Trench Warfare (Military History)

Introduction

For many, trenches are synonymous with the Western Front of the First World War. Soldiers dug a scar into Europe that stretched over four hundred miles from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. Yet entrenchments were nothing new to warfare. Soldiers had built temporary field fortifications, ditches, and obstacles of various kinds between themselves and their enemy for centuries. Most notably in siege warfare, trenches became an integral part of the dance armies played out with each other. However, armies utilized trenches beyond siege warfare, especially from the 18th century onward. The main scholarly debate over trench warfare is how technology influenced its application and adoption. The other is about the influence of cultural motivations that put an emphasis on morale and a soldier’s ability to overcome the defensive measures of digging in. Entrenchments allowed officers more control over soldiers, which deterred desertion, but they also saved lives. Since soldiers could shoot more often, further, and more accurately, trenches became necessary to keep soldiers out of the open. Additionally, the tactical advantage of the defense meant that fewer soldiers could successfully hold off a larger enemy, freeing up more units for offensive action elsewhere.

General Overviews

Unfortunately, there really are not many overviews that specifically evaluate trench warfare. Saunders 2010 is one of the few that does so. Saunders argues that the influence of industrialization and the adoption of wars of annihilation altered how Europeans fought. He asserts that Napoleon introduced wars of annihilation, and that the American Civil War influenced industrialization. However, it would not be until the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and the Crimean War (1853–1856) that these lessons would influence European military thinkers; since it was at the Siege of Sevastopol, during the Crimean War, that a modern interpretation of trench warfare was truly “born.” Any evaluation of trench warfare will also include Hughes 1974. Although it does not specifically address trench warfare, this volume does engage the debate over technological advancement and the effect on warfare. Finally, Murray 2013 engages the evolution of trench warfare from its humble beginning to its use in maintaining the discipline of ill-trained, less professional soldiers, and for command and control.

Hughes, B. P. Firepower: Weapons Effectiveness on the Battlefield, 1630–1850. New York: Scribner, 1974.
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For the most part, Hughes’s book examines the evolution of firepower and how armies employed it or adapted their tactics to it. Hughes does, however, offer some examples near the end of the book of instances where entrenchments were used, such as at Ferozeshah during the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
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Murray, Nicholas. The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2013.
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In this work, Murray traces the theories and application of trench warfare from 1740 to the First World War. Emphasis is placed on evaluation of the Russo-Turkish War, Second Anglo-Boer War, Russo-Japanese War, and Balkan Wars.
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Saunders, Anthony. Trench Warfare 1850–1950. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2010.
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While Saunders offers a good overview of the evolution of trench warfare, his book does not contain footnotes. This is problematic, since it is likely that he may not have looked at the early technical manuals. However, he offers one of the only works that examines trench warfare.
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Reference Resources

There are several very good online resources available to those interested in learning more about trench warfare. Baker 1995–2014 is quite detailed, with diagrams and pictures portraying trenches and trench life. Hacken 1996–2010 is a database with links to various websites about the First World War. Many of these can be quite informative for a student of trench warfare. BBC 2014 is another gateway to various databases that include the two World Wars and the Cold War. Australian Government is a good source for oral interviews of veterans of the Korean War. First World War Websites contains links to various First World War websites, including maps and photos. It also promises to offer very detailed and scholarly information on various aspects of trench warfare. The International Society for First World War Studies has created a collaborative and growing bibliography on the First World War that includes works on trenches, the First World War Studies Bibliography.

Australian Government, Department of Veterans’ Affairs. “Stalemate, the War in 1952–1953: Trench Warfare and Patroling between the Lines.” In Australia’s Involvement in the Korean War. Canberra: Australian Government, Department of Veterans’ Affairs, 2014.
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This site is devoted to Australians in the Korean War. This particular page offers an encyclopedic description of battles where Australians were involved. More importantly, there are links to information about veterans of the war as well as over two thousand interviews.
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Baker, Chris. “In the Trenches.” In The Long, Long Trail: The British Army in the Great War of 1914–1918. Leamington Spa, UK: Milverton, 1995–2014.
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Baker’s site offers very good detail into the British trenches, their construction, and what life was like in them.
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BBC. “History: World Wars.” London: BBC, 2014.
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This BBC site offers access to web resources from the First World War to the Cold War. In each area, there are numerous resources of value, including photos, video, and interviews with participants.
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First World War Websites. In 1914–1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Edited by Oliver Janz, Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, et al. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin, 2014.
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This site is an international, collaborative effort to provide scholarly articles and encyclopedic entries on multiple aspects of the First World War. It also contains links to various other websites that display maps, soldiers’ experiences, and detailed information on battles.
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Hacken, Richard. “The World War I Document Archive.” Provo, UT: Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, 1996–2010.
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Hacken’s site is part of the Great War Primary Document Archive. It provides links to a multitude of First World War related sites. Many of these sites are quite informative even if some are encyclopedic in nature. There are some very good links to unit histories that offer details of soldiers experiences in the trenches, as well as a visual archive including pictures of trenches.
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International Society for First World War Studies. “First World War Studies Bibliography.”
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This is an internationally, collaborative bibliography on all aspects of the First World War. Members of the International Society for the First World War are continually updating this extensive bibliography with new and older works, both published primary and secondary sources.
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Wars of Spanish Succession and the Age of Enlightenment

Armies in the Age of Enlightenment were no strangers to siegecraft. They dug trenches to inch their way toward fortress walls. On the battlefields, though, entrenchments were less likely to make an appearance. However, they were not unknown, especially at battles such as Malpaquet (11 September 1709). Field fortifications, such as temporary barricades, also influenced campaigns, such as the “Ne Plus Ultra Lines.” Thus it is informative for the student of trench warfare to study these earlier manifestations of defensive obstacles and the debates that ensued. For an authoritative work on warfare in the Age of Enlightenment, Chandler 1976 and Lynn 1999 are good starting points. Ashley 1965, Chandler 1973, Childs 1982, Churchill 1936, Sturgill 1965, and Weigley 1991 are good for more descriptive accounts of the era and the fieldworks utilized.

Ashley, Maurice. Louis XIV and the Greatness of France. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965.
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A dated work, but offers a good description of the Battle of Malplaquet and the Ne Plus Ultra Lines.
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Chandler, David. Marlborough as Military Commander. London: Scribner, 1973.
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A very well-written examination of the campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough. This work includes a chapter on the Battle of Malplaquet, and another on the Siege of Bouchain and the Ne Plus Ultra Lines.
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Chandler, David. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. London: B. T. Batsford, 1976.
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In The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, Chandler evaluates the variety, continuity, and evolution of tactics during the 17th and 18th centuries. He describes the regular use of entrenchments among armies and their varying successes, such as at Malpaquet, the Ne Plus Ultra Lines, and those at Stollhofen.
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Childs, John. Armies and Warfare in Europe: 1648–1789. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1982.
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Childs describes how Marshal Villars dug trenches at Malplaquet, whereas others, such as Marshal de Saxe, preferred breastworks, arguing that trenches limited mobility. This work offers a good discussion on the topic of entrenchments in the 18th century.
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Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times. Book 2. London: George G. Harrap, 1936.
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Though dated, Churchill still offers a very good narrative of Marlborough’s campaigns. Volume 4 in Book 2 describes the War of Spanish Succession, and though it is British heavy, it also offers some insight into French perceptions.
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Lynn, John. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. New York: Longman, 1999.
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Lynn’s work offers a comprehensive discussion on positional warfare under Louis’s reign, including the Battle of Malplaquet, Ne Plus Ultra Lines, and Lines of Stollhofen. Lynn compares the Ne Plus Ultra Lines to the later trenches of the First World War.
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Sturgill, Claude C. Marshall Villars and the War of the Spanish Succession. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1965.
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Sturgill offers a very good description of entrenchment during the Wars of Spanish Succession, especially of Marshal Villars at Malplaquet.
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Weigley, Russell Frank. The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
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An important work that offers short details dealing with early trench works in the age of siegecraft, including the “Ne Plus Ultra Lines” and Lines of Torres Verdes.
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Lines of Torres Vedras

The most famous instance of field fortifications outside of a siege in the Napoleonic Wars that elicits analogies among some historians to the First World War is that of the Lines of Torres Vedras. Wellington had his men constructed a twenty-nine-mile “barricade” and lured Masséna toward it. Though not specifically trenches, this Line stopped the French dead in their tracks and contributed to their failed invasion of Portugal in 1810. Horward 1973 and Oman 1908 offer more of a French perspective of the Peninsular Campaign and the Lines, while Moon 2011 focuses primarily on the British. For works that engage both sides more fully, see Esdaile 2002, Gates 1986, and Glover 1974.

Esdaile, Charles. The Peninsular War: A New History. London: Penguin, 2002.
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In a chapter of this work, Esdaile examines the actions around Torres Vedras. He details the composition of both armies and how this influenced planning, including Wellington’s reasoning for the Lines of Torres Vedras.
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Gates, David. The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986.
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Gates refers to the Lines of Torres Vedras as the “Maginot Line of the Napoleonic era.” Though he does not offer extensive detail into the lines, he offers a short description of its length and variety. Gates evaluates the Peninsular campaigns and examines how the Lines contributed to Masséna’s failure.
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Glover, Michael. The Peninsular War, 1807–1814: A Concise Military History. Hamdon, CT: Archon, 1974.
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Glover offers a good description of the Lines of Torres Vedras, their construction, the possibilities for Wellington and Masséna, as well as a decent map.
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Horward, Donald D. The French Campaign in Portugal, 1810–1811: An Account by Jean Jacques Pelet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1973.
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Horward translated and edited Pelet’s unpublished manuscript describing his experience as an aide-de-camp to Marshal Masséna of the French army. His seventh chapter discusses the Lines of Torres Vedras and offers a great look at the French perspective.
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Moon, Joshua. Wellington’s Two-Front War: The Peninsular Campaigns, at Home and Abroad, 1808–1814. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011.
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Moon examines Wellington’s operations in Portugal and how the Lines of Torres Vedras fit into his planning. He describes how Masséna discovered and lay siege to the lines. However, their impregnability, coupled with Wellington’s scorched earth policy, made any attempt on them impractical.
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Oman, Charles. A History of the Peninsular War. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon, 1908.
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In Volume 3 of his seven-volume work on the Peninsular Campaign, Oman evaluates what he terms “the central crisis of the whole war,” which was when the French encountered of the Lines of Torres Vedras and the end of their offensive capabilities in Portugal.
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New Zealand Wars

The New Zealand Wars took place from 1845 to 1872. The indigenous population, the Maori, utilized entrenchments and fortifications. Historians have debated whether the Maori already practiced this style of warfare or adapted to European warfare to counter British technological advantages, and whether this was the earliest use of “modern” trenches. Though there is consensus that the latter is not the case, the historical debate over Maori use of field fortifications is vital to any study of trench warfare. Cowan 1922 is a must read for those interested in examining the New Zealand Wars. Belich 1988 evaluates the Maori response to British military “superiority” in the New Zealand Wars, and created quite a controversy by stating that the Maori were the first ever to employ “modern” trenches. Gates 2001 is a response to Belich’s assertions that the Maori simply adopted European style warfare.

Belich, James. New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict. New York: Penguin, 1988.
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Belich argued in this volume that the Maori adopted entrenchments and field fortifications to counter the British technological advantages, in what he termed the second phase of colonial warfare, where industrial breech-loading weapons tipped the balance in favor of the British. Belich went so far as to suggest that the Maoris were the first to use “modern” trenches and bunkers, an assertion that began quite a historical debate, though he has since distanced himself from this assertion.
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Cowan, James. The New Zealand Wars. New York: AMS Press, 1922.
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Cowan describes both sides of the New Zealand Wars. He offers a well-written narrative of the war as a whole, while also detailing the Maori fieldworks and British responses to them.
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Gates, John M. “James Belich and the Maori Pa: Revisionist History Revised.” War and Society 19.2 (October 2001): 47–68.
DOI: 10.1179/072924701791201503Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Gates contends that the Maori had been using fortifications, termed “pa,” since the 15th century. They simply incorporated European weaponry to a style of warfare they already practiced, countering Belich’s argument that they adopted entrenchments and fortifications in an attempt to adapt to a new form of European warfare and technology.
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Crimean War

The major event of the Crimean War that exhibited trench warfare was the Siege of Sevastopol (or Sebastopol). Some historians argue that this really was not a siege, but a trench war (See Strachan 1990). Since the fortifications on the land side of Sevastopol left much to be desired, the Russians utilized trenches. Having missed their opportunity to overrun the weak defenses early on, the Allies also had to resort to digging in. Thus the Siege of Sevastopol is an important event when studying the use of trenches prior to the First World War. Royle 2000 is one of the better overall works on the war that also discussed the trenches. From there, Figes 2010, Fletcher and Ishchenko 2004, and Seaton 1977 are good for more detail of the field works. For a well-argued piece on the British, see Strachan 1990.

Figes, Orlando. The Crimean War: A History. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010.
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One of the better descriptions of the trenches the soldiers dug and the difficulties they faced.
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Fletcher, Ian, and Natalie Ishchenko. The Crimean War: A Clash of Empires. Staplehurst, UK: Spellmount, 2004.
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Offers a fairly detailed description of the armies, forts, and entrenchments during the Siege of Sevastopol.
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Royle, Trevor. Crimea: The Great Crimean War 1854–1856. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
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Royle’s book is an important piece on the history of the Crimean War. He also describes the decision-making process on both the Allied and Russian sides that led to a prolonged siege. He offers good detail throughout the work on the make-up of the trenches and how they influenced the siege.
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Seaton, Albert. The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle. New York: St. Martin’s, 1977.
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Offers a decent description of the siege, forts, and the entrenchments dug around Sevastopol, and includes the parallel trenches the Allies dug.
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Small, Hugh. The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2007.
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In this work, Small describes the siege and battles around Sevastopol. He offers some details on the trenches.
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Strachan, Hew. “The British Army and ‘Modern’ War: The Experience of the Peninsula and of the Crimea.” In Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871. Edited by John A. Lynn, 211–237. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990.
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Strachan highlights how the Siege of Sevastopol was a misnomer, since the Russian Army was entrenched. This is an excellent evaluation of how British military thinkers neglected the tactical lessons learned at Sevastopol in the years between it and the First World War.
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American Civil War

Near the end of the American Civil War, the Union Army of the Potomac and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia bogged down into trench warfare. Most notably, this occurred at Petersburg. Many historians of the war have argued that tactical conceptualization was mired in the Age of Napoleon, with American officers overly influenced by the writings of Antoine-Henri Jomini (b. 1779–d. 1869), while the technology of killing had surpassed them into an age of modern industrialized warfare. Brady 2005, Griffith 1989, Hagerman 1988, and Hess 2005 engage the American Civil War on various levels and in a larger-scale context. Meanwhile, Hess 2007, Hess 2009, Sodergren 2006, Sommers 1981, and Trudeau 1991 specifically focus upon the Overland Campaign and Petersburg.

Brady, Lisa M. “The Wilderness of War: Nature and Strategy in the American Civil War.” Environmental History 10.3 (July 2005): 421–447.
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Brady’s article engages how Civil War commanders utilized the terrain in combat, as well as how their trench works and rifle pits scarred the earth. This is a great combination of environmental and military history that should be of interest to any study of trench warfare.
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Griffith, Paddy. Battle Tactics of the Civil War. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
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Griffith takes issue with the argument that the Civil War was an anomaly of high casualty rates, marking the dawn of a new modern warfare. Instead, this work attempts to place tactics, trenches, and long casualty lists into the context of earlier 18th and 19th century wars with similar features.
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Hagerman, Edward. American Civil War and the Origins of Modern Warfare: Ideas, Organization, and Field Command. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
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Hagerman argues that strategy and tactics were not advanced enough to meet the challenges of a modern war with rifled muskets. In this work, he contends that the American Civil War was the first modern war, where technology altered the battlefield leading to entrenchments.
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Hess, Earl J. Field Armies and Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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Hess wrote what amounts to a three-volume series on fortifications in the American Civil War. This first work was the first study to incorporate field fortifications and works in an evaluation of Civil War decision making and combat. Hess argues that field works were integral to a majority of the battles throughout the war and were a natural progression to the trenches of the Overland Campaign.
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Hess, Earl J. Trench Warfare under Grant and Lee: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
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In the second installment of Hess’s trilogy, he focuses specifically on the Overland Campaign beginning in 1864. Hess argues that the armies utilized entrenchments as an outgrowth of their previous experiences; however, these entrenchments were not the shallow, hastily dug trenches of the previous years. The Overland Campaign exhibited intricate field works, with soldiers digging in more frequently.
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Hess, Earl J. In the Trenches at Petersburg: Field Fortifications and Confederate Defeat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
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Hess’s third work on field fortifications in the American Civil War details the trenches at Petersburg. According to Hess, the trenches stretched for over two thousand miles from Richmond. They were the most extensive trench works of the war, including mines and countermines, some areas exhibiting a defense in depth, minefields, and other obstructions in-between the lines. Along with his other two books (Hess 2005 and Hess 2007), this is an important work examining the use of trenches.
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Sodergren, Steven E. “‘Great Is the Shovel and Spade’: The Adaptation of Union Soldiers to Combat Conditions, 1864–1865.” PhD diss., University of Kansas, 2006.
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Sodergren’s dissertation examines how Union soldiers in the trenches at Petersburg were revitalized after the Overland Campaign’s brutal attrition. He argues that soldiers understood that trenches protected them, which increased morale. This is a very important evaluation of Civil War trenches and the soldiers who lived in them.
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Sommers, Richard. Richmond Redeemed: The Siege at Petersburg. New York: Doubleday, 1981.
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Sommers offers an engaging and well-researched read of the Petersburg campaign. He details the trenches and the difficulties they posed.
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Trudeau, Noah. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia June, 1864–April 1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991.
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Trudeau offers an excellent read on the siege of Petersburg and the battles among the trenches.
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Second Anglo-Boer War

The Boer Wars offer a superb example of trench warfare. The Boers utilized trenches to escape British artillery; however, they often dug them on hillsides, making them good targets. After Modder River, General de la Ray urged that the trenches be dug at the foot of the hills, offering free fields of fire and making the advancing British the easy targets. Thus, the Battle of Magersfontein opened a new phase in the war and should be of interest for any study of trench warfare. Pakenham 1979 is a must read for anyone engaging the Boer War. Jones 2012 is a broader work that evaluates the influences of the Boer War upon British military thinking. Nasson 1999 is good for a descriptive analysis of the trenches and evolution of Boer tactics. Miller 1999 and Stone and Shmidl 1988 provide an evaluation of the British in the war. Meintjes 1966 is one of those rare books that examines the Boer side of the war. Belfield 1975 and Farwell 1976 are good for their descriptions of the trenches and battles.

Belfield, Eversley. The Boer War. London: Leo Cooper, 1975.
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Offers a good examination of the siege of Ladysmith and Boer implementation of trenches.
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Farwell, Bryon. The Great Anglo-Boer War. New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
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Another good description of the Boer use of trenches, especially at Magersfontein, and the events that transpired as the British encountered them.
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Jones, Spencer. From Boer War to World War: Tactical Reform of the British Army, 1902–1914. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012.
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Jones’s book focuses on the lessons the British Army learned and incorporated or ignored from the Boer War to the First World War. Though not specifically a study of the Boer War, his work focuses on the influence that war had on British strategic, operational, and tactical thought. It also includes observations from the Russo-Japanese War that more or less affirmed concepts that the Army took from their previous experience.
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Meintjes, Johannes. De La Rey: Lion of the West. Johannesburg: Hugh Keartland, 1966.
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Meintjes offers an evaluation of de la Rey’s role in shifting Boer tactics from digging in on hillsides to the foot of the hills. This offered the Boers better fields of fire over flat land, and narrowly dug trenches offered protection from shrapnel.
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Miller, Stephen M. Lord Methuen and the British Army: Failure and Redemption in South Africa. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1999.
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Miller evaluates the war through the leadership of Lord Methuen, and evaluates his tactics through a cultural lens as well. He engages the information on how Methuen approached the Boer trenches throughout the war, especially at Magersfontein.
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Nasson, Bill. The South African War, 1899–1902. London: Arnold, 1999.
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Nasson offers a detailed description of how the Boers used trenches with lanes of retreat, then transitioned to adopting digging trenches at the base of hills at Magersfontein, including barbed wire and “rear pits (medical and supply stations)” (p. 126).
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Pakenham, Thomas. The Boer War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979.
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Pakenham offers a well-written narrative of the Boer Wars. He details the Boers trenches and the battles that occurred around them.
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Stone, Jay, and Erwin A. Shmidl. The Boer War and Military Reforms. War and Society in East Central Europe 28. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988.
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Section IV of Book One offers a look at British tactics and weaponry. The authors evaluate how poorly British tactical thought approached new technologies, specifically when facing Boer “innovations” in using better weaponry and the use of trenches.
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Russo-Japanese War

In the 20th century, the Russo-Japanese War offers the best example of trench warfare prior to the First World War. Every major participant in that later war was watching either as an observer or combatant during the Russo-Japanese War. Yet, much like the earlier occasions of trench warfare outside of Europe, this incident was written off as a case of two “inferior” nations hammering at each other. One of the major debates regarding this war is the concept of the Japanese “human bullet.” Some of the following books engage this debate, while others offer decent descriptions of the trench war that ensued. Sakurai 1999 and Wood 1905 are both primary sources that are quite important for the study of this war. The former emphasizes the “human bullet” aspect of Japanese assaults, while the latter offers a contemporary evaluation of both sides of the war. Connaughton 1988, Martin 1967, and Warner and Warner 1974 examine both sides of the war. Cosson 2013 examines the influence the Russo-Japanese War had on the French Army in the years prior to 1914. Matsusaka 2005 evaluates Japanese tactics in the war, while Westwood 1986 focuses more on the Russians.

Connaughton, R. M. The War of the Rising Sun and Tumbling Bear: A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–5. New York: Routledge, 1988.
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Connaughton evaluates the sieges at both Liaoyang and Port Arthur, detailing the decisions made at both, the armies involved, and the use of trenches.
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Cosson, Olivier. Préparer la Grande Guerre: L’armée française et la guerre russo-japonaise 1899–1914. Paris: Indes Savantes, 2013.
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Cosson evaluates the Russo-Japanese War and the influences on the French Army leading up to the First World War.
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Martin, Christopher. The Russo-Japanese War. London: Abelard-Schuman, 1967.
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Martin offers a good account of the war. He details the back and forth between the Russians and Japanese, especially among the trenches around Port Arthur.
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Matsusaka, Yoshihisa Tak. “Human Bullets, General Nogi, and the Myth of Port Arthur.” In Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective. Edited by John W. Steinberg, Bruce W. Menning, David Schimmelpennick Van Der Oye, Davild Wolff, and Shinji Yokote, 179–202. Boston: Brill, 2005.
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In Matsusaka’s chapter, he critiques the human bullet myth of Japanese tactics in the Russo-Japanese War. His analysis describes how Japanese doctrine and training included an aspect of this, but it was not the predominant force. Other factors contributed to the mass assaults and high number of casualties on Russian defensive positions.
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Sakurai, Tadayoshi. Human Bullet: A Soldier’s Story of the Russo-Japanese War. Translated by Masujiro Honda. Edited by Alice Mabel Bacon. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
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This is by far one of the best primary source accounts of the war, with descriptions of “human bullet” tactics and trench warfare.
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Warner, Dennis, and Peggy Warner. The Tide at Sunrise: A History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905. New York: Charterhouse, 1974.
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Discusses the digging of trenches around Liaoyang and Port Arthur. Warner offers descriptions of the taking and retaking of trenches, massive assaults, and casualties.
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Westwood, J. N. Russia against Japan, 1904–1905: A New Look at the Russo-Japanese War. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986.
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Offers very good details of the construction of the forts and entrenchments around Port Arthur. Westwood also includes criticisms of the Russian trench designs. Some evaluation of Russian orders to dig-in when making contact with superior Japanese forces, even when attacking. Also, includes a black-and-white photo of Japanese infantry in a trench at Sha-ho.
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Wood, Oliver Ellsworth. From the Yalu to Port Arthur: An Epitome of the First Period of the Russo-Japanese War. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1905.
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This primary source offers some very good descriptions of the trenches and attacks by the Japanese and Russians.
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First World War

The First World War has defined trench warfare for generations. After the Battle of the Marne from September 5–12, 1914, the German Army began a strategic withdrawal. As the French and British pursued and attempted to outflank them, the Germans dug in. Each army made attempts to outflank the other, causing more soldiers to dig in and extend their lines. By the end of the year the Western Front stagnated, with trench lines stretching for over four hundred miles. A very good work that examines the German decision to solidify the trenches into a defensive bastion in order to strategically attack Russia on the Eastern Front in 1915 is Foley 2005 (cited under Technology and Tactics). Some major debates that ensue over the trenches of the First World War regard how and whether leadership adapted and learned or simply threw lives away in the “meat grinder.” Would technology prove the answer to breaking the lines, or was troop morale and a culture of offense the answer? To see a more in-depth evaluation of the major debates and themes in studying the Western Front, see Annika Mombauer’s Oxford Bibliographies article “World War I: The Western Front.”

Soldiers’ Experiences

A study of trench warfare would not be complete without examining the life of the soldiers who endured it. An important aspect of the soldiers’ experience is how they coped with the war and trench life. Ellis 1976 is one of the more important books in this regard. Jones 2006 and Leed 1979 are important works on the psychology of soldiers in the trenches. Smith 1994 offers a critical look at how soldiers coped with death and years of failed frontal assaults, while negotiating their relationship with the military hierarchy and disobedience. Mitchinson 1997, Sheffield 2000, Simpson 1993, Wilson 2012, and Winter 1978 address various aspects of British soldiers’ experiences in the trenches.

Ashworth, Tony. Trench Warfare 1914–1918: The Live and Let Live System. London: Macmillan, 1980.
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Ashworth argues that the British, French, and German soldiers of certain sectors of the front had unofficial agreements to “live and let live.” They would go through the motions of attacking and defending according to an increasingly distant army staff concerned about statistics, but not actually shoot to kill. Ashworth offers an intriguing look at trench life, even if he overly relies on the now defunct research of S. L. A. Marshall.
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Ellis, John. Eyedeep in Hell: Trench Warfare in World War I. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
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This book offers a detailed look at what soldiers from all sides of the war endured and what their daily routines were like.
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Jones, Edgar. “Psychology of Killing: The Combat Experience of British Soldiers during the First World War.” Journal of Contemporary History 41.2 (April 2006): 229–246.
DOI: 10.1177/0022009406062055Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines British propaganda and motivation aimed at killing the enemy. Jones evaluates the psychological effects on civilians turned soldiers, and how they coped with this new role.
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Leed, Eric. No Man’s Land: Combat and Identity in World War I. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
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Leed’s work is an important look at how soldiers coped with the war psychologically. The author argues that there was a mental “No Man’s Land” soldiers had to navigate, especially between life at the front and then back home in the civilian world.
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Mitchinson, K. W. Pioneer Battalions of the Great War. London: Leo Cooper, 1997.
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An interesting look at the British pioneer units. Mitchinson examines their formation and application during combat, as well as their primary role of digging and maintaining the trenches.
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Sheffield, Gary. Leadership in the Trenches: Officer-Man Relations, Morale and Discipline in the British Army in the Era of the First World War. London: Macmillan, 2000.
DOI: 10.1057/9780230596986Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Sheffield examines the social structure of the British Army, the soldier organizations, and relationships between soldiers and officers. He evaluates the negotiation between officers’ leadership and enlisted men’s obedience.
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Simpson, Andy. Hot Blood and Cold Steel: Life and Death in the Trenches of the First World War. London: Tom Donovan, 1993.
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Simpson’s book is an experiential look at the British soldier on the Western Front. The majority of the work comprises of excerpts from firsthand accounts, which give a general sense of what life was like in the trenches. Although a bit overly patriotic at times, it is a good look at the various aspects of a soldier’s life in the trenches.
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Smith, Leonard V. Between Mutiny and Obedience: The Case of the French Fifth Infantry Division During World War I. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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Smith offers a very good evaluation of the relationship between the citizen-soldiers of the French Army and their commanders. Not only does this work address the questions of how and why soldiers continued to fight in such horrific conditions, but it also assesses their limitations. Soldiers of the French Army negotiated their relationship with their superiors regarding when and how they would continue to sacrifice their lives.
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Wilson, Ross J. Landscapes of the Western Front: Materiality during the Great War. New York: Routledge, 2012.
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An examination of the material environment that British soldiers experienced in the First World War. Ross evaluates what those conditions were, how soldiers perceived the material and physical conditions, as well as how well they coped with it.
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Winter, Dennis. Death’s Men: Soldiers of the Great War. London: Penguin, 1978.
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A book on the British soldiers’ experience in the Great War, with some emphasis on training, adjusting to the Army, trench life, and weaponry.
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Technology and Tactics

Part of the debate over trench warfare concerns technology and tactics. The works included here address aspects of this debate over whether tactics had fallen behind technological advances, and what directions different armies took to address this disparity and overcome the deadlock on trench warfare. Foley 2005 examines how the tactical situation influenced German strategy and operations in 1915 and 1916. Johnson 1994 and Terraine 1982 evaluate how all the belligerents addressed questions of technology and tactics on the Western Front. Bull 2007 and Gudmundsson 1989 specifically look at German tactical innovations. Bidwell and Graham 2004 and Griffith 1994 examine the British, while Rawling 1992 looks at the Canadians. Krause 2013 evaluates the French and their influence on tactical innovations and German responses early in the war. Finally, Hartcup 1988 focuses on technological innovations in the war.

Bidwell, Shelford, and Dominick Graham. Fire-Power: British Army Weapons and Theories of War, 1900–1945. Pen and Sword Military Classics 44. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2004.
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A well-written work that argues new weaponry and old theories of warfare came to a head on the Western Front. The authors contextualize the development of tactics and use of technology such as artillery, machine guns, grenades, mortars, and more. First published in 1982.
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Bull, Stephen. German Assault Troops of the First World War: Strosstrupptaktik, the First Stormtroopers. Stroud, UK: Spellmount, 2007.
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This is an evaluation of the tactical problems facing attackers in trench warfare and the evolution of German ideas leading to “Stormtroopers.”
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Foley, Robert T. German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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As the title suggests, Foley’s book focuses on Falkenhayn and the influences upon his strategic decision making. He is important here because of the defensive advantages on the tactical and operational level of the Western Front trenches and their influence on his strategic planning for 1915 and 1916.
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Griffith, Paddy. Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army’s Art of Attack, 1916–18. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
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An important work that examines the evolution of the British Army’s tactical doctrine and command, from the “blundering” of the early years to the veteran army of the latter years.
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Gudmundsson, Bruce I. Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German Army, 1914–1918. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1989.
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Gudmundsson analyzes the decisions and personalities involved with creating the stormtroop tactics that created great success for the Germany Army in 1917 and 1918, then influenced a similar style of warfare a quarter of a century later.
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Hartcup, Guy. The War of Invention: Scientific Development, 1914–1918. London: Brassey’s Defence Publishers, 1988.
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This work evaluates the advances in technology prior to and during the First World War. The focus is on the mobilization and contribution of scientists and engineers to breaking the deadlock of the trenches.
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Johnson, Hubert C. Breakthrough: Tactics, Technology, and the Search for Victory on the Western Front in World War I. New York: Presidio, 1994.
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Johnson evaluates the tactics of the various armies on the Western Front. He attempts to address broad questions about the influence of technology on changes at the front, or evolution of tactical sophistication, or merely the weakening of the German Army and the arrival of fresh American soldiers.
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Krause, Jonathan. Early Trench Tactics in the French Army: The Second Battle of Artois, May–June 1915. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2013.
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Krause argues that the Second Battle of Artois immensely influenced the evolution of trench warfare, thus portraying adaptation early in the war. The French utilized heavy artillery coupled with offensive infiltration tactics to make considerable gains. Their success influenced the Germans to develop a more intricate and in-depth trench system, and it was central to the debate over continuous battle and breakthroughs (percée) versus limited objectives and a more methodical advance.
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Rawling, Bill. Surviving Trench Warfare: Technology and the Canadian Corps, 1914–1918. Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1992.
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Rawling looks at the Canadians in the war. He argues that after the Somme, soldiers exhibited tactical evolution, utilizing combined arms to obtain their objectives. Thus he argues that the Canadians portrayed an integration of technology and tactics that created a way to win the war with minimal losses.
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Terraine, John. White Heat: The New Warfare 1914–1918. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1982.
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Terraine looks at the industrialization of warfare and the effects on the battlefield. He examines the years of the war to evaluate technological and tactical innovations to break the stalemate. Terraine definitely is of the school that tactics were too far behind the technological advances.
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Second World War

Though the Second World War was not defined by trenches, as the Western Front of the First World War was, several battles would harken back to that earlier war. The network of caves, foxholes, and entrenchments that made up the Shuri Line, including Sugar Loaf Hill on Okinawa especially, was reminiscent of trench warfare. The Battle of the Bulge and Huertgen Forest, as well as the Kokoda Trail in New Guinea and other areas, contained a form of trench lines. Though not as extensive as almost twenty years earlier, these trenches and some of the battles of attrition would elicit comparisons to the trenches of the First World War. Ellis 1980 offers an evaluation of entrenchments in the war. Feifer 1992, Hallas 2007, Huber 2003, and Sloan 2007 examine Okinawa. Macdonald 2002 evaluates the Huertgen Forest, while Passmore and Harrison 2008 look at the Battle of the Bulge. Gailey 1991 evaluates Bougainville, and Threlfall 2008 focuses on the Australians throughout the war.

Ellis, John. The Sharp End of War: The Fighting Man in World War II. New York: Scribner, 1980.
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Ellis examines the experience of the soldiers throughout the war. His first chapter covers the environment that the war occurred in, and the subtitle relates its importance to the study of trench warfare: “Digging In.”
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Feifer, George. Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
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Feifer’s book is one of the best written on the battle of Okinawa. He details the Japanese defense and American attacks on the Shuri Line. Feifer examines Tadashi Kojo’s decision making on defending this line and his perceptions of the battle.
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Gailey, Harry A. Bougainville, 1943–1945: The Forgotten Campaign. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991.
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Gailey offers some descriptions of the Japanese defenses on the island and the use of trenches in conjunction with pillboxes and caves.
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Hallas, James H. Killing Ground on Okinawa: The Battle for Sugar Loaf Hill. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2007.
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Hallas describes the trenches and resistance that Americans encountered on Sugar Loaf Hill.
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Huber, Thomas H. Okinawa, 1945. London: Compendium, 2003.
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Huber compares the trenches, cave networks, and conditions on Okinawa to the trenches of the First World War.
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Macdonald, Charles Brown. The Battle of the Huertgen Forest. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.
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MacDonald offers a very well-written account of the Battle of the Huertgen Forest. He includes descriptions of trenches, mostly German, throughout the battle.
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Passmore, David G., and Stephan Harrison. “Landscapes of the Battle of the Bulge: WW2 Field Fortifications in the Ardennes Forests of Belgium.” Journal of Conflict Archaeology 4.1 (2008): 87–107.
DOI: 10.1163/157407808X382773Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Passmore’s article is an intriguing look at the landscape where the Battle of the Bulge took place. He identifies and evaluates how the terrain was used and where entrenchments were located.
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Sloan, Bill. The Ultimate Battle: Okinawa 1945—The Last Epic Struggle of World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007.
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Sloan discusses different trench networks, their interconnectedness, supporting fire, and deep tunnels on several areas of Okinawa.
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Threlfall, Adrian. “The Development of Australian Army Jungle Warfare Doctrine and Training, 1941–1945.” PhD diss., Victoria University, 2008.
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Threlfall examines how Australians trained and conducted themselves in the Second World War. He evaluates their use of trenches in training at the start of the war, and how their experiences in the Middle East and North Africa were not conducive to such an approach. However, on New Guinea they needed to dig in, but they lacked the proper tools to do so.
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Korean War

Soldiers utilized entrenchments beyond foxholes in the Korean War. This was especially the case after peace negotiations began in 1951 and the war entered a stalemate. Heartbreak Ridge, Pork Chop Hill, and many of the contested hills had trenches dug into them. Hastings 1988 and Millett 2001 offer a great introduction into the Korean War while also including good descriptions of the trenches involved. Bowers 2008 and Bowers and Greenwood 2011 offer readers an opportunity to engage some of the primary sources on this topic. Enemy Field Defense in Korea is very good in this regard, as well as detailing trenches in the war. Hoyt 1985 and McWilliams 2004 engage a couple of the well-known battles of the war where trenches were involved. Johnston 2003 provides the Canadian perspective. Lastly, Reese 1984 offers a decent description of the war and some of the trench works.

Bowers, William T. The Line: Combat in Korea, January–February 1951. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008.
DOI: 10.5810/kentucky/9780813125084.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this work, the author uses firsthand accounts to describe different phases of the combat in Korea. Many of these descriptions include references to enemy trenches. This is Volume 1 in a multivolume series looking at the Korean War.
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Bowers, William T., and John T. Greenwood. Passing the Test: Combat in Korea, April–June 1951. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011.
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The authors evaluate the back and forth between participants of the Korean War. They utilize excerpts from primary sources to describe the action, including several instances where trenches were utilized on and around hills.
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“Enemy Field Defense in Korea.” Military Review 33.6 (1953): 89–94.
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This article is a reproduction from the British Army Journal from the same year. It details the use of trenches and obstacles. The article includes detailed diagrams.
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Hastings, Max. The Korean War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.
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This work covers the entire war and includes descriptions of battles where trenches were utilized, especially after peace negotiations began.
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Hoyt, Edwin P. The Bloody Road to Panmunjom. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein, 1985.
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Hoyt describes the battles fought in Korea from 1951 to 1953 during the years of “stalemate.” He offers some descriptions of trenches on various hills, such as Heartbreak Ridge.
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Johnston, William. War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2003.
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Johnston evaluates the Canadian’s war in Korea. He offers very detailed descriptions of the actions involved around trenches in that war, even comparing episodes to those of the First World War.
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McWilliams, Bill. On Hallowed Ground: The Last Battle for Pork Chop Hill. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2004.
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This is a very well-researched work on the battle for Pork Chop Hill. The author details the trenches and the combat involved.
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Millett, Alan. The Korean War. Vol. 3. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001.
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Alan Millett wrote what amounted to a three-volume history of the Korean War in great detail. Throughout are descriptions of the use of trenches in various phases of the war; however, Volume 3 in particular contains information regarding the use of trenches by both sides during the latter years of the war.
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Reese, David. The Korean War: History and Tactics. New York: Crescent Books, 1984.
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Offers some description of the trenches utilized in the war.
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Vietnam War

Trenches were utilized in the Vietnam War, most notably by the Viet Minh in their approach to the French lines at Dien Bien Phu, as well as by the Vietnam People’s Army and Americans during the Tet Offensive, especially at Khe Sanh. Willbanks 2008 is a very good work for introducing readers to not only the Vietnam War, but also the use of trenches at some key battles. Morgan 2010, Simpson 1994, and Windrow 2004 evaluate the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Pisor 1982 and Prados and Stubbe 1991 look at the Battle of Khe Sanh. Currey 2005 specifically engages General Giap’s influence on the war, while Davison 1991 offers a look at the entire war, with some decent descriptions of the trenches involved.

Currey, Cecil B. Victory at Any Cost: The Genius of Viet Nam’s Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap. Dulles, VA: Potomac, 2005.
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Currey examines Giap’s life, his training, and the application of trenches against the French in the war to liberate Vietnam from European colonialism.
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Davison, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946–1975. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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Davison examines the entirety of the long Vietnam War. Within this large work, he describes the Viet Minh’s use of trenches against the French at Dien Bien Phu and then against Americans at Khe Sanh.
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Morgan, Ted. Valley of Death: The Tragedy at Dien Bien Phu That Led America into the Vietnam War. New York: Random House, 2010.
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Morgan offers a well-written work on the Viet Minh attack on Dien Bien Phu. He describes the multiple ways the Viet Minh utilized trenches to cut off the French and approach their positions. Morgan also examines French tactics and neglect of trench warfare.
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Pisor, Robert. The End of the Line: The Siege of Khe Sanh. New York: W. W. Norton, 1982.
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Pisor discusses some of the fortifications infantrymen encountered, as well as the defensive trenches used by both sides at Khe Sanh.
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Prados, John, and Ray W. Stubbe. Valley of Decision: The Siege of Khe Sanh. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1991.
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The authors detail how the Americans and North Vietnamese dug trenches in the siege of Khe Sanh.
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Simpson, Howard R. Dien Bien Phu: The Epic Battle America Forgot. Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1994.
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Simpson examines the siege of Dien Bien Phu. He describes how the Viet Minh used trenches in their approach to the defenders.
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Willbanks, James H. The Tet Offensive: A Concise History. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
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Willbanks describes some of the Vietnam People’s Army attempted to dig trenches toward both Dien Bien Phu and Khe Sanh during the Tet Offensive. He details the long struggle for the city of Hue, also referred to as the Citadel, that included trenches and fighting for every inch of the city. Willbanks also details how Americans dug trenches as part of their own defenses.
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Windrow, Martin. The Last Valley: Dien Bien Phu and the French Defeat in Vietnam. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004.
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Martin argues that the battle for Dien Bien Phu was similar to the Western Front in World War I. One of his chapters certainly makes this case with its title: “Verdun without the Sacred Way.”