda-García, Nicolás. “The Case of Bogotá D. C., Colombia.” In Understanding Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements. London: Development Planning Unit, University College London, 2003.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Outstanding study of slums as “unplanned urbanization” and zones of the inner city that have suffered significant decline. Slums as unplanned urban development last for a short period, as the city extends public services and incorporates them into the planning process. The 1991 constitutional reorganization of the city “empowered” slum-dwellers to take an active political role in their communities, with positive outcomes. Essay is supported by maps of changing patterns of poverty. Volume copublished by United Nations Human Settlement Programme.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Simmons, Alan B., and Ramiro Cardona G. “Rural-Urban Migration: Who Comes? Who Stays? Who Returns? The Case of Bogotá, Colombia, 1929–1968.” International Migration Review 6.2 (Summer 1972): 166–181.
  362. DOI: 10.2307/3002135Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Classic analysis of rural migrants to Bogotá during the initial stages of its rapid expansion. Finds that most migrants originated from highland communities, came with small amounts of social capital, and tend toward social success in the years after their arrival. Structural barriers limit the long-term success, however. Supported by tables and extensive statistical research.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Udall, Alan. “Urbanization and Rural Labor Supply: a Historical Study of Bogotá, Colombia since 1920.” Studies in Comparative International Development 16.3 (1980): 70–83.
  366. DOI: 10.1007/BF02686467Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Tentative analysis of how changing economic conditions in the agricultural region around Bogotá affected migration to the city. Udall suggests that changes in rural agricultural wages in the 1920s might have stimulated migration patterns, but that economic growth after 1958 provided clearer evidence of “pull” factors and the rapid expansion of the city.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Women and Social Change
  370.  
  371. The role of women in promoting social change, and in how social change impacts the experience of women, has generated important scholarship. Three works focus upon the mid-19th century through about the Depression Era of the 1930s: Bermúdez 1993 studies women and the family in the Radical Liberal era (1949–1880); Froysland 2002 is a study of charity, health, and moral order in the same period, but extends it until 1936; and Urrego Ardila 1997 traces women, the family, and charity from 1880 until 1930. Other scholars have focused more upon the late 20th century. Notable among these works are Florez, et al. 1990, on women’s experiences during the demographic transition, and Westermark 2003, an account of the lives of women in the informal sector.
  372.  
  373. Bermúdez, Q. Suzy. El Bello Sexo: La mujer y la familia durante el Olimpo Radical. Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes, 1993.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Examines the image of women during the “Radical Olympic” era of the Liberal Party (1849–85). The author focuses upon the “official” image of elite women as seen in the press, before turning to the “proper” role of women in the eyes of the church. The “bello sexo” was envisioned to meet European standards of beauty and comportment, while maintaining patterns of spirituality more rooted in Colombian ideals. Addresses conceptions of family.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Florez, Carmen Elisa, in collaboration with Elssy Bonilla and Rafael Echeverri. The Demographic Transition and Women’s Life Course in Colombia. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1990.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Uses social scientific methods within modernization theory to examine how the demographic transition—the shift from high to low rates of infant mortality and deaths—affected women in highland Colombia in the 1980s. The article focuses upon issues concerning reproduction, with an interesting chapter in which urban and rural women reflect upon how their lives have changed. Extensive use of tables and charts to illustrate analysis.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Froysland, Haley Susan. “‘Para el bien común’: Charity, Health, and Moral Order in Bogotá, Colombia, 1850–1936.” PhD diss., University of Virginia, 2002.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Innovative investigation of changing attitudes toward charity and morality in Bogotá during the years of Liberal ascendency and the Conservative Regeneration. Involves painstaking research into beneficial societies, newspapers, and scores of religious pamphlets. The moral objectives of the Regeneration are treated with special care. Final chapter treats questions of public health and degeneration in the first years of the 20th century.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Urrego Ardila, Miguel Ángel. Sexualidad, matrimonio y familia en Bogotá, 1880–1930. Bogotá: Editorial Ariel S. A., 1997.
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  387. Marriage, the family, and identity within the Conservative Regeneración. The author is especially attentive to the role of the church is promoting new ideas of marriage and family, and to the emergence of “bourgeois” identities and senses of intimacy among the elite. Tables and graphs illustrate demographic, marriage, and socioeconomic patterns, often using parish level analysis. Well-documented study based upon archival research, extensive use of newspapers, and secondary sources.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Westermark, Åsa. Informal Livelihoods: Women’s Biographies and Reflections about Everyday Life; A Time-Geographic Analysis in Urban Colombia. Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Human and Economic Geography, School of Economics and Commercial Law, Göteborg University, 2003.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Engaging study of two women working in the informal sector at the beginning of the 21st century. The author painstakingly traces their daily activities, suggesting how specific contexts shape their social and economic decision-making. Suggests that close analyzes such as this can be helpful in more effective development strategies.
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