World In Peril Chapters 27-30

WORLD
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The Origin, Mission & Scientific Findings
of the 46th/72nd Reconnaissance Squadron



By Ken White

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Chapter 27

Terrestrial Magnetism Studies

After the first flight by the 46th over the polar sea, the navigators on the flight recommended that
an intensive study be made of the magnetic compass and its reliability in this area. One of the
navigators in the flight made preparations to carry out such a study, but abandoned the project as
flights did not go over enough area at that time to permit a complete survey. When “Project Polaris”
got underway the opportunity for a complete study presented itself. First Lieutenant Frank O. Klein

accepted this responsibility and went all out in pursuit of definite information on magnetism. In
Frank Klein’s own words:

“It all began when we were told in textbooks and by the authorities that any magnetic compass was
useless in the Arctic. The magnetic compass was said to fluctuate wildly because of proximity to the
north magnetic pole. But as is often the case, conventional wisdom was proven to be flawed.

“As chance would have it, I had been appointed the ‘Flight B Navigator‘, whose primary area of
concern within the Arctic encompassed the islands of the Canadian Archipelago. This was the area
within which the north magnetic pole was to be found.

“To my surprise, early flights in the fall of 1946 suggested that the fluxgate compass was not entirely
useless. Although the indicator typically oscillated slightly in the region (2 to 3 degrees), the
requisite sensitivity for directional indications appeared always to be given. Unfortunately, its
navigational use was precluded since the magnetic variation (declination) values depicted on our
charts were purely extrapolated values, could not be immediately corroborated, and obviously could
not be relied upon. A plan of action suggested itself. I would ask our Flight B navigators to read and
record the fluxgate compass indication every time a true heading value was obtained from the astro-

é compass. This procedure could be made optional for navigators in the other flights of our squadron.
; Since a great many polar flights were being planned, these flights could produce sufficient magnetic
variation values to develop a reliable chart of polar isogonals. Such a chart would provide polar

_ navigators with a backup means of navigation, particularly in an emergency. At this time, a search

'é: for the current location of the north magnetic pole was at best an afterthought; but the afterthought
31‘ ptovided a valuable by-product.








‘1‘“Since the contemplated project was not a part of our squadron’s assigned mission and would
$1.. involve additional work for our navigators, I sought approval for the work plan from my immediate
l ‘gmpetvisor, the Squadron Navigator, Norbert Zwicke, who, true to form, gave his approval and
ignthusiastic support.

,1 __ THE DEVELOPMEN T OF AN ARCTIC MAGNETIC CHART

‘ cient data had been collected and analyzed by the end of 1947 to prepare a chart depicting
‘1 ngonals north of the North American continental shelf to 85°N latitude and roughly from the

178 World in Peril

western half of the Canadian Archipelago westward to the International Date Line. The chart
reflected approximately 600 mean variation values computed from data recorded by a numberof ,
navigators.



“The individual magnetic variation values were determined by comparing true headings obtaimd
from an astro-compass with magnetic headings simultaneously obtained from the fluxgate compass.
In a large percentage of the magnetic observations,readings were avenged over a two-minute period
and compared with the true heading value existing at the mid-pet'iod of the observation. Conse-
quently, the total of individual magnetic readings considerably exceeded 600. The chart was sectored
into many areas, for each of which mean variation values were determined. The average probable
error for the mean was calculated to be no more than three.

“The subject chart was published in Vol. 30. No. 2, TRANSACTIONS, AMERICAN GEOPHYSI-
CAL UNION (AGU). for April 1949. In addition, the AGU extended its membership to the author.
The Department of Commerce, U. 8. Coast Guard and Geodetic Survey also accorded recognition
to the project in a letter to Lt. Klein stating, ‘...thc availability of the data and the chart have been
of great specific value to this Bureau in preparing magnetic charts...‘

II. THE SEARCH FOR THE MAGNETIC NORTH POLE

“By mid-year 1947 sufficient data (1000 determinations) had been collected within the Canadian
Archipelago to provide some surprising findings. For one, the fluxgate compass was responsive to
the relatively weak horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field in almost all of the region.
The exception was a small elliptical-shaped area whose axis extended NW—SE from Boothia
Peninsula to the Bathurst Islands, about the area of Montana, which is small compared to the
5,5(D,000 square miles of the Arctic ocean. Although magnetic readings were Sometimes possible
within this area, they were often erratic and unreliable. However, sufficient data became available
to yield unexpected and confusing results. From a navigational standpoint, it appeared we were
confronted not with one, but with three magnetic poles. A more critical analysis became necessary.
This analysis indicated that only one of the poles met the acid test of complete isogonal convergency.
This was the central pole on northwestem Prince of Wales Island, at 73°30’N - 101°00‘W as reported
at that time.

“The two foci of the ellipse, one on Bathurst Island and the other on Boothin Peninsula were
particularly perplexing. Neither of the two indicated complete isogonal convergency. Of the two, the
area on Bathurst Island was more complete in this respect. (Incidentally, the Air Force charts current
at the time depicted the magnetic pole on Boothia Peninsula).l Then, too, we had experimented with
a number of “homing” missions which had successfully “horned—in" on each of the two foci. This
was particularly significant since it suggested that the two local poles could prove of singular
importance in a polar navigational emergency. Furthermore, I had personally witnessed complete
fluxgate indicator gyrations at only three locations on all of my missions in the Arctic - and these
were very near or at the three subject locations. These conditions prompted the reference. to two local
or secondary poles - one on the Bathurst Islands at 75°35’N - 103°30’W (the more dominant
secondary pole) and the other on Roothia Peninsula at 70°40‘N - 97°20'W.

Terrestrial Magnetism Studies 179

“It was not long after these findings had been officially reported that we learned that a Canadian
ground expedition had been sent into the Canadian Archipelago with the specific mission of locating
the position of the north magnetic pole. This expedition could not confirm our indications of
secondary poles on Boothia and Bathurst. However, a letter dated July 21, 1948, written by R. Glenn
Madill, Chief of Terrestrial Magnetism, Department of Mines and Resources, Canada, addressed to
Lt. Frank O. Klein stated, ‘...However, we agree on one point and that is the presence of what we
can call the main magnetic pole on northwestern Prince of Wales Island. I have accepted as a purely
preliminary value the position latitude 73°N and longitude 100°W. Your value of 73°15’N and
99°45’W is in excellent agreement, and I suggest that you use your value by all means...’ This is
astounding! Being just a few miles from the ground expedition’s results!”

A United States Air Force nationwide press release on October 19th, 1947 announced the discovery
of the three magnetic north poles — unfortunately without qualification. Although Frank Klein was
never accorded any formal recognition from the USAF for his efforts, he nevertheless has remained
thankful for the fortune of having been a member of the 72nd Recon Squadron (VLR) Photographic.
It was only by virtue of his havin g been an Air Force member of that unit, that aerial terrestrial
magnetic research in the Arctic was made possible.

In the words of lst Lt. David J . Haney, another outstanding navigator in the squadron and author of
Navigation North of Seventy: “As is so often the case, Klein’s co-workers did not always appreciate
the hours of study and hard work he did on this project. His findings, probably more than any other
single project, have been responsible for the attention focused on the organization by scientific
agencies The much-deserved recognition for his work came when he was invited to accept
membership in the American Geophysical Union. This honor is not only a hard-eamed recognition
for Klein, but also for the squadron and the Air Force.”

Chapter 28

Clues to a Cataclysm

Frank O. Klein’s pinpointing of the north magnetic poles’ locations at positions 125 to 200 miles
further north than was earlier predicted attracted great interest in the scientific community,
particularly among top government scientists under Vannevar Bush. Since 1831, when the first
observations were made, the magnetic north pole had remained almost static on Boothia Peninsula
until 1945 (from 70°06’N-96054‘W 70°30’N-96000’W). Klein’s discovery in 1948 that the main
magnetic north pole had moved to the northwestern shore of Prince of Wales Island (73°15’N—
99°45’W) revealed that it had dramatically moved 165 miles closer to the geographic north pole.1
The government scientists subsequently began a scientific investigation into the ramifications of
Klein’s findings. Many of their study groups, held at the Pentagon, were attended by Major White
and Dr. Paul Siple.

The first determination of the Pentagon study was that while the rate of northward magnetic polar
movement (which Dr. Paul Siple sought to establish) seemed to be unpredictable, it had been in a
decidedly north—north-westerly direction, moving ever closer to the geographic North Pole. The
question in the minds of many in the scientific community was what would happen if and when the
magnetic pole converged on the geographic pole. Was there a connection between the powerful
geomagnetic forces involved in polar movement and the mechanism that caused geologic change?

The forces that. have created mountains have remained a mystery, and yet there has to be an
explanation for high strata of mountain rock containing marine fossils. Some tremendous force had
to lift up the land with such pressure so as to raise former sea beds to high altitudes. There must be
some reason why “beaches” of sand formed from ocean—wave action are found at lSOO—foot altitudes

in the mountains of Italy.2 Scientists have not yet been able to agree on whether the change that raised
the sea beds was slow or rapid.

Spitzbergen is an island well within the Arctic Circle, and is now snow and icebound most of the year.
Yet on Spitzbergen there is ample evidence that tropical corals once grew on the shores of the island.3
Spitzbergen also has considerable coal deposits, attesting to the island’s once-temperate or tropical
climate. Also found there were numerous fossils of water lilies imbedded in lignite, also confirming
that the island once had a warm and marshy environment." How can we explain the oncc-temperate
climate of this arctic region unless either the whole earth was once warmer than it is now, or unless
the poles were in a different location relative to the earth’s crust?

WhenAdmiral Byrd went to the Antarctic from 1933 to 1935 , his expedition found leaf stein imprints
and fossilized wood under the snow and ice.’ Sir Ernest Shackleton found coal beds within 200 miles
of the geographic South Pole, evidence of massive primeval forestation in i’mtarctica.6 The
explanation is not as obvious as saying that the Antarctic was once devoid of ice so that the plants

182 World in Perl]

and forests could grow. We still must account for the fact that massive forestation doesn't occur
where there are six months of darlmess during the year, a characteristic of a polar area.

Also found near the geographic South Pole were the fossilized footprints of a prehistoric mammal-
like reptile.’ Since reptiles are known to be cold-blooded, and need the warmth of the environment
to smtain their body heat, it is eVident that the Antarctic did not always have a cold climate. If this
is true, Antarctica could not have always been located at the south geographic pole.

Although the phenomena referred to as Ice Ages are an accepted fact, few scientists canagree on how
they are caused. N at only have mile-high ice sheets covered the northern North American continent
as far south as. New Jersey, Ohio and Wiscomin; but Europe, Africa and India have had their ice ages
too. There are many theories as to how they are caused, but none have been proven. We are left with
numerous explanations, some plausible, and some improbable. The last Ice Age is believed to have
ended only about 10,000 years ago, leaving many mysteries unsolved.

Millions of animals were frozen alive by the sudden glacial conditions of the last ice age, and
hundreds of thousands have been found as they died, buried frozen in the ground. The New Siberian
Islands, located 200 miles off the northern coast of Siberia, are almost literally composed of the
bones and remains of multitudes of prehistoric mammoths, saber—toothed cats, giant beavers (the
size of goats), prehistoric rhinoceros, buffalo, deer, horses, and other small mammals.“ How could
so many of these animals (also found throughout Siberia and Alaska) be frozen intact within the
ground in such a way that ten thousand years later their flesh, when thawed, was said to be “edible"?
Indeed, at one Russian scient'st’s banquet the main course consisted of quite palatable mammoth
steals.’Anotherquestion is how the tundra of northern Siberia and Alaska could have supported such
large populations of prehistoric animals, unless the Arctic once had a temperate climate with lush
vegetation?

It is well-lmown that tree rings are a measure of tree growth over annual seasons. Why then do
prehistoric frozen tree trunks unearthed in Spitzbergen, Norway, have no rings? ‘° Only if there were
once no seasons in Spitzbergen would the trees have no rings. But the only place on earth where there
at e no seasons is at the equator. If the earth's equator once passed through or near Spitzbergen, then
it is obvious that, relative to the earth’s crust, the earth’s geographic poles would once have to have
been in ditterent locations than they are now. What caused their apparent shift?

An expedition digging in the Canadian Archipelago only a few hnndned miles from the geographic
North Pole found under the ice and snow hundreds of frozen (not petrified) prehistoric tree trunks,
shattered as though by massive tidal wave activity. and buried in the sand. Beneath the surface they
found another layerof similar tree trunks, and beneath that layer yet another, until they had identified
nine different levels of evidence of catastrophic change." Not only was the Arctic apparently once
a highly forested temperate or tropical region, but It was subject to periodic cataclysmic upheavals.

It is clear that there have been times in the earth‘s history when geologic change has upset the living
conditions of its flora and fauna. Many examples argue that such changes are violent and dramatic.
As Professor Frank C. Hibben points out in his book The Lost Americans:



Clues to a Cataclysm 183

The Alaskan muck is like a fine, dark gray sand...Within this mass, frozen solid, lie
the twisted parts of animals and trees intermingled with lenses of ice and layers of
peat and mosses. It looks as though in the midst of some cataclysmic catastrophe of
ten thousand years ago the whole Alaskan world of living animals and plants was
suddenly frozen in midmotion in a grim Charade...

Throughout the Yukon and its tributaries, the gnawin g currents of the river had eaten
into many a frozen bank of muck to reveal bones and tusks of these animals
protruding at all levels. Whole gravel bars in the muddy river were formed of the
jumbled fragments of animal remains...

The Pleistocene period ended in death. This is no ordinary extinction of a vague
geological period which fizzled to an uncertain end. This death was catastrophic and
all—inclusive... The large animals that had given their name to the period became
extinct. Their death marked the end of an era.

But how did they die! What caused the extinction of forty million animals? This
mystery forms one of the oldest detective stories in the world. A good detective story
involves humans and death. These conditions are met at the end of the Pleistocene.
In this particular case, the death was of such colossal proportions as to be staggering
to contemplate.l2

lf life on earth can be subject to such wholesale destruction, there is much to be said for learnin g all
that we can about the geological forces involved.

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Chapter 29

Polar Wander

By Frank N. Magill

Type of earth science: Geophysics
Field of study: Geomagnetism and paleomagnetism

Evidence from several of the earth sciences clearly demonstrates that the earth is magnetic and
geographic poles have been located at widely separated places relative to its surface during the
planet is geological history.

Principal Terms

ASTHENOSPHERE: a hypothetical zone of the earth that lies beneath the lithos-
phere and within which material is believed to yield readily to persistent stresses.

ICEAGES: periods in the earth’s past when large areas of the present continents were
glaciated.

LITHOSPHERE: the outer layer of the earth.

NORTH GEOGRAPHIC POLE: the northernmost region of the earth, located at the
northem point of the planet‘s axis of rotation.

N ORT H MAGNETIC POLE: a small, nonstationary area in the Arctic Circle toward
which a compass needle points from any location on the earth.

PALEOMAGNETISM: the intensity and direction of residual magnetization in
ancient rocks.

PLATE TECTONICS: the study of the motions of the earth’s crust.
Summary of Phenomenon

Shortly before World War H , geophysicists discovered a method of determining the location of rocks
on thelearth’s surface at the time they were formed, relative to the north magnetic pole. Thus began
the study of paleomagnetism. Paleomagnetic studies quickly yielded very puzzling and often
contradictory results. The new science produced evidence that the north magnetic pole has changed

186 World in Peril

its location by thousands and even tens of thousands of miles hundreds of times during the earth’s
geologic history. Since earth scientists are generally agreed that the north magnetic pole has always
corresponded closely with the north geographic pole, this evidence seemed to indicate that the
earth‘s axis of rotation must have changed, a highly unlikely occurrence.

As the paleomagnetic evidence for different locations of the poles in the past accumulated through
measurements of rock formations from around the world, more and more earth scientists began to
accept the theory of continental drift. This theory offered an explanation of the paleomagnetic
evidence without the necessity of postulating that the earth‘s axis of rotation had changed in the past.
Alfred chcncr, early in the twentieth century, had drawn attention to the theory that the continents
moved in relation to one another. Most geologists initially gteeted his theories with derision, but
many others agreed with him, causing an often bitter controversy in the earth sciences that lasted
almost half a century. The ever—growing body of paleomagnetic eVidence could be explained by
postulatitm that the surface areas of the earth move in relationship to the planet‘s axis of rotation.
This explanation proved to be more acceptable to geologists than the idea that the axis of rotation
changed.

With the growing acceptance of the theory of continental drift in the 1940's, geologists began trying
to explain the mechanism that caused it. They postulated that the earth has a stable and very dense
core overlain by an area called the asthenosphere, which ismade up of rock rendered plastic by heat
and pressure. Floating on the asthenosphete is the earth‘s outer crust, or lithosphere. Dislocation
within the earth caused by the action of heat and pressure teeult in the movement of the lithosphere
relative to the core and to the axis of rotation. The initial attempts to explain continental drift have
been considerably revised and refined into the modem theories of plate tectonics and ocean-bed
spreading, but the basic premise remains the same: The surface areas of the earth move in
relationshi p to its core and to its axis of rotation. The result of the movement of the earth’s lithosphere

is that the surface area located at the axis of rotation does not remain the same over long periods of
time. This shifting accounts for the apparent “wandering” of the poles as well as for several other
puzzling aspects of earth‘s geologic history.

Suiking evidence that the surface areas of the earth have moved enormous distances during geologic
history relative to its axis of rotation coma from the study of glaciers. Observations from around
'he globe show thatalmost all the land areas of the earth have been glaciated at some time in the past,
including parts of Africa, India, and South America presently located on or near the equator. Without
postulatin g either a substantial shifting of the earth‘s surface relative to its axis of rotation or a change
in the axis, equatorial glaciation is inexplicable. If global temperatures dropped to levels sufficient
to glaciate even the equator at some time in the past, all life on earth would have been destroyed. If,
however, the areas of Africa, India, and South America which are presently located in tropical locales
once shifted to the polar regions and shifted from there to their present locations, their ancient
glaciation is not at all mysterious.

Shifting of the earth 3' surface relative to its axis of rotation is almost certainly a major cause of the
so-called ice ages, the origins of which have puzzled glaciologists since the beginnings of that
science. Previous explanations of ice ages - including global drops in temperature, the passage of
the earth through exceptionally cold regions in space or through areas containing “spacedust” that

Polar Wander 187

blocked out a significant amount of the sun’s radiation. and unexplained fluctuations in the amount
of radiation generated by the sun - are all unsatisfaetory. It seems much more likely that areas of the
eanh that were glaciated in the past, such as northem Europe and North America as far south as
present-day New Jersey, were located much closer to one or the other of the poles at the time they
were covered with ice.

The study of pnleoclimatology has also produced evidence supporting the proposition of the shifting
of the earth’s crust relative to its axis of rotation. Paleoclimatologists study the climates of past ages
on the various parts of the earth‘s surface. They have found that Antarctica once supported rich
varieties of plant and animal life, many of which could only have lived in temperate and even
subtropical climates. Explorations in the. far nnrthem regions of Canada, Alaska, and Siberia have
revealed that those areas also supported multitudes of animals and luxurious forests in the past, as
did many of the islands presently located within the Arctic Circle Obviously, these regions must
have had much warmer climates at the times when the plant and animal life flourished there, which
can be explained in only one of two ways: either the climate of the entire world was much warmer
in the past, or those areas now located near the poles were once located in much more temperate
latitudes. If the entire world had warmed to the point that the polar areas had temperate climates, the
tropical and subtropical areas of the earth would have been much too hot to support life, which is
demonstrably untrue according to the fossil record. Thus, the areas now near the poles must have
been located in temperate climatic latitudes in the past.

Earth scientists, using the evidence discussed above and paleomagnetism, have established an
approximate chronology showing which areas of the earth's surface were located at its north
rotational axis during past ages. At the beginning of the Cambrian period (roughly 600 million years
ago). the atea of the Pacific Ocean now occupied by the Hawaiian Islands was at or near the earth’s
north rotational axis. By the Ordovician period 100 million years later, the surface of the earth had
shifted in such a manner that the area approximately 1,000 miles north and east of modem J apan was
on or near the N orth Pole. Fifty-five million years later, during the Silurian period, modem Sakhalin
Island north of Japan was within the Arctic Circle. During the next 20 million years, the area of
modem Kamchatka in eastern Siberia shifted to a position very near the Pole. Earth scientists have
identified ninety-nine separate locations that occupied the polar regions at one time or another
during the ensuing 395 million years from the Silurian to the Pleistocene. During the past million
years, forty-three different areas of the earth's surface have been on or near the north geographic
poles, averaging over 1,500 miles distance from each other.

Although contemporary earth scientists have reached a consensus that the surface of the earth has
shifted relative to the planet‘s axis of rotation many times in the past, several problems remain. One
area on which there i: no unanimity of opinion i: the mechanism responsible for crustal shift. The
answer most likely lies in high-pressnre physics and the nature of the asthenosphere. Another. more
controversial, problem concerns the speed ofcrustal shtfis. During most of the twentieth century,
almost all of the geologists who were daring enough to accept the theory of continental drift assumed
that the movement of surface features of the earth relative to the axis of rotation and relative to one
another was very slow, on the order of a few inches per year at most. Then an increasing number of
earth scientists began arguing for short periods of relatively rapid movement of the earth’s crust and
long pedods of stability.

188 World in Peril

Those problems notwithstanding, there can no longer be any doubt that the surface of the earth has
shifted many times relative to its rotational axis. The phenomenon has led to the mistaken
assumption that the rotational axis has moved relative to the earth’s surface - thus the term “polar
wander.” The rotational axis of the earth has remained constant throughout its history; apparent polar
wander is caused by the shifting of the earth’s crust.

Methods of Study

The study of paleomagnetism during the twentieth century has yielded irrefutable evidence that
many different areas of the earth’s surface have occupied polar positions during the history of the
planet. Scientists studying paleomagnetism measure the weak magnetization of rocks. Virtually all
rocks contain iron compositions that can become magnetized. In the study of paleomagnetism, the
most important of these compositions are magnetite and hematite, which are commonly found in the
basaltic rocks and sandstones. Paleomagnetlsm may also be measured in less common rocks that
contain iron sulfide. In i gneous rocks, magnetization takes place when the iron compositions within
the rocks align themselves with the earth’s magnetic field as the rocks cool. In sedimentary rocks,
small magnetic particles align with the magnetic field as they settle through the water and maintain
that alignment as the sediments into which they sink solidify.

Magnetized rocks not only indicate the direction of the north magnetic pole at the time they were
formed, but also show how far from the Pole they were at formation by the angle of their dip.
Scientists call their horizontal angle of variation and their dip, the inclination. Variation reveals the
approximate longitude of the rock sample at the time of its formation, relative to the north magnetic
pole, and inclination gives its approximate latitude. By ascertaining the date at which the roclt
sample being examined was formed, using well—known methods, scientists are able to establish the
area of the earth’s surface relative to the north magnetic pole that was occupied by the rock at the
time of its formation.

There are, however, many pitfalls for the unwary scientist investigating paleomagnetism. A rock
whose magnetism is being studied may have moved considerable distances from its place of
formation by glacial action or by crustal movement along a major fracture in the earth's surface, such
as the San Andreas fault on North America‘s west coast. High temperatures, pressure, and chemical
action can dzstort or destroy the magnetization of a rock Folding and the movement of the continents
relative to one another may also alter the original orientation of the rocks whose magnetism is being

studied. All thm pitfalls may be avoided through the expedient of basing estimates of the relative
position of the north magnetic pole on a great number of rock samples of the same age, gathered from
many different locations on all the continents.

Another problem in paleornagnetic studies involves the constant movement of the north magnetic
pole relative to the north geographic pole. Recent studies show that the north magnetic pole moved
from 70 degrees to 76 degrees north latitude (approximately 345 miles, or 576 kilometers) during
the period 183 1-1975. This phenomenon might accurately be called true polarwander, though it does

Polar Wander 189

not involve any alteration either of the earth's axis of rotation or of the surface of the planet relative
to its axis of rotation. More geophysicists studying this movement have concluded that over a period
of several thousand years, the average position of the north magnetic pole coincides with that of the
north geographic pole. Thus, when scientists learn that the north magnetic pole was located near

Hawaii 600 million years ago, it is a virtual certainty that modern Hawaii was at that time located
near the north geographic pole.

Context

The most immediate and pressing questionfacing all residents of planet Earth concerning apparent
polar wonder is the speed with which the phenomenon may occur. An historian of science, Charles
H. Hapgood, compiled a huge amount of compelling evidence in the 1950’s that massive shifts of
the earth‘s crust relative to its axis of rotation occur in geologically brief periods of time. Hapgood
made a very strong case for the surface area of the Canadian Yukon, which is now located at
approximately 62 degrees north latitude, and longitude 137 degrees west, having occupied the north
geographic pole prior to 80,000 years ago. Then, in a massive movement which took less than 5,000
years, the earth’s surface shifted in such a way that an area of the Greenland Sea now located at

approximately 72 degrees north latitude, and longitude 10 degrees east occupied the north polar
region. This shift involves a distance of almost 5,000 miles.

Hapgood offers further evidence that the earth’s surface remained stable relative to its axis of rotation
for approximately twenty thousand years, then began another massive shift resulting in the area of
Hudson‘s Bay that now occupies the surface region located at about 60 degrees north latitude, and
longitude 83 degrees west, moving to the earth‘s north rotational axis. This movement of
approximately 3,500 miles took less than 5,000 years. Again the earth‘s surface became stable,
according to Hapgood, this time for more than 30,000 years, until about 17,000 years ago. At that
time, the earth‘s surface began another movement lasting nearly 5,000 years and resulting in the
present surface-pole relationship.

If Hapgood is right about the surface of the planet shifting enormous distances in relatively short
periods of time, the period during which the shift actually occurs must be a traumatic era for the
earth's flora and fauna, including humankind. Such rapid movement would certainly produce
earthquakes and volcanic action of almost unimaginable proportions throughout the globe. Weather
and tidal patterns would be greatly and unpredictably altered, which could have fatal consequences
for many plant and animal species. The last result offers yet another piece of powerful evidence for
the rapid-shift hypothesis.

The earth’s fossil record offers examples of the mass extinction and extermination of many species
of flora and fauna during the geological history of the planet. The most recent such event occurred
at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, about 12,000 years ago. Literally tens of millions of animals in
North America alone died in a relatively short period of time, leaving their sometimes remarkably
well-preserved remains lumped together in huge “boneyards,” stretching geographically from
Alaska to Florida. This mass extinction of fauna must have been caused by the events accompanying

190 World in Peril

crustal displacement: volcanic action on a gigantic scale not only would throw huge amounts of ash
into the air, causing a lowering of global temperatures and an increase in rainfall producin g
widespread flooding, but would also produce quantities of poisonous gasses lethal to animals and
humans in the vicinity; rapid and pronounced weather changes would destroy food supplies which
may have been the ultimate cause of the extinctions of many species; widespread earthquakes could
also take a large toll on animal life.

If, as more and more geophysicists are comin g to believe, the shifting of the earth’s surface does ta ke
place rapidly at infrequent intervals and for reasons not currently well understood, the phenomenon
is of the utmost importance. Modern civilization would not survive the enormous climatic
dislocations that must accompany such a shift. It is therefore imperative that the phenomenon known
as polar wander be studied to the point that it can be, if not prevented, at least predicted and prepared
for.

Chapter 30

The Flip of the Earth

Washington Post: (October 7, I946) — “General George C. Kenney [Commander
of Strategic Air Command]: ‘Apparently the magnetic North Pole is about 200
miles closer to the North Pole than was previously believed. ”’

In the previous chapter Frank N. Magill points out (1) that polar wander has occurred in the geologic
past, (2) that polar wander is caused by the shifting of the earth’s crust, (3) that the magnetic pole
has wandered, (4) that polar wander is almost certainly a major cause of catastrophic geologic
upheavals and ice ages; however, (5) the “mechanism" responsible for crustal shift remains
unknown, and (6) the speed of crustal shift is not known but would determine the consequences to
civilization and the world‘s flora and fauna.

Although contemporary science raises numerous questions, many of their answers may have been
found by government scientists and geographers almost forty—five years ago. The data on terrestrial
magnetism that the 46th/72nd Squadron obtained indicated that the magnetic pole was 125 to 200
miles north of where it was predicted to be accordin g to proj ections from findings obtained on earlier
expeditions. This indicated that the north magnetic pole had moved toward the geographic pole
much faster than previously anticipated. Among the government scientists, the question arose as to
what would happen when the magnetic and geographic poles coincided.

To answer this, under the project control of Dr. Paul A. Siple, the Remington Rand Corporation was
contracted to conduct lab studies using models of the earth constructed of concentric spheres - an
inner sphere representing the electromagnetically-charged molten iron core of the earth whose axis
defined the “magnetic” poles; and an outer sphere representing the crust of the earth which rotated
around a “geographic” polar axis. It was determined through repeated experimentation that as the
“magnetic” pole approached the “geographic” pole, the “magnetic” pole would at some point.
accelerate its rate of convergence as though pulled toward the “geographic" pole by centrifugal force
and jump to coincide; but instead of the poles coinciding, the “magnetic” pole would rapidly “flip”
around the “geographic” pole, then spin off towards the equator as though by centripetal force,
ending up at a position where the two axes assumed an approximate 89 degree divergence. After this
polar “flip" occurred, the axes would then gradually begin to reconverge over a Ion g period of time.

Using the experimental model as an indicator of what happened and could happen on our planet, we
might better be able to understand the earth‘s geologic history. If indeed during the polar flip process
not only is the magnetic pole displaced to some indeterminate point on the face of the earth, but the
geomagnetic stress causes the crust to shift in some direction away from the static rotational axis of
the earth, it could explain the apparent re pos itionin g of the geographic pole. If, as Hapgood su g gests,
the previous position of the geographic pole was in the Hudson Bay area, it would explain the once-

192 World in Peril

warmerclimates of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, which were only interrupted by freezing conditions
when the geographic pole assumed its present position, turning the northern steppes into arctic
tundra and freezing the inhabitants.‘ Similar cataclysms have apparently happened throughout the
geologic past, when the geographic North Pole was located not only in California, Hawaii, and off
the coasts of Russia and Japan, but even in South Africa.2

The question of how fast this phenomenon might occur is anall-important one. Aclue tothis mystery
may have been found at Fairbanks Creek, on the outskirts of Fairbanks, Alaska in 1948. During
sluicing operations while mining for gold, 3 team was thawing and washing away the permafrost to
get to the gold ore at bedrock level when they uncovered the frozen remains of a young (first year)
mammoth, Unearthed were the remarkably well-preserved head, trunk and front leg of the animal
which paleontologists soon named “Effie”. Two interesting aspects of the Frown fauna were evident.
The lush vegetation in its mouth and carbon-dating analysis indicated that the animal had died during
the growing season in an apparently warm climate 20,000 to 22,600 years ago.’ And secondly, the
animal had been frozen immediately after death, since its flesh was said to be edible. For some
reason, a mammoth foraging in the summertime or early fall was almost instantaneously frozen and
remained so for at least twenty millennia. More perplexing is how a freshly-killed and frozen animal
could be found deep in the permafrost. Perhaps the most Likely explanation is that Effie, like so many
other prehistoric animals, was killed and buried by an unseasonal, subfreezlng glacial loas- or silt-
storm, accompanied by a major, pennancnt climatic change.

Another curious observation occurred during an archaeological dig at the remains of a “sunken”
prehistoric tropical lake community between Nome and Kotzebue. Alaska. While digging in the
permafrost among the remains of the lake community, an archaeologist unearthed a mosquito in a
piece of ice from the 10,000 year old strata, and set it in the sunlight to thaw. Shortly after the ice
had melted, the mosquito stretched its wings and then flew away.‘ Apocryphal as it may sound, this
event corroborates our previous observation. Modern cryogenic studies have indicated that in order
for a living creature to be successfully revived after being frozen for such a long period of time, it
would have to have been frozen instantaneously! Normal climatic freezing would have caused ice
crystals to grow within the creatures cells and tissues, rupturing the membratm and causing the
animal ‘5 destruction. Therefore, the conclusion would seem inescapable that something cataclysmic
caused these instantaneous freezings of temperate or tropical regions and their inhabitants. Arapid
crustal shift of lower-latitude land masses into the Arctic would explain these observations.

The polar-flip phenomenon may indeed be the triggering “mechanism" of polar or crustal shift, and
explain how the magnetic pole has been displaced so radically and rapidly in the past. It could also
provide some explanation for the tremendous geomagnetic forces that cause the crustal shift itself.
If the geomagnetic field of the earth is created by the motion of its charged molten nickel and iron
core, its revolving electromagnetic force may possibly produce a dynamic effect when interacting
with the earth‘s rotational axis. Needless to say, further study in this area might lead to a better
understanding of the dynamics involved.

Crustal shift, as an explanation for the geologic upheavals of the past, would also account for the
fantastic tectonic stresses that are the probable causative factors in the formation of new mountain
ranges During a scientific meeting at the Pentagon, it was discussed how the flip phenomenon

193

The Flip of the Earth

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194 World in Peril

would cause a “cooling efl'ect‘, followed by a bilateral “contraction” of the earth and the formation
of another “ring of mountain ranges around the planet”. Counting the existing chains of mountain
ranges of this ty pe on land and within the oceans ,they concluded that at least five major polar “flips”
had occurred in fairly recent geologic history.

Polar shift could have other dramatic geologic consequences In the previous chapter, Frank Magill
says, “shifting of the earth's surface relative to its axis of rotation is almost certainly a major cause
of so-called ice ages . It Is known that there is a narrow margin between the temperatures of glacial
and interglacial ages, usually considered not more than 6 degrees Centigrade. If the polar caps and
arctic air masses were to be transpormd to lower latitudes due to crustal shift, not only would the new
polar areas rapidly cool, receiving less solar radiation, but the phenomenon could set into motion
(or “trigger") a progressive cooling effect. Some experts believe that under these circumstances
“positive feedback" would take place as the increased snow and ice-covered terrain reflected more
and more of the sun’s warming rays, with “a little cold begetting more of the same”, until the planet
was locked into another ice age.“

There have been many attempts to determine if ice ages occur in cycles, and if so, when the next one
could be expected to begin, namely the astronomical theory, Croll‘s Theory, Milankovich‘s
approach, and core samplings, to name ai’ew.7 Ifcrustal shift is interrelated with the onset of ice a ges,
then the recurring patterns of ice ages should help us predict crustal shifts. For example, one ice age
theory based on earth strata studies indicates that following each ice age, bread-leafed deciduous
trees cover the earth, followed after many thousands of years by conifers, later by grasslands, and
finally by wind-blown silt ot' the next glacial age Repeated layers of this soil strata combination
suggests a predictable cyclical pattern. “On the basis of this definition the present interglacial age
- the Holocene Epoch - began about 10,000 years ago...and can be expected to end within the next
2,000 years.” This estimate correlates very closely with that of the government scientists, who
predicted that the next “flip” of the earth could occur any time between 17 and 1,0“) years of the
date of their study, which was conducted in 1947. The scientists could not further narrow the time
parameters for occurence because they knew of no feasible way, in 1947, to accurater calculate the
mass of the earth relative to the mass of its crust.

Just as a toy top or a gyroscope will occasionally wobble under certain circumstances, apparently
the earth too has periodically “toppled” when its poles sought to converge, causing its crust to make
dramatic shifts off the polar axis. It is possible that along with accompanying violent weather
changes and massive tidal waves that could immdate land masses, there would undoubtedly also be
earthquakes and volcanic activity along the tectonic plates and within new mountain range
formations. Sufficient volcanic activity could cloud the atmosphere, further reducing the global
temperatures and accelerating the onset of glacial conditions. N eedless to say, a post-flip environ-
ment would undoubtedly be a hostile one.

It is possible that the pular-l'lip theory could also explain other observations. It could indeed be the
predominant natural phenomenon rmponsiblc for the reshaping of our planet. Not only would the
theory explain mass extinctions, but it may provide a basis for understanding the stages of
evolutionary progression. It is fairly well recognized that there is no scientific evidence to i ndimte
smooth evolutionary transitions from more primitive species to more advanced ones. In fact, studies

The Flip of the Earth 195

indicate that each new species seems to have come into existence all of a sudden, almost as though
they were created.

Hostile conditions following a flip might produce an environment in which only the most adaptable
species would survive. It is easy to speculate that such conditions may have brought about the
extinction of Neanderthal Man, who may have been faced with nmorc difi‘icult and complex survival
situation than his reasoning skills could cope with.

At the same time, the budding strain of Cro-Maguun man, with a greatet cranial capacity and more
adaptability, may have much more easily adjusted to the demands of a hostile environment and thus
emerged as Modern Man. Possibly stimulated and challenged to overcome the conditions caused by
a flip, he became the most fitting creature to dominate the earth. In past history, when competitors
or biological pressures were eliminated by catastrophic change, oftentimes those species more
suited to adaptation underwent a form of explosive evolution to fill the biological gaps.“

Perhaps, with another geological upheaval facing us, we are now once again on the verge of a new
quantum leap in what we might call “creative evolution”, or transitioning to the next higher stage
in human development. With a more developed intelligence, potential to learn and capacity for
invention, we may be even better suited to manage our survival and direct our destiny than any
creature that has faced catastrophic change in the past Although, while we have the capacity to
survive, the issue is whether we have the will and the wisdom to plan and prepare for what the future

may bring. Not only does the viability of our civilization hang in the balance, but so does the very
future of our species.

Practically all of the experiences of the 46th/72nd Recon Squadron would be duplicated in major
portions of the world in the event of a geological cataclysm. Knowledge of how to build or rebuild
a home with scarce materials would be useful. In addition, finding available natural food sources
would also be beneficial, as would the ability to conduct successful search and rescue efforts, though
on a larger scale. Training in arctic survival would be critical for certain, as of yet undetermined,
areas of the globe, as well as an understanding of transportation maintenance in subfreezing
climates. Our education systems clearly need to foster not only the natural curiosity needed to solve
complex survival and reconstruction problems, but also the dedication to accomplish difficult tasks
under adverse circumstances. Wouldn‘t survival of catastrophic change make a sound national or
global objective?

The apparent prerequisite for polar shift is the movement of the magnetic pole toward the geographic
pole. and according to the U . S. Geological Survey, this prerequisite is being met. From 1831 until
1945, the magnetic north pole remained almost static on Boothia Peninsula in the Northwest
Territory of Canada. moving only 24 miles in 114 years. However, in 1947, Frank Klein‘s plottings
revealed that the magnetic pole had begun a dramatic northward progression. All told, from 1945
to 1992, the magnetic pole has moved 468 miles northward toward the geographic pole with an
average closure rate of approximately 10 miles per year. Today, only 700 miles separate the two
poles.'0 Until further research is conducted, exactly when the break and rapid acceleration of the
magnetic pole toward the geograch pole will occur is unknown.

unded when, in the
early 19505, information about the flip phenomenon was released in both a newspaper column and
a magazine article, but surprisingly generated no responses from an apparently stunned, parochial
or incredulous public. It would seem that today’s society, however, with its access to vast amounts
of information and technological capability, should be better equipped to offer the sophisticated,
profuse and innovative reactions that the situation would seem to require.

Only by making the facts known can we begin to mobilize the resources and brainpower necessary
to overcome the obstacles. Clearly. a society that can deal responsibly with the concept of
catastrophic change has the best chance of preparing for and surviving the change itself. What we
do to prepare for the upcoming polar flip and its aftemiath will amount to nothing less than a
safeguard against total disaster. The difference between human beings and other creatures is that our
destiny is not carved in stone. With purpose, ingenuity and fortitude, we can change it if we so
endeavor.

Of possible interest is the curious choice of words of the early psalmists:

God is our refuge and strength,

A very present help in trouble.
Therefore we will not fear,

Though the earth should change,
And though the mountains

slip into the heart of the sea;
Though its waters roar and foam,
Though the mountains quake

at its swelling pride.

(Psalm 46, W. 1-4)

Bless the Lord, 0 my soul!...

...He established the earth
upon its foundations,
So that it will not totter
forever and ever.
Thou didst cover it with
the deep as with a garment;
The waters were standing

above the mountains.
At Thy rebuke they fled;

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World in Peril

At the sound of Thy thunder
they hurried away.
The mountains rose;
the valleys sank down
To the place which Thou
established for them.
Thou didst set a boundary
that they may not pass over;
That they may not return
to cover the earth...

...Let the glory of the Lord
endure forever;

Let the Lord be glad in
His works.

He looks at the earth,
and it trembles;

He touches the mountains,
and they smoke.

I will sing to the Lord as
long as I live;

I will sing praise to my
God while I have my
being...

(Psalm 104, W. 5-9, 31-33)