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French Military, 1919-1940 (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The subject of this bibliography is the development of the French army (and its subsidiary air forces, which eventually became the French air force) from 1919 to 1940, not to include the French navy; information on the relations between the French army and the French state appear as background to this subject. The French army found itself after 1871 facing the threat of the newly unified German state, more populous and more heavily industrialized than France. In response, the French army adopted the concept of the “nation in arms”: the conscription of all qualified young men into military service followed by their release into civilian life and then mobilization of these “citizen-soldiers” when war came. In addition, France raised native soldiers from its great overseas colonial empire; from early in World War I throughout the period of this article they played an important role in counterbalancing German numerical superiority. In compensation, the French army had to invest in overseas colonial operations of “pacification” at the expense of its principal focus on Germany. A second major element in the response of the French army to the German challenge was the development of military technology: modern machine weapons; electrical/electronic means of communication; and the internal combustion engine, which ultimately greatly increased mobility on the battlefield with the use of tracked, armored fighting vehicles and made possible the extension of armed conflict to the third dimension—the air. By the end of World War I modern warfare had become dependent on heavy machine weapons with their massive requirements for munitions and on air forces to fight for and exploit command of the air both to assist their comrades on the ground and to threaten the enemy’s military and industrial bases. The French army played a leading part in the invention and application of these implements of industrial total war from 1914 to 1918; during that war, the French “nation in arms” suffered the highest losses of all the Great Powers in proportion to its population. From 1919 the French army demobilized, but as the German threat reappeared the French army invested in fortifications (the Maginot Line) and from the early 1930s developed substantial motorized and mechanized forces to spearhead the mobilized “nation in arms” while splitting off its air forces to form an independent air force more oriented toward strategic air war in 1933. The French “nation in arms” mobilized against Nazi Germany in September 1939 but, supported only by a partially prepared and improvised coalition, was catastrophically defeated in May–June 1940.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Two older general works, which however have not lost their value and are relatively accessible, provide an overview of the French army within the political context of the French Third Republic: Challener 1955 and Young 1978. Tournoux 1960 offers a synthesis of developments in the strategy of the French army and state for coping with Germany; along the way the author usefully summarizes the evolving mobilization plans of the army. The French army’s historical service published a set of four volumes on the army from 1919 to 1939: the first three Paoli 1969–, the fourth Dutailly 1980. Unfortunately these volumes, besides being in French, are difficult to obtain (particularly those of Paoli) and take for granted a great deal of prior knowledge on the part of the reader; however, they are rich in original source material. Gunsburg 1979 provides a very concise description of the evolution of the French army and its means of action as background to what happened in 1940; the work is relatively easy to obtain, but its bibliography is not up to date. In contrast to Gunsburg 1979, Doughty 1988 insists that the French army arrived at the “wrong formula” (p. 66) for modern warfare by 1940, but in a single chapter of a readily obtainable work draws a clear portrait of an army systematically and carefully preparing itself for a rematch of World War I. The last general overview dates from twenty years ago—Dutailly 1992— and consists of four substantial chapters of a multivolume global history of the French military: the work offers a solidly researched description of the French military in both its strong and weak points and concludes with an analysis of the collapse of 1940, which places much of the blame on the French military leadership between the wars. The work is easily obtainable and well illustrated but offers no documentation beyond a short bibliography. Further general overview material, some of it much more recent, appears under the main heading Leadership.
  8.  
  9. Challener, Richard D. The French Theory of the Nation in Arms: 1866–1939. New York: Columbia Press, 1955.
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  11. An old but classic work, readily found in academic libraries; solidly documented with a substantial bibliography of which the primary sources are still relevant.
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  13. Doughty, Robert A. “The French Armed Forces, 1918–40.” In Military Effectiveness. Vol. 2, The Interwar Period. Edited by Allan R. Millett and Williamson Murray, 39–69. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1988.
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  15. Substantial, interesting essay on the French army only, drawn from published and unpublished materials. Easily obtained; good source for the beginning researcher (but most of its sources are inaccessible to the beginner); offers interesting contrast with Gunsburg 1979.
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  17. Dutailly, Lt. Col. Henry. Les problèmes de l’Armée de terre française: 1935–1939. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1980.
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  19. Required source for the serious researcher: heavily documented and offers access to copious amounts of archival material; focuses heavily on the technical development of the army. This will be a challenging read for neophyte researchers.
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  21. Dutailly, Henry. “Les Illusions de la victoire, 1918–1930.” In Histoire militaire de la France. Vol. 3, De 1871 à 1940. Edited by Guy Pedroncini, 327–404. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992.
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  23. Written for a general readership with good illustrations and maps but no documentation other than a short bibliography. Chapter 12, cited here along with chapters 13 to 15—“Une puissance militaire illusoire (1930–1939),” “L’Architecture militaire,” and “L’Effondrement”—are required reading for the researcher who knows French.
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  25. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940. Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1979.
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  27. Obtainable in academic libraries; written for the nonspecialist and based on published and archival sources; offers a very concise review of the French army from 1919 to 1940, although the bibliography is now dated. A good place to start research.
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  29. Paoli, Col. François-André. L’Armée française de 1919 à 1939. 4 vols. n.p.: Service Historique de l’Armée de Terre, 1969–.
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  31. Difficult to obtain; requires extensive foreknowledge on the part of the reader; Volume 1 in particular is little more than a catalogue of archival holdings. Nonetheless a gold mine of otherwise unpublished primary material that the serious researcher will not forego. Volume 1, La reconversion (11 novembre 1918:janvier 1920); Volume 2, La phase de fermeté (janvier 1920:juin 1924); Volume 3, Le temps des compromis (juin 1924:juin 1930); Volume 4, La fin des illusions (juillet 1930:juin 1935).
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  33. Tournoux, Paul-Émile. Haut commandement gouvernment et défense des frontières du nord et de l’est 1919–1939. Paris: Nouvelles Éditions Latines, 1960.
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  35. A substantial documented analysis drawn almost entirely from archival and published primary sources and therefore still relevant. Very good maps, clear exposition; does not demand extensive foreknowledge on the part of the reader: a good place to start serious research.
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  37. Young, Robert J. In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military Planning, 1933–1940. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1978.
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  39. Documented scholarly work drawn in large part on archival sources; therefore still of value despite its date. Analyzes French foreign policy response to the growing German challenge with due regard to the strengths and weaknesses of the French army and air forces/air force. In English and to be found in academic libraries.
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  41. Bibliographies
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  43. This author is aware of only two major bibliographies that deal directly with the French army during the period covered by this article: Armées françaises d’outre-mer and Guide bibliographique sommaire. Both are official products of the French War and Colonial Ministries/Armed Forces Ministry: the first covers only half the period of this article; the second is rather badly dated. Both are in French only; the first deals in principle only with French forces located overseas and is accessible only to those who have the use of the leading research collections/libraries in France. All the above notwithstanding, both sources can be very valuable to the serious researcher, and the first constitutes a vast mine of information just waiting for industrious scholars who have the energy and patience to exploit it. A third source of which the reader should be aware is Blanc, et al. 1994, a very long and detailed, fairly recent research guide to sources held in French archives and libraries but dealing with the period of World War II only. In French and to be found only in strong academic libraries and research institutions, it is nonetheless invaluable for the serious researcher.
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  45. Blanc, Brigitte, Henry Rousso, and Chantal de Tourtier-Bonazzi. La seconde guerre mondiale 1939–1945: Guide des sources conservées en France. Paris: Archives Nationales, 1994.
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  47. Essential resource for the serious researcher with access to French research institutions: lists not only material in archives but also bibliographies, finding aids, and museums, in detail. No longer up to date, but a splendid starting point for the serious scholar. Published under the direction of the Direction des Archives de France.
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  49. Ministères de Guerre et des Colonies, État-Major de l’Armée, Service Historique, Direction des Troupes Coloniales. Armées françaises d’outre-mer. 21 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1931–1932.
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  51. Huge compilation of research (and bibliographic) materials; began to appear at the time of the Colonial Exposition in Paris of 1931. To be found only in the leading research institutions/libraries in France—but a veritable treasure trove of primary material just waiting for scholars to exploit it.
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  53. Minstère des Armées, État-Major de l’Armée de Terre, Service Historique. Guide bibliographique sommaire d’histoire militaire et coloniale française. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1969.
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  55. Accessible in major academic/research libraries in France and perhaps a few in the United States, this is a very useful source for the serious researcher, although its coverage is now dated. Worth consulting in any case.
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  57. Leadership
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  59. The personality and policies of the leaders of the French army during the period of this article were decisive in shaping the army and its strategy and determining the relationship between the military and the government. From 1919 to 1940, four men played critical roles: from World War I to 1931, Marshal Philippe Pétain; to 1935, General Maxime Weygand; then Generals Maurice Gamelin and his deputy Alphonse Georges. Pétain became chief of state in Vichy France following the defeat of 1940; the large numbers of biographies about him tend to focus almost exclusively on his role during World War I and especially World War II, slighting the period covered by this article. Pedroncini 1995 is part of a series of biographies by a noted historian; however, it is in French only and difficult to obtain, and worse, it takes a great deal of prior knowledge on the part of the reader for granted. There are, however, excellent sources readily available on Weygand: a heavily annotated edition of his diary during the period (but in French only)—Guelton 1998, plus the second volume of the general’s memoirs, Weygand 1957; Bankwitz 1967, in English, analyzes civil-military relations during the period. Singer 2008 is a recent biography in English, well-illustrated and short and a good source for citations of primary and secondary material for further research; however it is difficult reading and strongly opinionated. Gamelin’s three heavy volumes of memoirs, Gamelin 1946–1947, easily obtainable but in French only, offer his interpretation of events plus masses of primary material on the French army and defense effort in general; Alexander 1992 offers a reasonably recent and heavily documented analysis of Gamelin and French defense policy from 1933 to 1940 in English. A quite recent secondary source based on the papers of Alphonse Georges, Schiavon 2009, is now available to tell Georges’s side of the story. Finally, Bührer 1947 offers insight into the important imperial/colonial component of the French army at the end of the period of this article.
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  61. Alexander, Martin S. The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933–1940. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  63. Heavily documented scholarly analysis, easily obtained and in English. A good place for the researcher with serious intentions to begin studying the French build-up toward war with Nazi Germany.
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  65. Bankwitz, Philip. Maxime Weygand and Civil-Military Relations in Modern France. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.
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  67. Important and scholarly study of Weygand and his relationship with the French Third Republic and Vichy. Easily found in academic libraries and in English, but will be a challenge for the beginning researcher.
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  69. Bührer, General. Aux heures tragiques de l’empire (1938–1941). Paris: Office Colonial d’Édition, 1947.
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  71. Memoirs of the last inspector general of colonial forces of the Third Republic; offers insight into this important and much-neglected component of French military power. In French only, but may be found in the better academic libraries.
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  73. Gamelin, Gen. Maurice. Servir. 3 vols. Paris: Plon, 1946–1947.
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  75. A treasure trove of primary documentation on French army and general defense matters from 1930 to 1940. Obtainable in academic libraries but in French only. Challenging even for the advanced researcher, but an absolutely essential source.
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  77. Guelton, Frédéric, ed. Le “journal” du général Weygand: 1929–1935. Montpellier, France: UMR 5609 CNRS, 1998.
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  79. Heavily annotated and commented publication of Weygand’s diary: an exceptionally important primary source, reasonably easy to obtain, but in French. Suitable for the beginning researcher who knows French and has general background on the period.
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  81. Pedroncini, Guy. Pétain: La victoire perdue 1919-1949. Paris: Perrin, 1995.
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  83. A scholarly study by a noted French academic historian; difficult to obtain. Nonetheless an important source for the veteran researcher on the subject with a good command of French, although source citations are often lacking. This is an exploration of the Marshal’s military thought and action, and not really a biography.
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  85. Schiavon, Max. Le général Alphonse Georges: Un destin inachevé. Parcay-sur-Vienne, France: Éditions Anovi, 2009.
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  87. Recent and long, heavily documented biography drawing on Georges’s personal papers; copious illustrations and snippets of primary material. Fills a real gap in the historiography, but in French.
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  89. Singer, Barnett. Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2008.
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  91. Short, recent and well-documented as a guide to further research, this work is nonetheless difficult reading and should be read carefully in conjunction with other sources on the subject.
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  93. Weygand, Maxime. Mémoires. Vol. 2, Mirages et réalité. Paris: Flammarion, 1957.
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  95. Long memoir in French only, but easily obtained and well written. Irreplaceable primary source, but nonetheless accessible to the beginning researcher.
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  97. Composition and Organization
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  99. The composition and organization of the French army from 1919 to 1940 changed considerably, with motorized and mechanized components growing and the air forces becoming an independent service. Hughes 1971 presents an introduction to the period of the 1920s, culminating in the construction of the Maginot Line; the work is still valuable and readily found in academic libraries and is in English. Duvignac 1947 (most of it written before World War II) presents a readable and well-illustrated account of the development of motorization in the army but is in French and hard to find. Gamelin 1946 offers a mass of documentation on the subject, along with his account of what he witnessed, then decided, as senior staff officer then commander in chief from 1930 to 1940. At the opposite end of the spectrum, Sumner and Vauvillier 1998 offers a relatively recent, reliable, and compact review of mobilized French forces from 1939, well illustrated and easily obtained—and in English. The three massive volumes of Service Historique 1967 are a highly detailed listing of major army units and their movements, day by day; in French only and hard to find outside major French research libraries, they are for the serious researcher. Sharp 2001– goes even further in detailing the units of the mobilized French army; this ongoing project descends to levels of detail that only the fanatical buff and most serious of researchers will need, but it is in English and easily obtained. Assemblée nationale 1947–1950 is a set of nine heavy volumes of testimony and documents gathered by the Parliamentary Investigating Commission after World War II: to be found in serious academic libraries, this mass of variegated material is essential for the serious researcher. Gershovich 2000, a relatively recent scholarly work in English, goes part of the way toward detailing the story of the colonial segments of the French army, which played an important role throughout the period of this article. Finally, the reader will find that many of the sources cited under the main headings General Overviews and Leadership are relevant to this topic as well.
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  101. Assemblée nationale, Parlement. Les événements survenus en France de 1933 à 1945: Témoignages et documents recueillis par la Commission d’enquête parlementaire. 9 vols. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1947–1950.
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  103. Published testimony and documents gathered by parliamentary commission; to be found in better academic libraries, but in French. Essential for the serious researcher on a wide range of topics relevant to the French army from 1919 to 1940.
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  105. Duvignac, André. Histoire de l’armée motorisée. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1947.
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  107. Substantial detailing of the subject by an officer active in the process; highly readable and well illustrated. Unfortunately in French only and difficult to find.
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  109. Gamelin, Gen. Maurice. Servir. Vol. 2, Le prologue du drame (1930–août 1939). Paris: Plon, 1946.
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  111. Volume 2 of the general’s memoirs; larded with primary material on the evolution of the French army from 1930 on. To be found in good academic libraries, but in French and a challenging read; nevertheless an essential source for the serious researcher.
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  113. Gershovich, Moshe. French Military Rule in Morocco: Colonialism and Its Consequences. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2000.
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  115. Provides information on Moroccan forces in the French army from 1919 to 1940; available in academic libraries; in English. A starting place for researchers new to the topic.
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  117. Hughes, Judith M. To the Maginot Line: The Politics of French Military Preparation in the 1920’s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
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  119. Relatively short, scholarly analysis, easily found in academic libraries and in English, although now a bit dated; nonetheless a good place to begin research.
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  121. Service Historique. Guerre 1939–1945: Les grandes unités françaises; Historiques succincts. 3 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1967.
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  123. Detailed listing of major French army units and their movements 1939–1940, put out in place of an official history of the fighting. To be found in leading French research libraries; requires considerable background knowledge to use. For the advanced researcher only.
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  125. Sharp, Lee. The French Army 1939–1940. 6 vols. Milton Keynes, UK: Military Press, 2001–.
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  127. Detailed schematic listing of units of mobilized French army, with successive volumes dealing with smaller and smaller units. Drawn from official archives, easily obtained, and in English, but useful for the most part only to those interested in very specific information. Six volumes so far; publication is ongoing.
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  129. Sumner, Ian, and François Vauvillier. The French Army 1939–1945. Vol. 1, The Army of 1939–40 & Vichy France. Men-At-Arms Series 315. London: Osprey, 1998.
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  131. Short but dense and relatively reliable compilation of data; well illustrated. Easily found, recent, and in readable English. Drawn from official archives, but unfortunately with only a very short bibliography in lieu of documentation.
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  133. Doctrine
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  135. World War I saw more development in weapons systems than perhaps any other war in history; one result was a parallel development in doctrine: the codification of the tactical and technical processes by which military forces operate in the presence of the enemy. The French army from 1919 to 1940 had first to digest the doctrinal lessons of World War I, then develop its doctrine toward the approaching World War II. A number of the sources listed under the main headings Leadership and Composition and Organization deal with various aspects of the question of doctrine; following are two subheadings devoted to the subject: Interpretations and Manuals. The reader should be aware that one of the leading explanations for the defeat of the French army in 1940 concerns its doctrine—the question is therefore of importance and the subheading Interpretations offers a number of sources that adopt differing points of view on the subject. A number of these sources are in English and can be found in academic libraries. The subheading Manuals lists a number of manuals of doctrine actually issued to the French army during the period and offers the serious researcher with access to the libraries of the Service Historique de la Défense at the Château de Vincennes near Paris, or perhaps to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, the opportunity to read the original material and judge for herself/himself.
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  137. Interpretations
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  139. The beginning researcher on the subject should be aware that the question of the doctrine of the French army from 1919 to 1940 is controversial: a number of sources assert that the doctrine with which the French army entered battle in 1940 was inappropriate (or at the least less appropriate than that of the German Wehrmacht of the time) and that therein lies the explanation for the catastrophic defeat of 1940. Pétain (preface to Chauvineau 1940) is often cited as demonstrating the defective nature of French doctrine. Gunsburg 1979 offers a summation of French army doctrine during the period but reaches the conclusion that French doctrine was modern; the work is a good place for a beginning researcher to start but should be read in comparison with at least one or more of the following sources that reach differing conclusions. Dutailly 1980 deals in depth with the question and presents a nuanced interpretation, seeing good and bad aspects to French doctrine; the work is in French, is not easily obtained, and demands considerable prior knowledge on the part of the reader. Doughty 1985, obtainable in academic libraries and in English but limited to the French army only (it does not deal with air power), offers an opposing view to that espoused by Gunsburg 1979: the two might well be read together. Kier 1997, in English and to be found in academic libraries, is a more recent scholarly view of the topic and tends to the view that French military “culture” led to a defensive approach to warfare in the 1930s. Kiesling 1996, also in English and available in academic libraries, likewise tends to see French doctrine in a negative light. Dutailly 1992–1993 provides an unusual and interesting presentation of the question: conclusions on doctrine from extracts of the after-action reports of leading commanders of French mechanized forces written immediately after the defeat of 1940.
  140.  
  141. Chauvineau, General. Une invasion est-elle encore possible? Paris: Éditions Berger-Levrault, 1940.
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  143. Primary source originally published in 1938; offers view that mechanized forces would not be able to defeat fortified continuous fronts. Author was a retired engineer officer; the work became famous primarily because of the preface penned by Marshal Pétain.
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  145. Doughty, Robert Allen. The Seeds of Disaster: The Development of French Army Doctrine 1919–1939. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1985.
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  147. Leading proponent of negative view on French doctrine. Available in academic libraries and in English; a good place for the beginning researcher to start, but should be read in comparison with a differing view (e.g., Gunsburg 1979 or Dutailly 1980).
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  149. Dutailly, Lt. Col. Henry. Les problèmes de l’Armée de terre française: 1935–1939. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1980.
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  151. Long, heavily documented analysis of the subject in French; not easily obtainable. Finds strong and weak points in French doctrine. Essential for the serious researcher.
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  153. Dutailly, Col. Henry. “Été 1940: Réflexions sur l’arme blindée de l’avenir.” Revue Historique des Armées 3 (1992–1993): 3–9.
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  155. Short but well-illustrated summation of conclusions concerning French doctrine on mechanized forces, extracted from after-action reports by leading French commanders. Obtainable but in French; presents an unusual view of the subject.
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  157. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940. Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1979.
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  159. Concise summaries of the development of doctrine; in English and available in academic libraries: a good source for the beginning researcher, but should be read in conjunction/comparison with one or more of the sources that take a differing view on the subject.
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  161. Kier, Elizabeth. Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
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  163. Relatively short, documented scholarly publication in English; to be found in academic libraries. Negative on French doctrine of the 1930s; does not clearly differentiate between doctrine and military strategy.
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  165. Kiesling, Eugenia C. Arming Against Hitler: France and the Limits of Military Planning. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996.
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  167. Relatively short scholarly study in English by a military historian; focused on the French army but not on doctrine only. Reaches nuanced conclusions.
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  169. Pétain, Marshal. “Préface” 1938.
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  171. An infamous document that many take as evidence of defective French doctrine. Available online but in French. At the time of its writing Pétain was long retired from active command.
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  173. Manuals
  174.  
  175. The doctrine of an armed force appears in official documents and principally in manuals such as those listed following; the beginning researcher should not make the mistake of thinking that publications by this or that military thinker, active or retired, can be equated with official doctrine. For the serious researcher with a good command of French and access to the libraries of the Service Historique de la Défense at Vincennes (just outside Paris) or perhaps to the Bibliothèque Nationale, the following offer a good basis for judging the doctrine of the French army (including the air forces through 1932) from 1919 to 1940. Ministère de la Guerre 1921 presents the codification of the doctrinal lessons of World War I. Ministère de la Guerre Conférences d’aéronautique générale offers a similar codification focused on air power, which was then for the most part a subordinate arm of the French army; Ministère de la Guerre 1928 updates the subject and shows the shift in emphasis toward strategic air war that led to an independent French air force in 1933. Ministère de la Guerre 1936 is a major revamping of doctrine taking into account new mechanized and motorized forces. Ministère de la Défense Nationale et de la Guerre 1939a shows the state of French thinking on mechanized warfare at the outbreak of World War II, along with Ministère de la Défense Nationale et de la Guerre 1939b, which focuses on the doctrine of French infantry tanks (in the French army of the times, tanks belonged to two separate arms: cavalry and infantry). Finally, École Supérieure de Guerre 1939 provides a useful general handbook on the French army, including doctrine, in readable French, and that may be obtainable outside the leading research collections.
  176.  
  177. École Supérieure de Guerre. Cours de tactique générale et d’état-major. Aide-mémoire pour les travaux d’état-major: 1939. Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1939.
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  179. General handbook on French army formations and doctrine; in readable French with many illustrations for a reasonably wide audience within the army. Should be obtainable at Bibliothèque Nationale; a remarkably handy reference work for the serious researcher.
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  181. Ministère de la Défense Nationale et de la Guerre, État-Major de l’Armée. Règlement de la cavalerie: Première partie; Emploi de la cavalerie. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1939a.
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  183. Master manual of the French cavalry concerning mechanized war at the beginning of World War II; a number of its authors commanded mechanized formations. To be found at leading defense libraries; absolutely essential for the really serious researcher.
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  185. Ministère de la Défense Nationale et de la Guerre, État-Major de l’Armée. Règlement des unités de chars de combat: 2e partie; Combat. Versailles, France: Typographie-Lithographie de l’École des Chars de Combat, 1939b.
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  187. Manual codifying doctrine of tank units of French infantry arm (but not the mechanized divisions); important for an in-depth understanding of the French concept of mechanized war. To be found at Vincennes at Service Historique de la Défense. For the most serious researchers only.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Ministère de la Guerre, État-Major de l’Armée. Instruction provisoire sur l’emploi tactique des grandes unités. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1921.
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  191. Overall doctrinal manual, codifying lessons learned during World War I. Written for an audience of professionals; to be found in libraries of leading defense institutions and perhaps the Bibliothèque Nationale; essential for the really serious researcher.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Ministère de la Guerre. Aéronautique: Règlement provisoire de manoeuvre de l’aéronautique, l’aéronautique au combat. Book 2, L’Aéronautique de destruction. Vol. 2, L’Aviation de bombardement. Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1928.
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  195. Official manual of bomber aviation of French army into the late 1920s. Designed for professionals only; for the serious researcher with access to leading French defense libraries or perhaps the Bibliothèque Nationale.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Ministère de la Guerre. Instruction sur l’emploi tactique des grandes unités. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1936.
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  199. Major revision of the master manual of ground warfare as World War II approached. For professionals; to be obtained only at leading defense libraries and perhaps the Bibliothèque Nationale, but absolutely essential for the really serious researcher.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Ministère de la Guerre Aéronautique. Conférences d’aéronautique générale. Nanterre, France: Imprimerie de l’Aéronautique.
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  203. Reveals lessons learned by French army air services during World War I. To be found at Vincennes headquarters of Service Historique de la Défense only, and demands considerable background to be understood. For the most serious researchers. Published around 1921–1922.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Weaponry
  206.  
  207. The reader should be aware that a second major subject of controversy over the defeat of 1940 concerns the weaponry with which the French army (and air force) faced Germany. The following lists, first, works that discuss armaments programs at the level of the French state and economy, and second, works that detail the implements actually produced. Jacomet 1945 is an account of weapons production programs for the French army in the late 1930s by a senior manager of the production effort; in French only, the work is nonetheless obtainable in leading academic libraries. Frankenstein 1982 is an economic/historic analysis of the arms production effort; in French and not written for the beginner, it is nonetheless available in academic libraries. Hoff 1982 is an official history of French army arms programs from 1919 to 1939; it may well be the single best overall source on the subject but is in French only and unlikely to be found outside French defense libraries and the Bibliothèque Nationale. Ferrard 1998, unlike the previously listed works, is a lavishly illustrated coffee-table volume that delves into the details of specific weapons; although in French, it is highly readable and with its profusion of pictures and statistics will be of use even to those who do not read that language. In principle a popular work and easy to obtain, in practice this work and those following are much in demand by military history buffs. Ferrard 2010 is recent and focused on arms of the French infantry in 1940; it adds little really new but is even more lavishly illustrated. Ramspacher, et al. 1979 is another coffee-table–style publication; illustrated and with good general information on armored vehicles (and formations) that fought in both world wars. Vauvillier, et al. 1992 is yet another coffee-table volume, since become a classic: with copious pictures and statistical data on all motor vehicles used by the French military in 1939–1940 and drawn rigorously from solid sources, it is unfortunately very difficult to obtain today. Last but not least, the serious buff or researcher should be aware of the magazine GBM: Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel, Paris, published quarterly at present: edited by François Vauvillier and easily obtained (if expensive), this lavishly illustrated but rigorously accurate publication covers the subject from before World War I on. It is of use even to nonreaders of French.
  208.  
  209. Ferrard, Stéphane. France 1940: L’Armement terrestre. Boulogne, France: ETAI, 1998.
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  211. Popular-style work drawn from official and industry archives but does not cite sources; heavily illustrated with copious statistics such that nonreaders of French will be able to use it. Unfortunately difficult to find.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Ferrard, Stéphane. Mai 1940: Armement des fantassins français. Antony, France: ETAI, 2010.
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  215. Popular, coffee-table–style volume; solidly researched but rarely cites sources. Adds little new to Ferrard 1998 other than additional illustrations, but may be easier to find.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Frankenstein, Robert. Le prix du réarmement français: 1935–1939. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1982.
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  219. Documented scholarly economic-historical analysis of French rearmament effort from the mid-1930s. Heavy reading and in French, but available in academic libraries; essential for the serious researcher.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. GBM: Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel. 2000–.
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  223. Presently a quarterly publication, edited by Vauvillier; lavishly illustrated and rigorously researched, useful to those who do not read French. Easily obtained but expensive; a paragon of the slick new popular history that has revitalized research on the subject of French weapons and tactics since roughly 1900. Published in Paris.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Hoff, Pierre, ed. Les programmes d’armement de 1919 à 1939. Château de Vincennes, France: Ministère de la Défense, État-Major de l’Armée de Terre, Service Historique, 1982.
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  227. Perhaps the single best source on arms and arms programs for the French army during the period, but difficult to find outside French defense libraries.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Jacomet, Robert. L’Armement de la France 1936–1939. Paris: Les Éditions Lajeunesse, 1945.
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  231. Heavily documented overview of French arms programs leading into World War II; in French only but available in leading academic libraries. Irreplaceable source on armaments of French army.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Ramspacher, Col. Emile, Eng. Gen. Lavirotte, Henry Lemarié, Pierre Beuchon, and Col. G. Raphel. Chars et blindés français. Paris and Limoges, France: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1979.
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  235. Heavy and well-illustrated coffee-table–style publication by former officers and engineers; popular in style but drawn from serious sources; in French and difficult to find.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Vauvillier, François, Jean-Michel Touraine, and Jean-Gabriel Jeudy. L’Automobile sous l’uniforme 1939–1940. Paris: Massin Éditeur, 1992.
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  239. Heavy popular coffee-table–style book, but drawn from impeccable archival and industry sources; lavishly illustrated and heavy with statistics, useable even to the nonreader of French. Now a classic but unhappily very difficult to find.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. French Air Forces/Air Force
  242.  
  243. Most of the French air forces formed part of the French army until the creation of the independent French air force (Armée de l’Air) in 1933, itself an expression of the growing importance attached to “strategic air warfare” as opposed to joint operations with the army and navy. However, the French air force had to prepare itself to fulfill both of these missions—a challenging task facing a much more populous and heavily industrialized Germany. The reader should be aware that the development and role of the French air force during the period 1919–1940 are controversial, some blaming the air force (in whole or in part) for the defeat of 1940, while others feel that it was as effective as could be expected under the circumstances. In English, Cain 2002 offers a relatively recent and obtainable overview of the subject drawn on French archives and some published material; the author faults the air force for being too “reactive” to the German air effort but otherwise is rather moderate in his criticism. Young 1974 focuses on the developing strategy of the French air forces from 1919; heavily documented, this article (readily obtainable in academic libraries) is a possible starting point for the beginning researcher. Gunsburg 1979 contains a documented and concise review of the evolution of French air power from 1919 to 1940 and tends to see the air force in a more favorable light. Christienne and Lissarague 1986 is a readable, coffee-table–style work, lavishly illustrated and full of useful statistical information. Its major defect is lack of source citations other than a short bibliography. In French, Vivier 1997 is a long, documented, and relatively recent overview that should be obtainable; it is stronger on the strategy of the air force than on technical and doctrinal matters. Carlier 1992 is a short and obtainable overview in readable French; unfortunately the work is almost undocumented and offers only a short bibliography of sources in French; the author sees the air force’s part in the 1940 defeat as a failure. L’Aviation militaire française is a collection of excellent and documented articles that illuminate some but not all aspects of the subject; a highly useful source for the experienced researcher, it will be difficult to find outside French defense libraries and does not offer an integrated overview of the air force.
  244.  
  245. Cain, Anthony Christopher. The Forgotten Air Force: French Air Doctrine in the 1930’s. Washington, DC, and London: Smithsonian Institution, 2002.
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  247. An obtainable and documented interpretation by a US air force officer; relatively recent and readable, but the research is heavy on archival sources: should be read in comparison with, for example, Christienne and Lissarague 1986 or Gunsburg 1979. Reasonable starting point for the neophyte researcher of the subject.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Carlier, Claude. “Le destin manqué de l’aéronautique française.” In Histoire militaire de la France. Vol. 3, De 1871 à 1940. Edited by Guy Pedroncini, 405–441. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992.
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  251. This chapter (chapter 16) is a short, obtainable, and readable (in French) overview; unfortunately undocumented save for a short bibliography; reasonable starting point for beginning researcher on the subject but should be read in comparison with other sources (e.g., Christienne and Lissarague 1986).
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Christienne, Gen. Charles, and Gen. Pierre Lissarague. A History of French Military Aviation. Translated by Francis Kianka. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986.
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  255. Coffee-table–style, lavishly illustrated tome mostly by officers of the Historical Service: readable, good overview and heavy with information; obtainable, but offers no documentation other than a short bibliography. Good starting point for research. Originally published in French in 1980 as Histoire de l’aviation militaire française.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940. Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1979.
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  259. Concise and documented review of the development of French air power within the context of overall military strategy; obtainable and in English; tends to a more favorable view of the subject but should be read in comparison with other sources (e.g., Cain 2002 or Carlier 1992); a bit dated.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Special Issue: L’Aviation militaire française 1919–1939. Revue Historique des Armées 2 (1977).
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  263. Collection of heavily documented articles on specific points; well illustrated and readable (in French) but will be difficult to find and does not provide a full overview of the French air force; excellent source for the experienced researcher.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Vivier, Thierry. La politique aéronautique militaire de la France: Janvier 1933: Septembre 1939. Paris: Éditions de L’Harmattan, 1997.
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  267. Long and documented overview of development of French air power, strong on role of strategic leadership. Readable and relatively obtainable, but poorly edited volume lacking pictures and maps.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Young, Robert J. “The Strategic Dream: French Air Doctrine in the Inter-War Period, 1919–39.” Journal of Contemporary History 9 (October 1974): 57–76.
  270. DOI: 10.1177/002200947400900403Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Drawn from French and British air force archives and published sources; readily obtained in academic libraries; possible first read for beginning researcher although a bit dated.
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  273. Leadership
  274.  
  275. The largely technical nature of the independent French air force and its much smaller size resulted in a considerably different relationship between it and the French Third Republic than was the case with the army; its recent creation further guaranteed that its leadership was more open to the influence of the Air Minister of the times and less concentrated in the hands of a small number of senior commanders. Armengaud 1948 is the memoir of a senior air commander during the formative period of the new service; besides offering insight into the air force and its strategy, it has much to say on general strategy facing Germany early in World War II. Castex, et al. 1994 is an anecdotal biography of Édouard Barès, commander of French air forces on and off from World War I into the early 1930s; unfortunately its strongest point is its photographs! Cot 1944 is a wartime memoir in English written by the former Air Minister who presided (off and on) over the newly independent service from 1933 to early 1938; violently controversial then as now, this work, available in academic libraries, is essential reading for the researcher on the subject but should be read in conjunction with an academic secondary source like Jansen 2002. Cressaty, et al. 1969 presents valuable insight into the guiding ideas of Cot’s successor in 1934–1935, but it will be hard to obtain. Pujo 1988 fills the same niche regarding a leading air force general who ran afoul of Cot during the latter’s second term as Air Minister; it is a solid source providing excellent background on the air service during the period but likewise difficult to obtain and in French only. The last commander of the service into and during World War II is eulogized in Angot and Lavergne 1965: a good source but again difficult to obtain and in French only. Finally d’Astier de la Vigerie 1952 is the memoir of the second-echelon commander who in practice wielded most of the combat force of the French air force in the decisive days of the battle in May 1940: an important source that offers occasional insights into the course of events, it is to be found in some academic libraries but is in French only.
  276.  
  277. Angot, Eugène, and René de Lavergne. Une figure légendaire de l’aviation française de 1914 à 1940: le général Vuillemin, le combattant, le pionnier du Sahara, le chef. Paris, and Geneva, Switzerland: La Palatine, 1965.
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  279. Biography/eulogy of air force commander in late 1930s and 1940; contains essential information, but difficult to obtain and in French only. Essential for the serious researcher.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Armengaud, Gen. Paul. Batailles politiques et militaires sur l’Europe: Témoignages (1932–1940). Paris: Éditions du Myrte, 1948.
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  283. Insightful memoir by senior air commander to mid-1930s, also involved in general strategy in early World War II. Can be found in some academic libraries, but in French only.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Castex, Jean, Louis Laspalles, and José Barès. Le général Barès: “Créateur et inspirateur de l’aviation.” Paris: Nouvelles Éditions Latines, 1994.
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  287. Short, anecdotal hagiography of a leading commander of air forces into the early 1930s. Undocumented other than short bibliographic list, but has excellent photographs and helps bring alive the personality of a major figure in the early development of the French air forces.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Cot, Pierre. Triumph of Treason. Translated by Sybille Crane and Milton Crane. Chicago and New York: Ziff-Davis, 1944.
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  291. Polemic wartime memoir written in exile by controversial former Air Minister; essential for the serious researcher and obtainable in academic libraries in English, but should be read in conjunction with an academic secondary source like Jansen 2002.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Cressaty, Gen., F. d’Anglejean-Chatillon, Maj. Azama, Gen. René Bouscat, Gen. Georges Catroux, Pierre Cot, André Langeron, and Gen. Pierre Paquier. Sous la signe de l’aviation: Le général d’armée aérienne Denain vu par ses amis et collaborateurs. Paris: SERMA, 1969.
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  295. Biographic essays containing material on conceptions and programs of major commander of the air service in 1934–1935. Unfortunately hard to obtain and in French only; for the serious researcher only.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. d’Astier de la Vigerie, Gen. François. Le ciel n’était pas vide: 1940. Paris: René Julliard, 1952.
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  299. Memoirs of second-echelon air commander in May 1940; contains essential information on decisive days of air combat in May 1940 but difficult to find and in French only; may be in strong academic libraries.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Jansen, Sabine. Pierre Cot: Un antifasciste radical. Paris: Fayard, 2002.
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  303. Long and heavily documented academic biography, recent and obtainable but in French only; not focused primarily on the air force but nonetheless offers serious analysis of the subject and Cot’s role in its development; vital counterweight to Cot’s own wartime memoirs.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Pujo, Bernard. Le général Pujo et la naissance de l’aviation française. Château de Vincennes, France: Service Historique de l’Armée de l’Air, 1988.
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  307. Documented biography by second son of air force commander in the mid-1930s ousted by Cot; important source but difficult to obtain and in French only; for the serious researcher.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Composition and Organization
  310.  
  311. The best overall source on this topic is Christienne and Lissarague 1986; written by a team of historians from the Air Force Historical Service and Air Museum, this lavishly illustrated coffee-table–style work is obtainable, comprehensive, heavy with organizational charts and statistics, and readable, but it offers only a brief bibliography for further reading. One can say much the same of Carlier 1992; it is more recent but much shorter and in French, and also more condemnatory in its tone on the French air force. Fridenson and Lecuir 1976 is an excellent, documented source focused on the important relationship between the French and British air forces from the mid-1930s, but it too is in French and not easily obtained. In English, one can turn to Cain 2002; recent, documented, available, and short, it offers an overview but deals only secondarily with this topic. Gunsburg 1979 is available in academic libraries in English and offers “snapshots” of the evolution of the French air forces/air force during the period 1919–1940, but it is little more than an outline of the subject and, drawn from sources most of which will be inaccessible to the average reader, does not lead the beginner to further research; its bibliography is dated. The reader should be aware of the existence of a series of some twenty-one special issues of the French periodical Icare: Revue de l’aviation française 1970 to 1996: lavishly illustrated, in coffee-table format, and authored by a plethora of participants, analysts, and historians, they offer a bounty of information on all aspects of this topic but they are in French only. Similarly, the reader should be aware of the heavily illustrated but solidly based popular histories in the long series of specialized books DOCAVIA 1974–1987 issued by Éditions Larivière. Penned in large part by Raymond Danel and/or Jean Cuny, these are magnificent sources for the beginner (on occasion with partial translation into English) and offer much to the serious researcher as well; on the down side they are expensive and not easy to obtain and, lacking source citations for the most part, do not lead the beginner to further reading. The masses of material available in French and the lack of recent scholarship in English signify a clear opportunity for the aspiring scholar!
  312.  
  313. Cain, Anthony Christopher. The Forgotten Air Force: French Air Doctrine in the 1930’s. Washington, DC, and London: Smithsonian Institution, 2002.
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  315. Brief and fairly recent scholarly study in English, available in academic libraries. It offers some information on this topic but is not focused on it.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Carlier, Claude. “Le destin manqué de l’aéronautique française.” In Histoire militaire de la France. Vol. 3, De 1871 à 1940. Edited by Guy Pedroncini, 405–441. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992.
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  319. Chapter 16, cited here, is concise and readable (in French) and obtainable, but offers only a short bibliography for further research. Well illustrated, but rather negative toward the air forces/air force.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Christienne, Gen. Charles, and Gen. Pierre Lissarague. A History of French Military Aviation. Translated by Francis Kianka. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986.
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  323. Lavishly illustrated coffee-table–type tome by leading historians of Air Force Historical Service and Air Museum. Readable and obtainable; packed with important information on subject, but offers limited bibliography of sources and now a bit dated. Originally published in 1980 as Histoire militaire de l’aviation française.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. DOCAVIA series. Paris: Éditions Larivière, 1974–1987.
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  327. Many written by Raymond Danel and/or Jean Cuny. Lavishly illustrated and solidly grounded technically, in French (on occasion with partial English translation), but without source citations for the most part. Run Internet search of the term “DOCAVIA.”
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Fridenson, Patrick, and Jean Lecuir. La France et la Grande-Bretagne face aux problèmes aériens (1935–mai 1940). Vincennes, France: Service Historique de l’Armée de l’Air, 1976.
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  331. Essential scholarly source for the serious researcher, drawn largely from both French and British service archives plus published sources, but in French; will be difficult to find outside defense libraries or the Bibliothèque Nationale.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940. Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1979.
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  335. Offers an outline of the topic in English and obtainable in academic libraries, but most of its documentation on this topic will not be accessible to the average reader and thus is of little aid as a starting point for research. Its bibliography is now dated.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Special issues of Icare: Revue de l’aviation française 53–156 (Spring/Summer 1970 to First Trimester 1996).
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  339. Some twenty-one special issues of this French periodical, written by participants and analysts, lavishly illustrated in coffee-table format. In readable French, they offer vast amounts of information on this topic but usually without source citation.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Doctrine
  342.  
  343. The reader should be aware that the question of the “correctness” of the doctrine of the French air force early in World War II is a key historiographic controversy. Cain 2002 is focused on this question and takes a strong and rather negative stand; drawn largely from official archives and manuals of doctrine, his short and fairly recent work will not be easy reading for the beginner and proposes only limited sources for further reading for the average researcher. Christienne and Lissarague 1986 deals with doctrine within an overview of French military aviation in a work more accessible to the neophyte, and lavishly illustrated as well. Unfortunately, their work offers no more than a limited bibliographic list for further reading. Gunsburg 1979 offers a concise overview of the subject and takes a more favorable view of French air force doctrine; its list of secondary sources is now dated. All three of these sources are in English and accessible; the beginning researcher should compare them, beginning perhaps with Cain, which is the most recent, although it is the most demanding read of the three. Carlier 1992 takes a negative view but does not clearly distinguish between doctrine, on the one hand, and strategy, on the other; short and readable (in French), the work offers only a limited bibliographic list for further reading. Facon 2005 takes a rather ambivalent stand on the question of doctrine in a documented volume devoted to the battle in May–June 1940; readable and accessible to those who read French, it is fairly recent and well illustrated. For the researcher with a good command of French and access to defense libraries in France and/or the Bibliothèque Nationale, Ministère de l’Air 1937 is the keystone of French air doctrine going into World War II (inexplicably, it is not explicitly discussed in Cain 2002); Ministère de l’Air 1939 is the manual of the French bomber aviation at the beginning of World War II and reveals the doctrinal dilemma of the French air force facing the much larger German Luftwaffe and torn between the fundamental missions of strategic air warfare, on the one hand, and operations in support of ground combat, on the other. This is a good topic for the aspiring scholar looking to make his or her contribution.
  344.  
  345. Cain, Anthony Christopher. The Forgotten Air Force: French Air Doctrine in the 1930’s. Washington, DC, and London: Smithsonian Institution, 2002.
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  347. Short and heavily documented from air force archives and manuals, this is an essential source on the subject but heavy going for the beginner. Should be read in comparison with other available sources in English.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Carlier, Claude. “Le destin manqué de l’aéronautique française.” In Histoire militaire de la France. Vol. 3, De 1871 à 1940. Edited by Guy Pedroncini, 405–441. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992.
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  351. Chapter 16, cited here, is a short but readable analysis (in French); accessible, but offers only a short bibliographic list for further reading. Takes negative view of doctrine, but does not clearly distinguish between doctrine and strategy.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Christienne, Gen. Charles, and Gen. Pierre Lissarague. A History of French Military Aviation. Translated by Francis Kianka. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986.
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  355. Originally published in 1980 as Histoire de l’aviation militaire française. Lavishly illustrated coffee-table–style volume by a team of officers from the Air Force Historical Service and Air Museum; solidly based research but without source citations; takes nuanced view on topic. Makes good counterpoint to Cain 2002.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Facon, Patrick. L’Armée de l’air dans la tourmente: La bataille de France 1939–1940. Paris: Economica, 2005.
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  359. Documented general work on French air force through the battle of May–June 1940 by a researcher of the Air Force Historical Service. Illustrated and readable in French, accessible, relatively recent; ambivalent on doctrine. Good starting point for a researcher who reads French. Originally published in 1997.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940. Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1979.
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  363. Very concise coverage of the topic in an accessible source in English, but the bibliography of secondary sources is dated. Takes view contrasting with that of Cain 2002.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Ministère de l’Air, État-Major de l’Armée de l’Air. Instruction sur l’emploi tactique des grandes unités aériennes. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1937.
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  367. Keystone of French air doctrine going into World War II. Essential source for the serious researcher, but to be found only in libraries of French defense institutions and perhaps Bibliothèque Nationale.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Ministère de l’Air, État-Major de l’Armée de. Règlement de manoeuvre de l’Armée de l’Air. Book 2, Aviation de bombardement. Vol. 1, Organisation et emploi. Versailles, France: École de l’Air de Versailles, August 1939.
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  371. Manual of bomber doctrine at beginning of World War II. Essential source for the serious researcher with access to French defense libraries or the Bibliothèque Nationale. Reveals doctrine split between strategic air war and support of ground combat.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Weaponry
  374.  
  375. The combat power of an air force is almost totally dependent on its weapon systems: the fruit of advanced technology and hugely demanding in economic resources, but relatively restrained in manpower needs as compared to the army. The researcher needs a minimum understanding not only of the development of the air force but also of its industrial base. Up against a much more populous and industrialized Germany, the French air forces/air force faced a formidable challenge. Two sources, in English and reasonably accessible, offer an overview of the subject: Christienne and Lissarague 1986, including copious statistical material on airplane production and photographs of airplanes in service along with some discussion of the development of the industry; and Green 1960–1968, a set of handbooks dealing with virtually all the aircraft (including those that never reached production) developed for World War II, replete with photographs and brief discussions of technological and industrial considerations, all in a readable format. Unfortunately, these offer no source citations to guide further research. An important source on the French air industry is Chadeau 1987: accessible but in French only, heavily documented from French official and business archives, it is an excellent starting point for the serious researcher and covers financial and political considerations of the industry as well. In the DOCAVIA series, Danel and Cuny 1974 offers a magnificently detailed and illustrated survey of development and production of French fighter aircraft and all their accessories from 1918 to 1940 by two technical experts and amateur historians; available and readable considering the substantial technical content, its only drawbacks are the French text (with partial English translation) and the lack of source citations. Danel and Cuny 1978 extends the coverage to French bomber and reconnaissance aircraft and accessories from 1918 to 1940. Cuny and Danel 1986 offers a similar but more focused work on French medium bombers. For the serious researcher who reads French, Bodemer and Laugier 1987 (likewise in the DOCAVIA series) offers insight into the critical question of motor development during the period. Finally, the reader should be aware of the some twenty-one special issues of Icare: Revue de l’aviation française 1970–1996: authored by numerous participants, technical experts, and historians, lavishly illustrated, and available (but in French), their only shortcoming is the lack of source citation to guide further research.
  376.  
  377. Bodemer, Alfred, and Robert Laugier. Les moteurs à pistons aéronautiques français (1900/1960): Tomes 1 et 2. DOCAVIA 24–25. Paris: Éditions Larivière, 1987.
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  379. Lavishly illustrated work by technical experts offering insight into critical development of advanced aviation engines; not easy reading (and in French), but available (if expensive) and essential for the serious researcher.
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  381. Chadeau, Emmanuel. De Blériot à Dassault: Histoire de l’industrie aéronautique en France: 1900–1950. Paris: Fayard, 1987.
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  383. Long, heavily documented history from archives of the French government and industry; therefore a good starting point for further research for the serious scholar. Gives good background on financial and political considerations behind industrial development.
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  385. Christienne, Gen. Charles, and Gen. Pierre Lissarague. A History of French Military Aviation. Translated by Francis Kianka. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986.
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  387. Long and lavishly illustrated coffee-table–style overview by historians; offers very complete statistics and photographs of aircraft; accessible and readable, but offers only a short bibliographic list as a guide to further research.
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  389. Cuny, Jean, and Raymond Danel. Leo 45, Amiot 350, et autres B4. DOCAVIA 23. Paris: Éditions Larivière, 1986.
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  391. Lavishly illustrated and detailed work by technical experts focused on French medium bombers into World War II. Readable despite the technical nature of the text (but in French); available but expensive; good for both beginner and serious researcher. But largely lacking in source citations.
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  393. Danel, Raymond, and Jean Cuny. L’Aviation de chasse française, 1918–1940. DOCAVIA 2. Paris: Éditions Larivière, 1974.
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  395. Long, lavishly illustrated, and detailed work by technical experts/amateur historians: readable in French (with partial English translation); available but expensive. Excellent source for beginner and serious researcher; lacks only source citations for further reading. Try an Internet search of the term “DOCAVIA.”
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Danel, Raymond, and Jean Cuny. L’Aviation française de bombardement et de renseignement (1918/1940). DOCAVIA 12. Paris: Éditions Larivière, 1978.
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  399. Magnificent coverage of the subject, lavishly illustrated and detailed by technical experts. Readable given the technical nature of the subject but in French; available but expensive and lacking source citation to guide further research.
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  401. Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War. 10 vols. Garden City, NY: Hanover House, 1960–1968.
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  403. Series of ten well-illustrated handbooks covering French and other aircraft, including those that never reached production, for World War II. Accessible, reliable, readable, brief, but useful on technology and industry; however, offers no citations for further reading.
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  405. Special issues of Icare: Revue de l’aviation française 53–156 (Spring/Summer 1970 to First Trimester 1996).
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  407. Some twenty-one special issues of this French periodical, written by participants and analysts, lavishly illustrated in coffee-table format. In readable French, they offer vast amounts of information on this topic but usually without source citation.
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  409. Catastrophic Defeat, May–June 1940
  410.  
  411. The collapse of the French army and air force as the backbone of the Western coalition in six weeks was one of the great surprises of military history, as well as of vast strategic significance. Thousands (literally) of works have been devoted in whole or part to explaining what happened; here there is room only to follow the themes of development of the French army and air force through recent scholarly and popular history. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the following works is their inability to reach any consensus on what happened—and why! In English, May 2000 concludes that the Allies in 1940 had the means necessary to win and does not blame French doctrine as the cause of the disaster, rather faulting Allied intelligence analysis and methods of political/strategic decision making. Bond and Taylor 2001 presents a collection of essays dealing in part with this topic, emphasizing among other things the flawed Franco-British alliance. In French, Schiavon 2009 offers a nuanced view of the French army and its high command, placing principal blame for the disaster on the French commander-in-chief General Maurice Gamelin but not on French doctrine. Levisse-Touzé 2001 is a collection of papers by French, Belgian, British, and Swiss historians: although reaching no firm overall conclusions, the tome on the whole plays down the importance of doctrine while noting a lack of cohesion among the Allies, strategic errors, and the personal failings of senior Allied commanders. Vaïsse 2000 is a collection of essays by German, British, and American historians: most are relatively moderate in their criticism of the French military; Robert Doughty sees basic faults in the French system. Vanwelkenhuyzen 1995, a long study by one of the most veteran analysts of the subject, is rather more critical of French doctrine, but emphasizes errors of the French political and military leadership, especially Gamelin. In translation from the German, Frieser 2005 emphasizes French strategic errors more than faults in the French military system. As an interesting aside, Liss 1959 (in German only) offers a unique perspective on the French (and Allied) armies (Liss was the head of German military intelligence dealing with Western Europe into 1940): it notes faults in the French military system, but rather more in the strategy chosen by the French command.
  412.  
  413. Bond, Brian, and Michael D. Taylor, eds. The Battle of France and Flanders 1940: Sixty Years On. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper, 2001.
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  415. Collection of essays by British and one Canadian historians and defense researchers; focused largely on the British point of view, but emphasizes the flaws in the Franco-British alliance.
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  417. Frieser, Karl-Heinz. The Blitzkrieg Legend: The 1940 Campaign in the West. Translated by John T. Greenwood. Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute, 2005.
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  419. Originally published as Blitzkrieg Legende: Der Westfeldzug 1940 in 1995 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg)). Semiofficial German history, long and documented, lavishly illustrated; criticizes certain points of French military system but more so French strategy.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Levisse-Touzé, Christine, ed. La campagne de 1940: Actes du colloque, 16 au 18 novembre 2000. Paris: Éditions Tallandier, 2001.
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  423. Published papers delivered at colloquy in 2001 by mostly French historians and analysts; many heavily documented, all in French; does not reach clear conclusions but plays down question of doctrine while highlighting faults of Allied military leadership.
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  425. Liss, Ulrich. Westfront 1939/40: Erinnerungen des Feindarbeiters im O.K.H. Neckargemünd, West Germany: Kurt Vowinckel Verlag, 1959.
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  427. Memoir by head of German military intelligence on Western armies into May 1940. In German only; offers interesting analysis of French army through hostile eyes; critical especially of French strategy, although it finds faults in French military system as well. For the serious researcher.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. May, Ernest R. Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France. New York: Hill and Wang, 2000.
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  431. Long, documented scholarly work in English; takes a largely positive view of efforts of French military but sees faults in intelligence analysis and political/strategic decision making.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Schiavon, Max. Le général Alphonse Georges: Un destin inachevé. Parcay-sur-Vienne, France: Éditions Anovi, 2009.
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  435. Recent and long, documented analysis drawing on personal papers of senior French commander in 1940; heavily illustrated and readable but in French; fairly uncritical of French doctrine, but places blame on Commander-in-Chief Gamelin.
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  437. Vaïsse, Maurice, ed. Mai–juin 1940: Défaite française, victoire allemande, sous l’oeil des historiens étrangers. Paris: Éditions Autrement, 2000.
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  439. Collection of documented essays by German, British, and American historians, but in French. No overall conclusions, but most of the essays are mildly critical of the French system except for that of Robert Doughty, which sees irremediable faults in it. (Title translation: May–June 1940: French Defeat, German Victory in the Eyes of Foreign Historians.)
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Vanwelkenhuyzen, Jean. 1940: Pleins feux sur un désastre. Brussels: Éditions Racine, 1995.
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  443. Long, minutely documented study by veteran Belgian analyst of the topic: in French but readable; an essential source for the serious researcher. Critical of French doctrine but much more so of French leadership, particularly that of Commander-in-Chief Gamelin.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Recent Views of the French Army and Air Force in Battle
  446.  
  447. Two scholarly works in English, Doughty 1990 and Gunsburg 2000, take differing views on the quality and capabilities of the French army in 1940; juxtaposing them makes for an interesting analysis. Both are readily available and documented, offering the beginning researcher resources for further investigation while adding significant new material for the veteran. In French, Mary and Kerger 2009 is a splendid example of the new popular military history: lavishly illustrated and readable but based on solid research in archives and published works. There are source citations and good bibliographies for the pursuit of further research. On the French air force, Sacré and Gillet 2004 offers a similar, lavishly illustrated coffee-table–style work, larded with data and quoted anecdotes of air crew from the French air force as well as the British Royal Air Force and the German Luftwaffe. Drawn extensively on archives of the three nations and published sources, the work offers a starting point for the beginning researcher in French, although the presentation of this work is less polished than that of the other sources listed here. Cornwell 2007 is a massive compilation in English, which offers background on all the air forces which fought in western Europe in May-June 1940, plus a plane-by-plane accounting of all the losses, all drawn on official archives of the countries involved and with a mass of photographs, maps, and aircrew anecdotes. None of these last works attempts to draw serious overall conclusions on the French military in 1940, but the rigor of their research and vigor of their presentation offer bright hopes for future historiography!
  448.  
  449. Cornwell, Peter D. The Battle of France: Then and Now. Old Harlow, Essex: Battle of Britain International Ltd., 2007
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  451. Massive, coffee-table style book of background essays, photographs, photocopied documents, maps, and aircrew anecdotes, from all the air forces involved; drawn largely from official archives, but almost without citation of sources other than a short bibliography.
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  453. Doughty, Robert Allan. The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1990.
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  455. Substantial and heavily documented work drawn primarily from French and German archives; a good starting point for the beginning researcher; critical of the French military system and makes good comparative reading with Gunsburg 2000.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Gunsburg, Jeffery A. “The Battle of Gembloux, 14–15 May 1940: The ‘Blitzkrieg’ Checked.” Journal of Military History 64 (2000): 97–140.
  458. DOI: 10.2307/120789Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Substantial and documented work drawn largely from archival and primary sources: sets out to demonstrate that the French military in 1940 could cope with mechanized warfare; makes good comparative reading with Doughty 1990, which takes the opposite tack.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Mary, Jean-Yves, and Pascal Kerger. Le corridor des Panzers: ‘Über die Maas’ (par-delà la Meuse, 10–15 mai 1940). Bayeux, France: Éditions Heimdal, 2009.
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  463. Continued in Zur Küste: Le Corridor des Panzer: Tome 2 (2010). Two lavishly illustrated coffee-table–style volumes of popular military history but rigorously based in research, with partial citations and good bibliographies. Readable in French, and well worth examining even for those who do not read French. Easily found on the Internet.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Sacré, Jacques, and Arnaud Gillet. Bataille aérienne et rupture sur la Meuse: Quadrilatère: Namur—Cambrai—Troye—Luxemburg; 10–18 mai 1940. Rocroi, France: Les Éditions du Plateau de Rocroi, 2004.
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  467. Lavishly illustrated popular military history drawn from archives of three countries plus published sources; heavy with statistics, anecdotes of flight crews, maps, even source citations and a fine bibliography! In French; not easy reading because of massive detail and lack of professional editing. Search authors’ names on the Internet.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Iconic Impressions of a Disaster
  470.  
  471. Two works have become icons of the trauma that the catastrophe of May–June 1940 brought on the Western world. The author of the first served in the French army, the author of the second in the French air force; the first was killed as a member of the Resistance, the second in the Free French air force. The first work is Bloch 1968, a short memoir by the medievalist historian and reservist army staff officer Marc Bloch, written during the summer following the battle and very much influenced by the military trauma. But it is the deeper reflection on modern Western society facing a totalitarian threat that has won the work its status, not its criticism of French military culture and the high command. Something of the same elements appears in Saint-Exupéry 1942: here the pilot/poet/philosopher, author of The Little Prince, weaves his reflections into the recounting of a particularly dangerous reconnaissance mission he flew with his crew during the battle. No student of the period—beginner or hardened veteran researcher—should miss these works.
  472.  
  473. Bloch, Marc. Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940. Translated by Gerard Hopkins. New York: Norton, 1968.
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  475. Written in 1940, originally published in 1946. Short memoir by medieval historian detailing his own experiences as a staff officer and giving voice to his rage at the catastrophic defeat, but goes beyond to search for more profound explanations for the collapse of liberal western Europe in the face of totalitarian aggression.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de. Flight to Arras. Translated by Lewis Galantière. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1942.
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  479. Deeply reflective work of the humanist philosopher facing the horrors of conquest by a totalitarian horde, deftly woven into the story of a single, deadly dangerous mission flown by the author and his crew during the height of the battle.
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