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Conscription (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Conscription refers to the act of forcing individuals to serve in the military. In addition to a formal military draft, compulsory training and militia service is also a part of conscription history. While it has precedents from the Roman Empire and the feudal era in the Western Hemisphere, conscription really began to be cemented as a part of the modern military service dynamic during the Napoleonic Era. In the United States, the American Civil War saw the first use of a draft in both the Union and Confederate armies. All of the major global wars since the 19th century have seen conscripted armies fight in combat, and in some cases the major European powers maintained a large involuntary force prior to World War I. World War II was largely a war of conscripts as well. In the United States, with its Cold War-era wars in Korea and Vietnam, conscription played a major role in the dynamics of those conflicts both on the home front and the battlefield, particularly during the Vietnam years. Furthermore, it was the Vietnam experience that helped bring an end to conscription in the United States in 1973. Conscription was also a part of the European military dynamic during the Cold War, such as with National Service until 1963 in Great Britain, or as in the case of the Soviet Union throughout its existence. Also of great significance to the conscription debate is conscientious objection and anti-war movements, which in many cases became somewhat of an anti-draft movement. Due to a large number of sources on conscientious objection within the history of conscription, those works are woven in to a discussion of their respective wars, unless the work covers conscientious objection or draft resistance in a larger sense.
  3. General Overviews and Bibliography
  4. The history of conscription is not a topic that has been a major focal point of military historians. As such, there is only one bibliography (Anderson 1976) that focuses explicitly on the subject. Karsten 1998, while a disjointed collection of journal articles, is a valuable starting point for understanding the institution of conscription and its global impact. Marble 2012 is similar, though the chapters are not collected journal articles and are more similar in scope. There are no major works that cover the entire breadth of conscription in any given country, let alone in a comparative sense. Hay 2008 does include some historical analysis. Flynn 1993 covers the draft in the United States from World War II to the end of conscription in 1973. There is a comparative overview of the draft in the United States, Great Britain, and France during the 20th century in Flynn 2002. O’Sullivan 1982 examines the history of the American Congress and the draft. In American history, Cohen 1985 provides an excellent overview of the history of military service. The Canadian conscription experience is covered in Granatstein and Hitsman 1977.
  5. Anderson, Martin. Conscription: A Select and Annotated Bibliography. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1976.
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  7. The standard bibliography on a subject that has received scant attention in the scholarly world.
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  9. Cohen, Eliot. Citizens and Soldiers: The Dilemmas of Military Service. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.
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  11. Cohen, a prominent military theorist, examines conscription as a part of a larger discussion of the history of military service.
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  13. Flynn, George Q. The Draft, 1940–1973. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993.
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  15. Flynn is one of the premier historians of conscription, and this is his seminal work.
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  17. Flynn, George Q. Conscription and Democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002.
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  19. A unique comparative analysis of the three major democratic powers and their conscription dynamic throughout the 20th century.
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  21. Granatstein, J. L., and J. M. Hitsman. Broken Promises: A History of Conscription in Canada. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
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  23. Granatstein and Hitsman chronicle the fascinating dynamic of Canadian conscription in the modern era.
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  25. Hay, Jeff. Military Draft. Detroit: Greenhaven, 2008.
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  27. A general overview that includes a number of countries and a number of issues surrounding military conscription.
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  29. Karsten, Peter, ed. Recruiting, Drafting, and Enlisting: Two Sides of the Raising of Military Forces. New York: Garland, 1998.
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  31. Covers manpower issues in global military history from the era of Hessian conscription to the Cold War.
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  33. Marble, Sanders, ed. Scraping the Barrel: The Military Use of Substandard Manpower, 1860–1960. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012.
  34. DOI: 10.5422/fordham/9780823239771.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. Edited volume covering military manpower issues (not just conscription) in the United States and Europe from 1860–1960.
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  37. O’Sullivan, John. From Voluntarism to Conscription: Congress and Selective Service, 1940–1973. New York: Garland, 1982.
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  39. O’Sullivan provides an overview of the lawmaking apparatus for conscription in the United States in this work.
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  41. Primary Source Collections for the United States
  42. Some documentary histories of conscription are quite valuable. Chambers 1975 deals with arguments over conscription throughout American history through the Cold War. Dethloff and Shenk 2010 discusses the larger issue of military service, which is a part of the conscription dynamic. Frazer and O’Sullivan 1996 examines the experience of Civilian Public Service assignees during World War II. O’Sullivan and Meckler 1974 provides documents concerning anti-draft issues throughout American history, much in the same vein as Chambers 1975.
  43. Chambers, John Whiteclay. Draftees or Volunteers: A Documentary History of the Debate over Military Conscription in the United States, 1787–1973. New York: Garland, 1975.
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  45. Chambers, another of the major draft historians, provides a broad overview of American conscription history utilizing primary documents.
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  47. Dethloff, Henry C., and Gerald E. Shenk. Citizen and Soldier: A Sourcebook on Military Service and National Defense from Colonial America to the Present. New York: Routledge, 2010.
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  49. A smaller collection of primary sources covering all eras of American military history and service.
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  51. Frazer, Heather T., and John O’Sullivan. We Have Just Begun to Not Fight: An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in Civilian Public Service During World War II. New York: Twayne, 1996.
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  53. Frazer and O’Sullivan cover a number of different CPS assignees from different faiths and social backgrounds.
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  55. O’Sullivan, John, and Alan Meckler. The Draft and Its Enemies: A Documentary History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974.
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  57. O’Sullivan and Meckler use a plethora of primary sources to demonstrate the anti-draft tradition in the United States.
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  59. Significant Individuals
  60. In the history of American conscription, there are no individuals more significant than Lewis Hershey, as he was the director of Selective Service from 1941–1970. Flynn 1985 is the only scholarly work that examines his career, while Krehbiel 2011 examines Hershey from the point of view of conscientious objectors and paints him in a sympathetic light. John McAuley Palmer was a fierce proponent of the citizen soldier in the United States, and Holley 1982 discusses Palmer’s significance and influence.
  61. Flynn, George Q. Lewis B. Hershey: Mr. Selective Service. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985.
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  63. As the face of American conscription for almost thirty years, Hershey is the most important person in US draft history. Flynn’s biography is the standard.
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  65. Holley, I. B., Jr. General John M. Palmer: Citizen Soldiers and the Army of a Democracy. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982.
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  67. Holley’s work is the standard on Palmer, who was a strong proponent of the citizen soldier during the early 20th century; it is a dynamic that includes conscription as a part of its functioning.
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  69. Krehbiel, Nicholas A. General Lewis B. Hershey and Conscientious Objection During World War II. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011.
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  71. Krehbiel’s work is much more limited in focus than other biographies, but it provides a sympathetic reinterpretation of Hershey’s role in alternative service during World War II.
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  73. Militia
  74. While not technically conscription in the truest sense of the word, the tradition of militia forces would lay the groundwork for modern conscription. It had its roots in medieval Europe; and by the 17th century, the militia had become entrenched as a means of home defense or as an alternative to professional forces, depending on the nation in question. As conscription became more prevalent in the modern era, institutions such as the Landwehr in Prussia and the National Guard in the United States replaced the militia, but the lineage remained strong. Beckett 1991 is the standard, as it examines a long period of the evolution of non-professional forces. For the militia tradition in the United States, Mahon 1983, Cooper 2002, and Doubler 2003 should be consulted. Stentiford 2002 is a more limited view, albeit a valuable one, discussing the 20th century dynamics of state militias in the United States.
  75. Beckett, Ian. The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558–1945. New York: Manchester University Press, 1991.
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  77. An encompassing work that examines the militia tradition throughout its history.
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  79. Cooper, Jerry. Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865–1920. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
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  81. Much like some of the other works here, Cooper links the tradition of the militia to the creation of the National Guard in the United States.
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  83. Doubler, Michael D. Civilian in Peace, Soldier in War: The Army National Guard, 1636–2000. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003.
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  85. A work similar to Mahon’s, but provides a more recent interpretation while still demonstrating the heritage of the militia.
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  87. Mahon, John K. The History of the Militia and National Guard. New York: Macmillan, 1983.
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  89. Firmly establishes the link between the militia and the National Guard in the United States.
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  91. Stentiford, Barry. The American Home Guard: The State Militia in the Twentieth Century. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002.
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  93. A more specific work examining the 20th-century dynamics of the militia in the United States.
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  95. 18th- and 19th-Century Europe
  96. It was the European experience during the 18th and early 19th century that firmly cemented conscription and large-scale warfare into the modern world. Frederick the Great’s Prussian Army utilized conscription as much as possible, and that experience is documented in Shanahan 1945. Though it reaches into the 20th century, Frevert 2004 provides an excellent discussion of the 19th-century conscription experience of Prussia/Germany. The armies of the French Revolution contained a large number of conscripts, which is pointed out in Forrest 1989. Interestingly, the two groundbreaking countries are compared in Hippler 2008.
  97. Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society During the Revolution and Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
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  99. Discusses the nature of conscription in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, which was unpopular in many quarters.
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  101. Frevert, Ute. A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society. New York: Berg, 2004.
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  103. Frevert covers conscription in Germany (Prussia) from the early 19th century to the 21st century, arguing that conscription has led to civil support for the military.
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  105. Hippler, Thomas. Citizens, Soldiers and National Armies: Military Service in France and Germany, 1789–1830. New York: Routledge, 2008.
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  107. A comparative work synthesizing the two most influential European countries for conscription.
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  109. Shanahan, William Oswald. Prussian Military Reforms, 1786–1813. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945.
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  111. Shanahan provides insight into the modernizing and paradigm shifting reforms of the Prussian military during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
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  113. American Civil War
  114. The Civil War was the first war of conscription in the United States, though the draft had a large number of loopholes that would later be closed. It was not necessarily popular, as Berstein 1990 and Cook 1974 demonstrate in their histories of the infamous New York City draft riots of 1863, or with Moore 1924. Nor was the draft in the North necessarily for conscripted manpower; rather, it encouraged volunteerism, as demonstrated in Geary 1991 and Murdock 1967. Murdock 1971 gives a more comprehensive history of the Civil War draft in the North. Wright 1961 presents a unique view for conscientious objectors, as the loopholes (bounty system, substitutions, etc.) still presented an ethical conflict for some of the religious objectors in both the North and South. One individual state, North Carolina, has a history of its Civil War conscription experience in Hilderman 2005. Clearly, the state-by-state approach is lacking in the scholarship and would be of particular importance, especially for the Confederate histories.
  115. Berstein, Iver. The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  117. The New York City Draft Riots were an example of how unpopular conscription could be in certain quarters during the Civil War. Berstein’s work is one of the standards.
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  119. Cook, Adrian. The Armies of the Street: The New York Draft Riots of 1863. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974.
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  121. Cook provides earlier insight into the aforementioned draft riots in New York City.
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  123. Geary, James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991.
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  125. Geary examines conscription in the North, contending that the draft in the North was more about encouraging volunteering than providing coerced manpower.
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  127. Hilderman, Walter Carrington. They Went into the Fight Cheering! Confederate Conscription in North Carolina. Boone, NC: Parkway, 2005.
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  129. The only work that explicitly examines Civil War conscription in a single state.
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  131. Moore, Albert B. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy. New York: Macmillan, 1924.
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  133. An early examination of Confederate conscription, and still a standard work
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  135. Murdock, Eugene C. Patriotism Limited, 1862–1865: The Civil War Draft and the Bounty System. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1967.
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  137. Murdock discusses a major portion of conscription during the Civil War, the bounty system, and how it affected the overall draft dynamic.
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  139. Murdock, Eugene C. One Million Men: The Civil War Draft in the North. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971.
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  141. A general overview of the draft in the North. This study remained unchallenged for twenty years.
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  143. Wright, Edward Needles. Conscientious Objectors in the Civil War. New York: A. S. Barnes, 1961.
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  145. The only work in existence that explicitly studies the Civil War experience of conscientious objectors.
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  147. World War I
  148. While it may have represented a tectonic shift in the direction of the world, there are only a few histories of conscription that deal explicitly with World War I. Adams and Poirier 1987 examines the British experience, as does Grieves 1988, while Chambers 1987 places the American experience in the growth of the military service dynamic in American history. Shenk 2005 provides an American social view of conscription through the lens of gender and race. Krumeich 1984 deals with the French experience. Kennedy 1981 examines a portion of the objection to conscription in Britain, while Thomas 1923 was deeply involved in draft resistance in the United States and wrote of the experience of the conscientious objector immediately following the war.
  149. Adams, R. J. Q., and Philip Poirier. The Conscription Controversy in Great Britain, 1900–18. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1987.
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  151. Adams and Poirier discuss the evolution of conscription in Great Britain in the years leading up to and including World War I.
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  153. Chambers, John Whiteclay. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America. New York: Free Press, 1987.
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  155. The standard work of American conscription during World War I by one of the premier draft historians in the United States.
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  157. Grieves, Keith. The Politics of Manpower, 1914–1918. New York: St. Martin’s, 1988.
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  159. Grieves discusses conscription as a part of the larger issue of manpower control in Great Britain during World War I.
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  161. Kennedy, Thomas C. The Hound of Conscience: A History of the No-Conscription Fellowship, 1914–1919. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1981.
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  163. Outlines one form of resistance to the World War I draft in Great Britain.
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  165. Krumeich, Gerd. Armaments and Politics in France on the Eve of the First World War: The Introduction of Three-Year Conscription, 1913–1914. Dover, NH: Berg, 1984.
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  167. Examines the conscription dynamic in France in the years leading to World War I.
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  169. Shenk, Gerald E. Work or Fight: Race, Gender, and the Draft in World War I. New York: Macmillan, 2005.
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  171. Provides insights into the role played by race and gender in shaping the World War I conscription narrative, which was dominated by white males.
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  173. Thomas, Norman. The Conscientious Objector in America. New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1923.
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  175. Thomas, a famous minister and socialist candidate for president, was a supporter of conscientious objectors and documented their World War I experience in this work.
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  177. World War II
  178. Most of the work on conscription, particularly conscientious objection, has been done on World War II. Much of this has to do with the precedent-setting establishment of the US alternative service program known as Civilian Public Service (CPS), though the British had alternative provisions during World War I and a more liberal policy than the USA during World War II. Barker 1982 covers the British objection experience, while Dennis 1972 looks at the larger issues surrounding conscription. Clifford and Spencer 1986 offers the only work that deals explicitly with the World War II draft in the United States. In the realm of American conscientious objection, the standard work is Sibley and Jacob 1952. Kovac 2009 chronicles the experience of one CPS camp, while Taylor 2009 discusses the most successful of the CPS programs: the mental hospital units. Goossen 1997 offers a unique interpretation of the era by examining the dynamic through the lens of gender.
  179. Barker, Rachel. Conscience, Government, and War: Conscientious Objection in Great Britain, 1939–1945. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982.
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  181. An examination of the British system of conscription, which was one of the most liberal in the world at the time.
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  183. Clifford, J. Garry, and Samuel Spencer. The First Peacetime Draft. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986.
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  185. Clifford and Garry examine the process that led to peacetime conscription and the draft for World War II in the United States.
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  187. Dennis, Peter. Decision by Default: Peacetime Conscription and British Defence 1919–39. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1972.
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  189. A manpower study focusing mainly on the interwar years, but with ramifications for the years of World War II.
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  191. Goossen, Rachel Waltner. Women Against the Good War: Conscientious Objection and Gender on the American Home Front, 1941–1947. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
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  193. Goossen chronicles the experience of women who served in CPS and identified themselves as conscientious objectors but who were not actually conscripts.
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  195. Kovac, Jeffrey. Refusing War, Affirming Peace: A History of Civilian Public Service Camp #21 at Cascade Locks. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2009.
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  197. Kovac discusses the vibrant and diverse camp life at a CPS camp in Oregon, which was somewhat atypical for Civilian Public Service.
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  199. Sibley, Mulford Q., and Philip Jacob. Conscription of Conscience: The American State and the Conscientious Objector, 1940–1947. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952.
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  201. The standard work on conscientious objection during World War II, which is sympathetic to the objectors.
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  203. Taylor, Steven W. Acts of Conscience: World War II, Mental Institutions, and Conscientious Objectors. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2009.
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  205. Taylor describes the successes of the mental hospital program in CPS and the groundwork it laid for later successes in mental health in the United States.
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  207. Cold War Era
  208. Much of the work done on the draft from the World War II era to the present day consists of discussions in larger works that are discussed in the General Overviews and Bibliography section. However, there are a select few works that examine the draft during this era, particularly during Britain’s decolonization years and the United States’ involvement in Vietnam. For the machinations of conscription throughout the world during this time, it is best to consult the aforementioned works in the earlier section. Baskir and Strauss 1978 discusses the nature of conscription and the Vietnam War on American society, while Kusch 2001 chooses to focus on those who dodged the draft by going to Canada. Royle 1986, which looks at the British experience, is the larger of two similar works, while Scott 1993 discusses similar issues but also focuses on the actions of the British government during Clement Attlee’s years as prime minister.
  209. Baskir, Lawrence M., and William A. Strauss. Chance and Circumstance: The Draft, the War, and the Vietnam Generation. New York: Knopf, 1978.
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  211. A work that emerged on the heels of an American society deeply divided over the Vietnam War.
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  213. Kusch, Frank. All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam War. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001.
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  215. Kusch focuses on men who fled the American draft by migrating to Canada; but the main subject of the book is on those who remained in Canada after being granted amnesty.
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  217. Royle, Trevor. The Best Years of Their Lives: The National Service Experience, 1945–1963. London: M. Joseph, 1986.
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  219. Royle chronicles the experience of British draftees and their international service during the undoing of the British Empire and the Cold War.
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  221. Scott, L. V. Conscription and the Attlee Governments: The Politics and Policy of National Service, 1945–1951. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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  223. Examines the conscription dynamic in Great Britain during the early Cold War, focusing on the Attlee years.
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  225. Pacifism, Anti-War, and Anti-Draft Movements
  226. Often pacifism and anti-war movements possess strong aversions to conscription, and it is a major part of the history of the draft, particularly in the United States. The foremost historian of pacifism is the author of Brock 1968, a classic work in the field. Other prominent titles include Chatfield 1962 and Wittner 1983, which complement one another in filling gaps in the research. Chambers and Moskos 1993 discusses an important dynamic during the Cold War years as the United States expanded the definition of conscientious objection to include moral and ethical objection rather than just religious objection. Keim and Stolzfus 1988 chronicle the Peace Church (Mennonite, Brethren, Quaker) experience during the first half of the 20th century. Ekirch 1972 casts a broad net in describing the anti-militarist sentiment in American society from the colonial era to the Cold War. Kohn 1986 and Peterson 1998 both examine draft resistance, while Kohn’s focus is more on those who were imprisoned.
  227. Brock, Peter. Pacifism in the United States: From the Colonial Era to the First World War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968.
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  229. Brock’s work is dated but is still the standard interpretation for this era of pacifism in the United States.
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  231. Chambers, John Whiteclay, and Charles Moskos, eds. The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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  233. Chambers and Moskos bring together a number of different authors who examine how the United States came to recognize secular conscientious objection during the Cold War era.
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  235. Chatfield, Charles. For Peace and Justice: Pacifism in America, 1914–1941. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1962.
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  237. Chatfield discusses the multitude of groups who sought peace during World War I and the interwar period, including draft resisters.
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  239. Ekirch, Arthur A., Jr. The Civilian and the Military: A History of the American Antimilitarist Tradition. Colorado Springs, CO: Ralph Myles, 1972.
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  241. This classic work focuses on the anti-war strains of American society.
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  243. Keim, Albert, and Grant Stolzfus. The Politics of Conscience: The Historic Peace Churches and America at War, 1917–1955. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1988.
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  245. A brief overview of the Brethren, Mennonites, and Quakers and their experiences as conscientious objectors from 1917–1955. Begun by Stolzfus and finished by Keim.
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  247. Kohn, Stephen M. Jailed for Peace: A History of American Draft Law Violators, 1658–1985. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986.
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  249. Kohn describes those throughout American history who were imprisoned for their draft resistance.
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  251. Peterson, Carl L. Avoidance and Evasion of Military Service: An American History, 1626–1973. San Francisco: International Scholars, 1998.
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  253. Peterson examines resistance to the draft and forced military service from the colonial era to the end of conscription.
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  255. Wittner, Lawrence. Rebels Against War: The American Peace Movement, 1933–1983. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983.
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  257. A standard work in the field by Wittner, it is a revision of his earlier work, which only covered the movement to 1960.
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