Joan of Arc (Renaissance and Reformation)

Introduction

Joan of Arc was born the daughter of well-off peasants in 1412 in Domremy on the frontier of France, Burgundy, and the Holy Roman Empire. After the disastrous French defeat by King Henry V at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and the taking of Rouen and Paris by allied English and Burgundian forces, Queen Isabeau of Bavaria signed the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, disinheriting the dauphin Charles in favor of Henry V and his heirs by marriage to Catherine, Charles’s sister. Before Henry died unexpectedly in 1422, leaving the throne to his infant son Henry (VI), French morale had been nearly destroyed. Henry V’s brother, John, Duke of Bedford, governed as regent while Charles remained in his castles in the Loire. The English siege of Orléans that began in the autumn of 1428 portended ill for French dynastic hopes, for, if the city fell, the English could have consolidated their control over much of France. In this context, at age sixteen, Joan first left home seeking support from the captain of Vaucouleurs for her mission to “save France.” Joan claimed inspiration by the voice of God, although some then and now believe that the king’s mother-in-law, Yolande of Aragon, was the force behind Joan’s success. After interviews with the captain and the Duke of Lorraine, and after successfully fighting a marriage contract arranged by her parents, Joan embarked for Chinon. After tests of her theological purity and virginity, Joan was armed and outfitted as a soldier and sent to Orléans. Within a week after her arrival on 29 April, the siege was lifted. Further successful battles, in which Joan took a leadership role and proved remarkably adept in matters of war, pushed the English back from the Loire Valley to their base in Paris. In July 1429 Joan and her large, energized army led the dauphin to his coronation as Charles VII at Reims. Joan wanted to pursue the fight and laid siege to Paris in September 1429. But, the heavily fortified capital could not be taken, and Charles quickly called off the siege. Joan was then sent on minor missions as the king and his courtiers worked on a truce with Burgundy. Joan, not comprehending its political necessity, went off on her own, becoming an increasing liability to the king. Still, when the truce expired, Charles sent her into battle once more. At Compiègne in May 1430, a vassal of the Duke of Burgundy captured Joan. Several months later, she was sold to the English for 10,000 crowns. After a grueling five-month trial, Joan was executed on 30 May 1431 as a heretic, schismatic, idolator, and apostate. Twenty-five years after her death, the papacy opened proceedings into the conduct of the original trial, which was declared null and void. Until the 19th century, the historical Joan of Arc was largely forgotten, except by the city of Orléans. As a result of historical research by Jules Michelet and his student Jules Quicherat, Joan became a symbol for France. In 1869 the bishop of Orléans began the process toward beatification. Joan of Arc was declared blessed in 1909, and her canonization followed in 1920.

General Overviews

Although historians have studied the Hundred Years War extensively, studies of France in the 15th century are much less abundant. Beaune 1991 offers insights into Joan’s role in creating a French identity, although the author’s outlook is nationalistic and religious. Wright 1998 gives an excellent introduction to the state of the French countryside and how the war affected peasants. Potter and Doyle 2003 offers an overview of France in the late Middle Ages, while Fraioli 2005 provides the best general account of Joan of Arc and her time during the Hundred Years War. The best studies of the war are Curry 2003 and Allmand 1988, but these are not limited to those listed here.

Allmand, Christopher. The Hundred Years War: England and France at War, c. 1300–c.1450. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139167789Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A short, readable introduction to the narrative of the Hundred Years War, military techniques, and a comparative study of France and England.
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Beaune, Colette. The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Late-Medieval France. Translated by Susan Ross Huston and Fredric L. Cheyette. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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One of the few books in French or English to focus on France in the 15th century on a scale that goes beyond the Hundred Years War. Beaune’s analysis is rich in a study of the ideas that helped shape “France” and the symbols that created it.
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Curry, Anne. The Hundred Years War. 2d ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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This revised classic is a concise and up-to-date introduction to the different phases of the war. Along with her other scholarly books, including a recent study of the battle of Agincourt, Curry’s work is the result of painstaking research that sometimes challenges conventional wisdom.
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Fraioli, Deborah A. Joan of Arc and the Hundred Years War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005.
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Easily the best essay study of Joan of Arc and the Hundred Years War. One of the premier Johannine scholars, Fraioli brings that knowledge to a readable study and chronology that analyzes primary sources and provides short biographies of key figures.
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Potter, David, and William Doyle, eds. France in the Later Middle Ages, 1200–1500. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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An excellent collection of articles by leading historians of France, especially those trained in the new historiography of the past decades. Covers every aspect of medieval France from daily life to war to governance and economics.
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Wright, Nicholas. Knights and Peasants: The Hundred Years War in the French Countryside. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer, 1998.
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Study of the interaction between different classes of society in France showing that for the peasantry, the Hundred Years War was not about great battles but rather pillaging. While peasants were usually the victims, village solidarity often provided some defense. Argues convincingly that the Hundred Years War was as much a state of chronic instability as an Anglo-French power struggle.
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Bibliographies

There are very few bibliographies for Joan of Arc except for Margolis 1990, which provides the best overview of secondary sources. Lightbody 1961 does the same for primary sources, especially chronicles. The most complete online bibliography is provided by the site International Joan of Arc Society. ORB: Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies offers a short bibliography prepared by authors Bonnie Wheeler and Charles Wood.

International Joan of Arc Society.
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Founded by the leading scholars in Johannine studies, the IJAS provides texts related to Joan, a discussion group, news about conferences and projects, teaching resources, maps, paintings and photographs, and a bibliography.
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Lightbody, Charles Wayland. The Judgements of Joan: Joan of Arc: A Study in Cultural History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961.
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Older but invaluable reference work for primary sources. A good corrective for the many hagiographic works that focus solely on Joan’s piety.
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Margolis, N. Joan of Arc in History, Literature, and Film: A Select, Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1990.
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Outstanding bibliographic overview of interdisciplinary works on Joan.
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Wheeler, Bonnie, and Charles T. Wood. Joan of Arc: An Introductory Bibliography. ORB: Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies.
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A bibliography of some of the major works in history and literature about Joan of Arc. However, it has not been updated to include any works written after 1996.
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Reference Works

Reference works are also limited. Kibler and Zinn 1995 offers general entries on medieval topics, including Joan of Arc and the Hundred Years War, while Rogers 2010 provides entries on the military side. The final sections of Pernoud and Clin 1999 are a useful resource for most aspects of the life and times of Joan.

Kibler, William, and Grover Zinn, eds. Encyclopedia of Medieval France. New York: Garland, 1995.
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Entries for all facets of life in medieval France.
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Pernoud, Régine, and Véronique-Marie Clin. Joan of Arc: Her Story. Translated by Jeremy duQuesnay Adams. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.
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Most useful for Parts 2 and 3, a list of the principal characters, with profiles that are short essays. “Issues and Images” discusses some of the more controversial aspects of Joan’s life and career as well as her afterlife. It is followed by a chronology (although sometimes inaccurate), itinerary, and several maps.
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Rogers, Clifford J., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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Award-winning encyclopedia in three volumes that tackles all aspects of warfare, strategy and tactics, weapons, battles, and leaders from the Viking invasions to the Hundred Years War.
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Primary Sources

The sheer volume of primary sources for Joan of Arc exceeds that of almost all medieval figures, in spite of Joan’s gender and social class. They include the trial record, which, although repeatedly translated and edited, allows Joan’s voice to come through loud and clear and shows how skillfully she managed to evade questions. In 1450 Guillaume Bouillé suggested to Charles VII that it would be useful to reopen Joan’s case, if only for Charles’ reputation. However, the process was quickly shut down because Charles did not yet have full control of Normandy. In 1452 the cardinal and papal legate Guillaume d’Estouteville opened yet another inquest. Finally, in 1455–1456, with d’Estouteville’s intervention added to the plea of Joan’s mother, Isabelle Romée, who demanded that her daughter’s honor be restored, Pope Callixtus III allowed the process of interviewing witnesses from Domremy, Vaucouleurs, Neufchâteau, Chinon, Poitiers, Reims, Rouen, and elsewhere to go forth. While these “nullification proceedings” (often incorrectly referred to as either the Retrial or Rehabilitation) were as political in intent as the original trial, the testimonies of the witnesses, when cross-referenced and used carefully, offer glimpses into not only Joan’s short life, but also those who are usually silent in the historical record. Other primary sources include numerous chronicles from all sides in the conflict. At the time, many remarked that people as far away as Constantinople were fascinated by the deeds of the “Maid,” including the future pope, Pius II, who listened in fascination and wrote a commentary thirty years after Joan’s execution.

Trial and Nullification

These are the most important sources for the history of Joan as they provide individual statements by and about Joan. Sources must be treated with caution because of the political nature of both the original trial and nullification. Champion 1921 revised the original trial translation by Jules Quicherat, and the author’s work was, in turn updated, in Tisset and Lanhers 1960. Barrett 1932 is an English translation of Champion 1921, the primary usefulness of which is that it is available online. Hobbins 2007 provides a modern abridged version of the trial with an excellent introduction. Doncoeur and Lanhers 1952–1961 includes a complete translation of the trial and nullification proceedings with notes and annotation. Duparc 1977–1989 is the definitive edition of the nullification process.

Barrett, W. P., ed. and trans. The Trial of Jeanne d’Arc Translated into English from the Original Latin and French Documents. With biographical essays by Pierre Champion. Translated by Coley Taylor and Ruth H. Kerr. New York: Gotham House, 1932.
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Some mistranslations, especially in the scanned online version, Barrett’s work is basically a translation of Champion 1921. As such, it is especially useful for an English audience because, unlike many other translations, it includes all of the deliberations and documents that were part of the trial.
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Champion, Pierre. Le procès de condamnation de Jeanne d’Arc. 2 vols. Paris: Champion, 1921.
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This two-volume work provides all of the Latin text, a French translation, and the documents included along with the original trial record. Includes more than three hundred biographical sketches; however, many of them are inaccurate.
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Doncoeur, Paul, and Yvonne Lanhers, eds. Documents et recherches relatifs à Jeanne la Pucelle. 5 vols. Melun, France: d’Argences, 1952–1961.
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Complete testimonies of all aspects of Joan’s trial and nullification proceedings in French and Latin.
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Duparc, Pierre, ed. Procès en nullité de la condamnation de Jeanne d’Arc. 5 vols. Paris: Klincksieck, 1977–1989.
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Outstanding edition, in Latin with French translations, of all the witness testimonies as well as background. Duparc was first to use the term process of nullification, more accurate than the term rehabilitation. Volume 5 provides commentary.
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Hobbins, Daniel, ed. The Trial of Joan of Arc. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
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Modern abridged translation of the trial record with an outstanding introduction and extensive notes that counter many of the “accepted views” about the trial. Hobbins points out where discrepancies or omissions exist with the French Minutes.
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Tisset, Pierre, and Yvonne Lanhers. Procès de condamnation de Jeanne d’Arc. 3 vols. Paris: Klincksieck, 1960.
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A more recent French translation from the Latin, based on Champion 1921. Mistranslations in the translation of Champion 1921 (Barrett 1932) can be corrected by referring to these volumes.
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Collections

Jules Quicherat, a student of Jules Michelet, began Johannine studies in the mid-19th century by collecting documents about her life. However, he was quite selective and did not include documents he considered of little value. Other sources were gathered for Joan’s beatification and canonization. These can also be used in concert with both English and Burgundian records. Ayroles 1890–1902, a compilation of all relevant sources up to 1902, can be very useful for the sources themselves but not the commentary by the Jesuit editor. Ayroles expands on Quicherat 1965 not only in view of the publication dates of the originals, but also in including material Quicherat considered unworthy. Taylor 2006 provides excerpts of the main sources. Nicolas 1834–1837 can be helpful for understanding the Duke of Bedford and English attitudes toward Joan.

Ayroles, Jean-Baptiste. La vraie Jeanne d’Arc. 5 vols. with 2 supplements. Paris: Gaume, 1890–1902.
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Collection of all documents and accounts available by 1890–1902 put together for Joan’s beatification and canonization. More recent documents are available than those found in, or not included by, Quicherat. Disadvantages include the author’s strong and biased opinions, but as long as the editor’s views are not taken as historical, these volumes can be very useful as a collection of sources directly related to Joan.
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Nicolas, N. H., ed. Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council of England from the Year 1386 to 1542. Vol. 5. London, 1834–1837.
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Privy council minutes and letters, most useful for Bedford’s comments on Joan of Arc’s role in the war.
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Quicherat, Jules-Étienne-Joseph, ed. Procès de condamnation et de réhabilitation de Jeanne d’Arc dite la Pucelle: Publiés pour la premiére fois d’après les manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale, suivis de tous les documents historiques qu’on a pu réunir et accompagnées de notes et d’éclaircissements. 5 vols. New York: Johnson, 1965.
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First major collection of works, originally published in Paris by Jules Renouard (1841–1849). However, Quicherat relied heavily on some sources at the expense of others. He downplayed the value of nullification records and chose not to include many other sources that he did not consider worthy.
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Taylor, Craig, ed. Joan of Arc: The Pucelle. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2006.
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A good modern collection of excerpted sources, including parts of the trial, the nullification, chronicles, and treatises. Primarily for classroom use.
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Chronicles by “French” (Armagnac) Writers

The historian who studies Joan is faced with an overload of primary information. However, it is essential to use most of these sources in order to gain a full and relatively objective view not only of what Joan did, but also of how she was viewed in her time. The French, or Armagnac, chronicles are not necessarily the most useful, as they are usually based on patronage by a particular individual. Bouvier 1979, the author of which was not, as was long thought, the king’s secretary, provides military information, while Cagny 1982 is especially useful for situations in which Joan was fighting alongside the Duke of Alençon. Charpentier and Cuissard 1896, an edition of the Journal du siege, is one of the most valuable near-contemporary documents for understanding Joan’s part in the relief of the siege as well as the active participation of the citizens of Orléans in the effort. Chartier 1858, written by the king’s chronicler, offers the royal perspective on events as well as material on court intrigues. Cousinot 1859 gives little original information but contains many stories that have been passed on by historians. Written by the historian to Arthur de Richemont, Gruel 1890 is particularly informative for Joan’s relationship to the exiled constable of France.

Bouvier, Gilles le [The Herald of Berri]. Les chroniques du roi Charles VII. Edited by Henri Courteault and Léonce Celier with Marie-Henriette Jullien de Pommerol. Paris: Klincksieck, 1979.
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Unlike most other sources, questions Joan’s military role. Confused chronology with few details.
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Cagny, Perceval de. Chronique des ducs d’Alençon. Edited by Henri Moranvillé. New York: Persea, 1982.
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The Duke of Alençon’s Master of the Horse, de Cagny was well placed to write about events in Joan’s life before she and Alençon were separated permanently at the siege of Paris. Cagny presents Joan in the best possible light especially in comparison to courtiers and churchmen who advised the king. Originally published in 1902.
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Charpentier, P., and C. Cuissard, eds. Journal du siege d’Orléans, 1428–29, augmenté de plusieurs documents, notamment les comptes de ville. Orléans, France: Cuissard, 1896.
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A rich source, attributed to the notary Pierre Soudan, especially for the siege and the events leading up to the English defeat. Compiled from a register, notes, and oral tradition during the siege, it also provides detailed information about daily life in Orléans.
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Chartier, Jean. Chronique de Charles VII. 3 vols. Edited by Auguste Vallet de Viriville. Paris: P. Jannet, 1858.
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Written in the 1440s by the king’s chronicler, Chartier’s chronicle reflects court opinion, but is critical. Credits Joan’s military skills and decision to have the king crowned rather than pursue the English to Normandy. Confused and imprecise about many details related to Joan but offers insights into the situation at court.
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Cousinot, Guillaume. Chronique de la Pucelle. Edited by Auguste Vallet de Viriville. Paris: A. Delahays, 1859.
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Written after 1467, the chronicle is based almost entirely on other sources, including the Journal du siege d’Orléans and the nullification proceedings.
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Gruel, Guillaume. Chronique d’Arthur de Richemont. Edited by Achille Levavasseur. Paris: Renouard, 1890.
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Written by a chronicler in the service of the constable, it emphasizes Richemont’s role in the battles of the Loire, but also demonstrates Joan’s strategic understanding that she needed his help despite his estrangement from the court.
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Chronicles by Burgundians or Sympathizers

Burgundian chronicles provide some of the most useful information on Joan. Although often written from a hostile viewpoint, the frequent admiration expressed for her deeds and comments about her role in the French army are particularly useful. Bourgeois de Paris 1968, a diary from the period, is especially informative about the siege of Paris although its author, not a bourgeois but rather a cleric at the University of Paris, had regular reports of events happening elsewhere. Chastellain 1863–1866, written by the historian to the Duke of Burgundy, was particularly well informed about Joan’s capture and its aftermath, and the author cannot hide his admiration for her military skills. Monstrelet 1840, the author of which was present at Compiègne at the time of Joan’s capture, is the most authoritative Burgundian source for the event. The author also provides useful details about Joan’s sometimes changing opinions and the response of the English and the French to Joan’s capture. The author of Wavrin du Forestel 1858–1863 was not only present at some of the key battles, but also believed Joan was a creation of the French court.

Bourgeois de Paris. A Parisian Journal, 1405–1449: Journal d’un Bourgeois de Paris. Translated by Janet Shirley. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968.
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Rich source written by a Parisian cleric, who never met Joan but was well informed about events. Details daily life in Paris during the siege. Presents Joan as “a very brutal woman” yet offers different opinions, for example, what people said about her after the execution. Despite the fact that he was not at the execution, his description is particular vivid about the intent of the English to show the assembled crowd that Joan was human and that she had been a woman.
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Chastellain, Georges. “Chronique des ducs de Bourgogne.” In Oeuvres of Chastellain. 5 vols. Edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove. Brussels: Académie Royale de Belgique, 1863–1866.
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Compiled by the historian of the Dukes of Burgundy, Chastellain believed Joan was inspired by the devil, but, nonetheless, he portrays her as a strong military leader. His near admiration for Joan provides valuable information about how others, even her enemies, viewed her.
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Monstrelet, Enguerrand de. The Chronicle of Enguerrand de Monstrelet. Translated by Thomas Johnes. London: W. Smith, 1840.
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Most important chronicle written by a Burgundian noble covering events from 1400 to 1444. An eyewitness to some events, including Joan’s meeting with the Duke of Burgundy, Monstrelet provides many other genuine primary sources in his chronicle, including reported speeches.
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Wavrin du Forestel, Jean de. Anchiennes chroniques d’Angleterre. 3 vols. Edited by Emilie Dupont. Paris: Renouard, 1858–1863.
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A Burgundian chronicler in the service of John Fastolf, Wavrin provides a firsthand account of the critical battle of Patay. He was convinced Joan was a political plant of the French court even though he believed her exploits changed the fortunes of the English in France.
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Other Chroniclers

Neither Cochon 1870 nor Morosini 1941 is particularly biased, although the letters and accounts of Morosini 1941 are of much greater value because the Venetian writers give an overview of opinions about Joan held by the different sides in the war.

Cochon, Pierre. Chronique normande de Pierre Cochon notaire apostolique à Rouen. Edited by Charles Robillard de Beaurepaire. Rouen, France: A. le Brument, 1870.
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Not a particularly useful source except for conditions in Rouen prior to and during Joan’s trial.
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Morosini, Antonio. The Chronique d’Antonio Morosini, 1414–1428. Edited by Germain Lefèvre-Pontalis. Paris: Renouard, 1941.
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Letters and journals written to and from the Venetian Morosini family. Although the authors were convinced of Joan’s divine inspiration, these writings, nonetheless, reflect the attitudes and beliefs of many members of the international community about the unusual events of 1429–1431.
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Contemporary Commentaries, Plays, and Poems

Besides Christine de Pizan’s poem about Joan, some contemporaries recorded their views about Joan in prose. The Ditié de Jeanne d’Arc (Christine de Pizan 1984) not only contributes to the prophecies that had already been created or recast by the French court, but also updates events, in the process celebrating the female sex. Gragg 1988 shows a humanist pope who can barely contain his enthusiasm for Joan’s deeds even though he was skeptical. Gros 2002 is a play that continues to be performed in Orléans every 8 May to celebrate the relief of the siege.

Christine de Pizan. Epistles: English Selections. Translated and edited by Josette A. Wisman. New York: Garland, 1984.
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Selections from the poet and writer Christine de Pizan (1364–c. 1430) include the Ditié de Jeanne d’Arc, purportedly written at the end of July 1429 but most likely composed shortly before the siege of Paris in September. It celebrates Joan’s deeds, giving her most of the credit for the change in France’s condition. The author sets herself up as a prophet by the dating. She compares Joan to biblical figures, not only the usual female heroines of Deborah, Judith, and Esther, but also Moses, Joshua, and Gideon.
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Gragg, Florence A., trans. Secret Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope. London: Folio Society, 1988.
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In 1429 the humanist Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini watched from afar the deeds of Joan of Arc. As Pope Pius II, he wrote a commentary about her in 1461 lauding her deeds. While not sure whether she had been created by the court, he credits her with turning the tide against the English. See pp. 194–201.
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Gros, Gérard. Mystère du siege d’Orléans. Paris: Proche, 2002.
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Mystery play probably first performed on 8 May 1435. A spectacular production including 120 characters, towers, bridges, boats, and bodies, along with God, the Virgin Mary, and the city’s patron saints. Unusual in that mystery plays rarely depicted nearly contemporary events.
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Analyses of Poems

Christine de Pizan’s work, including the poem about Joan, has been studied extensively by modern scholars. Arden 2003, Lutkus and Walker 1999, and McWebb 1999 all contend that Christine’s poem, which begins with “Je, Christine” (I, Christine), says as much about its author as Joan.

Arden, Heather M. “Christine de Pizan’s Ditié de Jehanne d’Arc: History, Feminism, and God’s Grace.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 195–208. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Argues that for Christine, Joan has a personal meaning as the recipient of God’s truth. Using rhetorical structures praising her as both a great warrior and a frail woman, Christine found in Joan her own spiritual rebirth.
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Lutkus, Anne D., and Julia M. Walker. “PR Pas PC: Christine de Pizan’s Pro-Joan Propaganda.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 145–160. New York: Garland, 1999.
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Argues the Ditié was written as political propaganda and could not have been composed at the end of July 1429 as Christine says.
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McWebb, Christine. “Joan of Arc and Christine de Pizan: The Symbiosis of Two Warriors in the Ditié de Jehanne d’Arc.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 133–144. New York: Garland, 1999.
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Argues that in the Ditié, Christine makes Joan the epitome of female heroism.
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Beatification and Canonization

Surprisingly little has been written about Joan’s beatification and canonization. However, the original sources detail in several volumes the stages that led to her sanctification by Pope Benedict XV in 1920, including spirited debates about whether her virtues were political, military, or religious. A full set of the canonization proceedings can be found in the Cardinal Wright Collection at the Boston Public Library along with a large collection of books, art, medals, and other memorabilia about Joan. Sacra Rituum Congregatione 1893 and Sacra Rituum Congregatione 1903 are two of the volumes in which the Promoter, or Devil’s Advocate, presents the case against beatification/canonization while the Defender argues for sanctity.

Sacra Rituum Congregatione. Aurelianen: Beatificationis et canonizationis servae Dei Ioannae de Arc, Puellae Aurelianensis nuncupatae: Positio super introductione causae. Rome: Sacra Rituum Congregatione, 1893.
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One of several volumes introducing the cause for beatification, originally promoted by Bishop Félix Dupanloup of Orléans in 1869.
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Sacra Rituum Congregatione. Aurelianen: Beatificationis et canonizationis ven. servae Dei Ioannae de Arc virginis aurelianensis puellae nuncupatae novissima positio super virtutibus. Rome: Sacra Rituum Congregatione, 1903.
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Among the several volumes of the beatification and canonization records, with sources including the promotion of Joan’s candidacy by the Procurator and the refutation with arguments against her by the Devil’s advocate. Sources in Latin, French, and Italian.
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Biographies

Although countless biographies of Joan exist, most are colored by the author’s agenda or bias as well as how she has been viewed in her “afterlife” through the lens of mythology, feminism, and sainthood. Beaune 2009, although well documented, accepts the traditional religious premises about Joan. Likewise, Pernoud and Clin 1999 presents a short biography that accepts most of the conventional statements about Joan. While Sackville-West 1991 is often considered a “good read” by nonspecialists, the author manipulates facts and makes up evidence to support baseless conclusions. Taylor 2009 provides the most recent critical biography, arguing that Joan was trained in warfare at court and challenging some standard interpretations about Joan’s personality and her trial performance.

Beaune, Colette. Jeanne d’Arc. Paris: Perrin, 2009.
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Focuses on Joan as a national heroine at a key stage in French history using the models of Joan as Maid, Shepherdess, and Prophetess. Views Joan more through the lens of an intellectual construction than a real girl.
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Pernoud, Régine, and Marie-Véronique Clin. Joan of Arc: Her Story. Translated by Jeremy duQuesnay Adams. New York: Saint Martin’s 1999.
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A short biography but useful as a reference work. Accepts too willingly the statements of nullification witnesses at face value without realizing that they were replying to directed questions.
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Sackville-West, Vita. Saint Joan of Arc. Library of Great Lives. New York: Image, 1991.
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Despite knowledge of the sources, the author makes numerous unsubstantiated arguments not based on the scholarly record; for example, she argues anachronistically (and incorrectly) that Joan was a feminist and hints that she may have been a lesbian. Originally published in 1936.
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Taylor, Larissa Juliet. The Virgin Warrior: The Life and Death of Joan of Arc. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
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Recent biography of Joan of Arc that attempts to situate Joan in her own time and place. The author aims to depict the historical rather than the legendary Joan, arguing that, above all, Joan was a soldier and military leader whose motto was “go boldly” even when others did not want to fight. Suggests Joan was at least partially created by Yolande of Aragon and offers new insights on Joan’s trial performance.
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Family and Childhood

The conditions in which Joan grew up are crucial to any understanding of her later life. Several works written in the 19th century, especially Luce 1886, fill in gaps thanks to records lost in 20th-century wars. De Bouteiller and de Braux 1878 and de Bouteiller and de Braux 1879 provide critical information on the d’Arc family and Joan’s early life and extended family. Renard 1855 looks not only at the possible last name of the family, but also, in so doing, is able to suggest birthplaces. Even so, much of the information about Joan’s family must be garnered from later testimonies, including her trial, the nullification proceedings, and chronicles. While each must be treated with great caution, cross-referencing the different sources along with those from the 19th century provides a much-better-than-average understanding of a class of people who usually are outside the historical record.

de Bouteiller, E., and G. de Braux. La famille de Jeanne d’Arc. Paris and Orléans: A. Claudin, 1878.
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Some of the best available information on Joan of Arc’s family life.
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de Bouteiller, E., and G. de Braux, eds. Nouvelles recherches sur la famille de Jeanne d’Arc: Enquêtes inédites. Paris and Orléans: A. Claudin, 1879.
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Continuation of their earlier work along with supporting documents.
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Luce, Siméon. Jeanne d’Arc à Domremy: Recherches critiques sur les origins de la mission de la Pucelle accompagnés de pièces justificatives. Paris: Champion, 1886.
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Essential work for understanding Joan, her family, and Domremy at the time. Extensive collection of otherwise unavailable sources.
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Renard, Athanase. Du nom de Jeanne d’Arc: Examen d’une opinion de M. Vallet de Viriville. Paris: J. Claye, 1855.
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Examines the origin of the “d’Arc” name, which may have actually been Darc, Dars, Tart, or Day.
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King, Courtiers, Comrades, and Foes

Biographies, primarily in French, can be found for many of Joan’s military comrades and enemies as well as kings and queens of France. While most rely on the same primary sources as for Joan, they approach the subject from a different perspective. Garnier 1999 offers the only detailed study of the Bastard of Orléans, while Rousseau 1969 does the same for La Hire. Neveux 1987, a biography of Cauchon, adds valuable information about the bishop, even though the author goes out of his way to present him in the best possible light. Senneville 2008 is one of the only attempts at a biography of the powerful queen mother, but relies heavily on a few sources and is full of conjecture. The subtitle tells the story of the book. Vale 1974 remains one of the only biographies of Charles VII. Although the author devotes a chapter to Joan, he underplays her role in the events that led to the liberation of Orléans and the coronation of the king. Williams 1963 is an excellent study of Bedford but contains relatively little information about his attitude toward Joan.

Garnier, Robert. Dunois, le bâtard d’Orléans, 1403–1468. Paris: Fernard Lanore, 1999.
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A solid biography of Joan’s companion that stresses dynastic components of the Hundred Years War.
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Neveux, François. L’evêque Pierre Cauchon. Paris: De Noël, 1987.
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Balanced biography of Joan’s judge, detailing his importance as a powerful diplomat, counselor, and negotiator. As in Hobbins’s introduction to the trial record, shows that Cauchon tried to follow the letter of the law. Argues that Cauchon truly believed she was guilty; at the same time, Neveux assigns primary responsibility for Joan’s execution to him.
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Rousseau, François. La Hire de Gascogne: Etiennes de Vignolles, 1380–1443. Mont-de-Marsan, France: Lacoste, 1969.
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Biography of the man who was arguably Joan’s most faithful companion.
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Senneville, Gérard de. Yolande d’Aragon: La Reine qui a gagné la guerre de cent ans. Paris: Perrin, 2008.
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Although relying on only a few of the abundant sources for Joan of Arc, the author makes the case stated in his title.
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Vale, Malcolm. Charles VII. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
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A good introduction to court and dynastic politics. Vale downplays Joan of Arc and suggests that Yolande of Aragon was likely behind the acceptance and promotion of the Maid.
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Williams, E. Carleton. My Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, 1963.
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Useful as one of the only studies of Bedford but with few mentions of Joan.
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Regional Studies

A knowledge of the different regions of France in which Joan grew up, fought, and was tried and executed is essential for understanding her short time on the historical stage. Books on Paris and Rouen are particularly useful, while the family studies of Luce 1886 (cited under Family and Childhood) and others provide information on Domremy, Neufchâteau, and Vaucouleurs. Thompson 1991 provides the most authoritative understanding of the city of Paris in Joan’s time and makes clear why the siege could not have succeeded except in the event of treachery from within. Champion 1934 is a broader study covering Paris in the late Middle Ages. Allmand 1983 covers the whole of Normandy during the period of English occupation, while Delsalle 2006, Eloy 1870, and Puiseux 1867 allow the reader to experience conditions in Rouen that would have directly affected conditions during the trial, particularly with regard to why some members of the local Dominican order would try to help Joan.

Allmand, C. T. Lancastrian Normandy, 1415–1450: The History of a Medieval Occupation. New York: Clarendon, 1983.
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Synthesis by a leading historian of the Hundred Years War.
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Champion, Pierre. Splendeurs et misères de Paris, XIV–XVe siècles. Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1934.
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Useful study of Paris, especially a discussion of Brother Richard’s reception in Paris.
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Delsalle, Lucien René. Rouen et les Rouennais au temps de Jeanne d’Arc. Rouen, France: Editions PTC, 2006.
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Excellent study of Rouen in Joan’s time by a specialist.
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Eloy, Jean-Louis. Cinq siècles d’histoire religieuse normande: Le couvent de Saint-Jacques de Rouen, 1224–1790. Rouen, France: A. le Brument, 1870.
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Very useful study of the Convent of Saint-Jacques of Rouen, which provided the unwilling inquisitor and several Dominicans who were accused of taking Joan’s part. Gives the context for why this may have been the case along with biographical details of some of the friars.
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Puiseux, Léon François. Siège et prise de Rouen par les Anglais, 1418–1419, principalement d’après un poème anglais contemporain. Caen, France: E. le Gost-Clérisse, 1867.
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Graphic descriptions of the effects of the English occupation on Rouen.
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Thompson, Guy Llewelyn. Paris and Its People under English Rule: The Anglo-Burgundian Regime, 1420–1436. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.
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Thorough, comprehensive study of life in Paris under English and Burgundian rule.
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Religion and Theology

No study of Joan could ignore religion and theology, yet understanding Joan’s own religious beliefs is extraordinarily complicated both because of her sanctification nearly five hundred years after her death as well as her statements and her behavior at trial, and because of what others said about her after her death. To understand Joan within the context of her time, it is essential to acquire a background in medieval theology, inquisitorial procedures, and canon law.

Religion

Most studies examine Joan’s relationship with church authorities and the inquisition. Barstow 1986 examines the context of Joan’s visions and how they relate to conceptions of female autonomy and authority. Tavard 2003 looks at Joan’s religiosity in relation to churchmen, while Wood 1999 teases out as much information as possible from the fragmentary evidence that remains from the first inquest about Joan at Poitiers. Given 2001, a book on the Cathar heresy, provides very useful information about how people learned to resist the inquisition.

Barstow, Anne Llewellyn. Joan of Arc: Heretic, Mystic, Shaman. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1986.
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Academic study that examines Joan’s life and voices within the context of women’s speech in the 15th century.
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Given, James B. Inquisition and Medieval Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
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Outstanding study of heresy and heresy hunters in 13th-century Languedoc. Studies individual and collective responses to charges of heresy, including the ways people used to circumvent inquisitors. Taylor 2009 (cited under Biographies) shows that Joan used all of these methods.
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Tavard, George H. “Jeanne and the Clergy.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 129–146. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Describes Joan’s interaction with members of the clergy before and during her trial.
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Wood, Charles T. “Joan of Arc’s Mission and the Lost Interrogation at Poitiers.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 19–29. New York: Garland, 1999.
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Discusses the inquiry at Paris and the need for Joan to give a sign so that clerics could discern her intentions. They finally decided things had reached such a difficult point that there was no harm in letting her try to relieve the siege.
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Prophecies and Voices

Joan’s voices were a main source of discussion at the trial, including whether they existed, who they represented, and whether they came from God or the devil. Sullivan 1996 and Sullivan 1999 demonstrate authoritatively that Joan’s identification of voices as those of particular saints was constituted as a result of the questions at trial. Astell 2003 likewise shows that Joan’s main devotion had always been to the Virgin Mary. Fraioli 2000 introduces the contemporary discussion of the meaning of Joan’s voices. Tavard 1998 attempts to understand Joan’s piety in relation to her voices.

Astell, Ann W. “The Virgin Mary and the ‘Voices’ of Joan of Arc.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 27–60. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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While Joan’s questionable naming of her saints has been regarded by nonspecialists as fact, Astell shows that Joan’s devotions were mostly directed toward the Virgin Mary.
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Fraioli, Deborah A. Joan of Arc: The Early Debate. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2000.
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Essential reading for a thorough discussion of early debates about Joan’s voices.
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Sullivan, Karen. “‘I Do Not Name to You the Voice of St. Michael’: The Identification of Joan of Arc’s Voices.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 85–113. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Argues that because many readers of the trial record have concentrated on form rather than content, they have failed to recognize that the “truth” about Joan’s voices was produced rather than represented at the trial.
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Sullivan, Karen. The Interrogation of Joan of Arc. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.
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A brilliant scholarly work that examines in depth how the trial interrogation led Joan to shape and construct the names and voices of her saints.
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Tavard, George A. The Spiritual Way of St. Jeanne d’Arc. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1998.
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A spiritual study that attempts to understand the structure and depth of Joan’s inner life, based on a personal meditation.
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Canon Law and Discernment

The canon law on discernment had changed in the central Middle Ages and was not always applied evenly. Joan’s case helped change the rules. Elliott 2002 examines the attempts of the leading theologian of the time to come to terms with Joan’s voices, while Fraioli 2003 suggests that Gerson was more open to the idea of female mysticism than is usually believed. Pinzino 1996 and Pinzino 2003 argue how Joan’s case not only changed ideas in canon law, but also helped create French identity. Kelly 1993 and Kelly 2003 are written by the leading specialist on the beatification and canonization process.

Elliott, Dyan. “Seeing Double: John Gerson, the Discernment of Spirits, and Joan of Arc.” American Historical Review 107 (2002): 26–54.
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Traces the evolution of spiritual discernment in Gerson’s thought that the author argues led to greater confusion and a dichotomy between the good and the evil Joan.
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Fraioli, Deborah. “Gerson Judging Women of Spirit: From Female Mystics to Joan of Arc.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 147–166. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Argues that the standard view that Jean Gerson was hostile to female mystics but not to Joan of Arc is wrong on both accounts. Provocatively suggests that he may not have written about Joan at all.
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Kelly, Henry Ansgar. “The Right to Remain Silent: Before and After Joan of Arc.” Speculum 68.4 (1993): 992–1020.
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Lays out the flaws in the trial procedure, which included the inquisitorial requirement of being charged with a crime. Suggests that in maintaining the right to remain silent, Joan was a better “lawyer” than all of her judges in refusing to respond when her legal rights were consistently violated.
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Kelly, Henry Ansgar. “Saint Joan and Confession: Internal and External Forum.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 61–84. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Addresses challenges to the idea of the internal versus external forum in confession in the 15th century, and particularly how the improper application of canon law was used against Joan. Suggests abuse of ecclesiastical procedures that led to her death confirmed her saintliness.
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Pinzino, Jane Marie. “Speaking of Angels: A Fifteenth-Century Bishop in Defense of Joan of Arc’s Mystical Voices.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 161–176. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Discusses how the nullification proceedings made Joan into a myth of French cultural self-definition.
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Pinzino, Jane Marie. “Joan of Arc and Lex Privata: A Spirit of Freedom in the Law.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 85–110. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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In a brilliantly argued essay, the author shows how the trial created controversy about lex privata (private law) that led to a legal precedent in favor of a personal freedom as “an empowerment that increased responsibility and obliged personal accountability to a more rigorous moral standard” (p. 106).
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Military Role

Most modern authors now accept that Joan was no figurehead, but was indeed a warrior who engaged in the daily tasks of fighting. DeVries 1999 (cited under Joan of Arc as Leader) argues this point forcefully, and Taylor 2009 (cited under Biographies) argues that Joan wanted to press the fight forward militarily both in the early stages of her career and even after the court decided on a peace policy. Contemporaries described her as unusually skilled with artillery and with skills such as those of a captain who had engaged in war for twenty or thirty years. Receiving two arrow wounds, being knocked off a ladder when rocks hit her helmet, and stepping on a spiked trap all give proof of Joan’s activity on the field of battle. Joan was neither a figurehead nor a great military strategist but her actions suggest that she intuitively understood the need to act quickly and boldly, thus catching the enemy off-guard.

The Siege of Orléans

Even though Joan was unproven, her entry into the fight at Orléans changed the dynamics of the siege. She began to show herself a charismatic leader and, although her military role was minor, she gained confidence in herself and inspired others. Pernoud 1982 provides important information on Orléans at the time of the siege, as does Debal 1983. Boucher de Molandon 1892 makes good use of the city’s treasury records to analyze the situation in Orléans at the time of the siege. Nicolle 2005 is the most accessible account of the siege for those who do not know all the technical aspects of warfare. Pernoud 2006 provides more of a day-to-day account.

Boucher de Molandon, Rémi. L’armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d’Arc sous les murs d’Orléans. Orléans, France: H. Hérluison, 1892.
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Excellent study of the English forces at the siege, making use of the city’s treasury records.
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Debal, Jacques, ed. Histoire d’Orléans et de son terroir. Roanne, France: Horvath, 1983.
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Excellent description of the physical surroundings, fortifications, and “suburbs” of the city.
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Nicolle, David. Orléans 1429: France Turns the Tide. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
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A short and succinct description of the siege, especially useful for those without military knowledge.
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Pernoud, Régine, ed. Jeanne d’Arc: Une époque, un rayonnement; Colloque d’histoire medieval, Orléans, octobre 1979. Paris: Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, 1982.
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Study of various aspects of the siege and military preparedness.
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Pernoud, Régine. La libération d’Orléans, 8 mai 1429. Paris: Gallimard, 2006.
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The most detailed reconstruction of the events and people of the city leading up to, and including, the siege.
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Joan of Arc as Leader

Study of the sources shows the degree to which Joan was much more than a figurehead. DeVries 1996 and DeVries 1999 offer the most detailed account of Joan’s military career, the battles, and an analysis of her leadership skills. DeVries 2003 specifically looks at Joan’s letter to the Hussites, arguing for her understanding of a larger picture. Richey 2003 approaches Joan’s case from a modern military standpoint in an effort to understand how Joan achieved what she did. Pinzino 2005 situates Joan in the just war tradition.

DeVries, Kelly. “A Woman Leader of Men: Joan of Arc’s Military Career.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 3–18. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Discusses why soldiers and military leaders responded to Joan and concludes that it was largely her charisma and the belief that she offered salvation to those who followed her.
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DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military Leader. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1999.
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The best discussion available in English of Joan as a soldier. DeVries emphasizes that she was a soldier, plain and simple. Well, maybe not so simple. Almost all who knew her said that she was simple in everything but warfare. Excellent maps and battle descriptions.
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DeVries, Kelly. “Joan of Arc’s Call to Crusade.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 111–126. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Argues that Joan’s famous “Letter to the English” was her first call to crusade, and that this showed her awareness of the larger geopolitical situation.
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Pinzino, Jane Marie. “Joan of Arc, Just War and the Politics of Salvation.” In The Hundred Years War: A Wider Focus. Edited by Don Kagay and Andrew Villalon, 365–398. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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Argues that even the “least” among the French or Armagnac supporters could embody the just war tradition.
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Richey, Stephen. Joan of Arc: The Warrior Saint. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.
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Asks the key question of why people believed in Joan and how she was able to carry out her mission. Uses modern military models and manuals to analyze her success.
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Gender and Clothing

No issue has engaged contemporary scholars more than Joan’s choice of male clothing. She began wearing male clothing as she left Vaucouleurs and met with the king (all with male approval, although there was some discussion at Chinon) and only wore women’s clothing for the few days after she abjured on 24 May 1431. The authors listed in the subsections Cross-Dressing and Gender discuss Joan’s choices regarding clothing, how it constituted her identity, and why she was so unwilling to give it up. While Joan herself seems not to have been particularly fond of other women, she has been used as a symbol of feminism for many.

Cross-Dressing

Medieval theologians argued about the acceptability of a woman wearing men’s clothing, and they often pointed to supposed cases of saints whose eagerness to enter a monastery compelled them to completely disguise their sex. Others suggested that in times of warfare it was acceptable, as long as the woman fully “passed,” retaining no outward evidence of her sex. Joan’s retention of her female identity when she wore men’s clothing became a major issue at trial. Crane 1996 suggests that Joan’s choice of clothing and refusal to give it up had become integral to her identity as a soldier, whether on the battlefield or at trial. Schibanoff 1996 points to the trial judges, who argued that in wearing men’s clothing, Joan had made herself an idol, especially since she did not “pass.”

Crane, Susan. “Clothing and Gender Definition: Joan of Arc.” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 28 (1996): 297–320.
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Important article argues that Joan chose to distinguish herself from the category of womanhood. Argues that Joan linked male clothing to armed opposition and, during the trial, it became essential to her identity.
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Schibanoff, Susan. “True Lies, Transvestism and Idolatry in the Trial of Joan of Arc.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 31–60. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Suggests that the trial judges condemned Joan for making herself into an idol of masculinity. While fully passing as a man was often acceptable, Joan never took that step—she was always identifiably a female wearing men’s clothes.
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Gender

Some commentaries have little to do with Joan but more with feminist theory. Meltzer 2001 sets Joan up to make points that have little to do with the historical Joan. Fraioli 1999 disputes the idea of Joan as an Amazon-like figure; instead, the author argues that it was with biblical figures to whom she was most often compared. Warner 2000 looks at the different roles Joan was seen to fill, but ignores much of the evidence in order to make her points.

Fraioli, Deborah. “Why Joan of Arc Never Became an Amazon.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 189–200. New York: Garland, 1999.
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Using literary and historical sources from the time, the author shows that Joan was not portrayed as an Amazon but rather as a biblical or classical heroine. She was most often compared to Deborah, Judith, and Esther.
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Meltzer, Françoise. For Fear of the Fire: Joan of Arc and the Limits of Subjectivity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
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As the title suggests, a postmodern theoretical study of Joan as seen through the subjective appraisal of men who define woman as enigmatic, dark, mysterious, and dangerous. Very little about the historical Joan.
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Warner, Marina. Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
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Warner “tell[s] the story of how the story came to be told.” Not a historical but rather an interpretive account. Argues incorrectly that Joan was more of a standard-bearer than a soldier. Strongest on Joan’s afterlife, but too much speculation and misinformation based on modern theories. Originally published in 1981.
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Physical and Mental State

This is one of the first issues brought up by those interested in Joan. Was she deluded, hallucinatory, mystical, schizophrenic, or anorexic? Could she have suffered from epilepsy? None of these views holds up to a thorough examination of Joan’s activities, but people continue to speculate. Charlier, et al. 2010 also looks at the recent examination of the supposed relic that had been housed in the Chinon museum. Clin 1996 briefly examines Joan’s medical condition and examinations for virginity. Boissonade 1930 looks at why the Poitiers interrogation was a key stage in authorizing Joan’s mission. Margolis 2003 is a study of how Joan’s physical body expressed her mission. D’Orsi and Tinuper 2006 suggests Joan suffered from epilepsy, while Russell 2005 examines medical and mental possibilities that could account for Joan’s voices. Charlier, et al. 2010 finally disproves that the Chinon museum contains relics of Joan, which had always been unlikely in view of the nullification testimonies about the execution.

Boissonade, P. “Une étape capitale de la mission de Jeanne d’Arc.” Revue des questions historiques, 3d ser., 17 (1930).
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A study of Joan’s first interrogation at Poitiers, which included an examination of her virginity, her religious beliefs, and whether or not she should be sent on her mission.
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Charlier, P., J. Poupon, and A. Eb, et al. “The ‘Relics of Joan of Arc’: A Forensic Multidisciplinary Analysis.” Forensic Science International 194.1–3 (2010): e9–e15.
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Despite the nullification records that almost universally suggest Joan was completely incinerated in the execution, Chinon claimed to have relics of her bones. Shows that it was a 19th-century forgery, probably from an Egyptian mummy.
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Clin, Marie-Veronique. “Joan of Arc and Her Doctors.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 295–302. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Discussion of examinations of Joan’s virginity and medical treatments during the battles and at trial.
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d’Orsi, Giuseppe, and Paolo Tinuper. “‘I Heard Voices . . .’: From Semiology, a Historical Review, and a New Hypothesis on the Presumed Epilepsy of Joan of Arc.” Epilepsy and Behavior 9.1 (2006): 152–157.
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Like so many ahistorical attempts to “explain” Joan’s voices, the authors argue that one or another form of epilepsy might account for her described experiences. Largely based on symptomatology without taking into account Joan’s deeds, this is nothing but speculative and unlikely.
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Margolis, Nadia, “The Mortal Body as Divine Proof: A Spiritual-Physical Blazon of Joan of Arc.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 9–36. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Argues that Joan’s spirituality was a phenomenon consisting of body, symbol, and sword. She created new dimensions of mortality spirituality through her own mystical body.
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Russell, Preston. Lights of Madness: In Search of Joan of Arc. Savannah, GA: Frederic C. Beil, 2005.
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Study of Joan by a physician into whether or not her life and voices could be seen from a medical rather than a religious standpoint. The author does not prejudge and takes into account medieval rather than simply modern explanations.
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Myth and Legend

Most books either purposefully or unwittingly discuss Joan’s myth and legend. Bouzy 1999a and Bouzy 1999b have done the best job of demythologizing different aspects of Joan’s historical life in pointing to different case studies that have been accepted as fact by most scholars. Fraikin 1999 suggests that the timing of the meeting with Charles could account for the descriptions of the meeting, conflicting with the challenge in Bouzy 1999a about the timing and nature of the meeting.

Bouzy, Olivier. Jeanne d’Arc, mythes et réalités. Paris: Atelier de l’Archer, 1999a.
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An exceptional study challenging the myths that have grown up around Joan of Arc, including the dates of her travel to Chinon, the famous Chinon interview, and other episodes that have been considered fact.
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Bouzy, Olivier. “Transcription Errors in Texts of Joan of Arc’s History.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 73–83. New York: Garland, 1999b.
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Argues we must go beyond trials and nullification to understand Joan, as a result of many 19th-century transcription errors.
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Fraikin, Jean. “Was Joan of Arc a ‘Sign’ of Charles VII’s Innocence?” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 61–72. New York: Garland, 1999.
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An analysis of Joan’s “first” meeting with the dauphin, suggesting that the theatrical scenario was a result of mid-Lent festivities.
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Afterlife

Joan’s afterlife has been almost as influential, if not more so, than her short life. She has been profoundly changed in the process to fit the desires and agendas of particular times and places. Because the focus of the article is on the Middle Ages, only major works are listed here.

Art

Artistic representation of Joan came into its own in the 19th century, both in response to French nationalism and accompanying revolutionary and monarchic revivals, and to the newfound historical interest in Joan as a symbol of France. Astell 2003 studies the different representations of Joan in early modern and modern times that detract from the historical Joan. A masterful study, Heimann 2005 shows how playwrights, artists, and writers have all rendered Joan according to their own whims or desires. Heimann 2003 examines how sculpture helped reintroduce Joan’s piety.

Astell, Ann W. Joan of Arc and Sacrificial Authorship. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003.
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Study by a leading specialist on how post-Enlightenment writers and artists envisioned and added to the mystique of the Maid. Argues that every representation somehow reduces Joan in rendering her up for public consumption.
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Heimann, Nora M. “The Princess and the Maid of Orléans: Sculpting Spirituality during the July Monarchy.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 228–247. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Studies Marie d’Orléans sculpture Joan of Arc in Prayer (c. 1834–1839), which helped to reshape Joan as a spiritual rather than a martial or royalist symbol.
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Heimann, Nora M. Joan of Arc in French Art and Culture,1700–1855: From Satire to Sanctity. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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Demonstrates how Joan has become all things to all people over the centuries in examining portrayals by Voltaire, Schiller, Barante, Michelet, Ingres, and others. Explains why artists’ renderings of Joan became less true to life over time. Well illustrated.
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Beatification and Canonization

Very little has been written about Joan’s beatification and canonization, although the original documents are all available. Kelly 1996 takes the reader through the stages of Joan’s beatification and canonization, showing the strong arguments presented by those who had to make a case against sanctity.

Kelly, Henry Ansgar. “Joan of Arc’s Last Trial: The Attack of the Devil’s Advocates.” In Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Edited by Bonnie Wheeler and Charles T. Wood, 205–236. New York: Garland, 1996.
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Excellent article by a specialist in canon law who demonstrates the strong case made by the Devil’s Advocate against Joan’s beatification and canonization.
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Drama

Joan has been most distorted in drama and film. Ironically, the 15th-century mystery play may be more realistic than many plays that have followed, many of which were colored by nationalistic sympathies. Hamblin 2003 studies how the mystery play about Joan influenced the perception of the Maid by the citizens of Orléans, while Margolis 1997 emphasizes the role playwrights and filmmakers played in shaping Joan’s modern image. Shakespeare 2011, not surprisingly, portrays Joan as a witch, while Voltaire 2010, a bawdy tale written in 1756, makes Joan into a heroine for maintaining her virginity. Schiller 1999 is pure fiction despite its popularity; the Joan in Shaw 2001 is a proto-Protestant, while Anouilh 1973 is a reflection on modern history based on Joan.

Anouilh, Jean. L’alouette. Translated by Christopher Fry. London: Eyre Methuen, 1973.
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Using flashbacks, Anouilh provides a humorous and sarcastic depiction that places Joan as a symbol of faith and bravery in front of her persecutors and a reflection on our own times.
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Hamblin, Vicki L. “En l’honneur de la Pucelle: Ritualizing Joan the Maid in Fifteenth-Century Orléans.” In Joan of Arc and Spirituality. Edited by Ann W. Astell and Bonnie Wheeler, 209–226. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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Discusses Joan’s presence in Orléans and the evolution in the city’s perception of her after her execution, based on original sources.
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Margolis, Nadia. “Trial by Passion: Philology, Film, and Ideology in the Portrayal of Joan of Arc, 1900–1930.” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 27.3 (1997): 445–493.
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Examination of how nostalgic romanticism in the 19th century reshaped the image of Joan of Arc in the works of historians, dramatists, and filmmakers.
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Schiller, Friedrich. Maid of Orleans. Edited by William-Alan Landes. Studio City, CA: Players Press, 1999.
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Completely romanticized and ahistorical drama full of inaccuracies. Joan dies on the battlefield instead of at trial.
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Shakespeare, William. Henry VI, Part 1. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011.
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Believed to have been written in 1591, Shakespeare’s play depicts Joan as a villainess and a witch, justly executed.
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Shaw, George Bernard. Saint Joan. New York: Penguin Classics, 2001.
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Makes Joan out to be a proto-Protestant and a symbol for nationalism. Play first published in 1923.
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Voltaire [François-Marie d’Aroüet]. La pucelle d’Orléans ou Jeanne d’Arc. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2010.
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Bawdy tale that portrays Joan’s main heroic deed as keeping her virginity for a year. Originally written in 1756.