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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The term “caliph” (khalifah in Arabic) is generally regarded to mean “successor of the prophet Muhammad,” while “caliphate” (khilafah in Arabic) denotes the office of the political leader of the Muslim community (ummah) or state, particularly during the period from 632 to 1258. Although the caliph was not considered to possess spiritual authority as Muhammad had, the caliph presided over a state governed under Islamic law (Sharia) whose territories constituted the “abode of Islam” (dar al-Islam). Thus, the caliph served as the symbol of the supremacy of the Sharia, as commander of the faithful (amir al-muʾminin) in his capacity to both defend and expand these lands and as leader of prayers (Imam), thereby clothing the caliphate with religious meaning. Sunni Islam holds that Muhammad left no instructions regarding his successor, who was to be elected, with the decision of the community regarded as infallible. Accordingly, following Muhammad’s death, Abu Bakir was elected based on his close association with the Prophet, his piety, and his leadership ability. The Shiʿa Islamic tradition, on the other hand, asserts that the community made a grievous error in electing Abu Bakr rather than Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, ʿAli ibn Abi Talib, whom they believe was chosen by the Prophet. These partisans of ʿAli consider Abu Bakr’s succession to be illegitimate, claiming that infallibility was limited to the Prophet’s family through ʿAli, ʿAli’s sons through his marriage with the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima, and their descendants. Thus, Shiʿite Islam rejected the Sunni notion of rightly guided (Rashidun) caliphs, a term used for the first four caliphs, acknowledging instead the rightful succession of ʿAli and his descendants. The Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) was followed by the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) established by Muʿawiya in Damascus, Syria. The dynastic succession established by Muʿawiya lasted until a rival clan of the Qurash tribe, the Abbasids, successfully revolted. The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) established a dynasty with its capital in Baghdad, though its control over the state was severely reduced during its last three centuries by rival secular rulers, including the Buyids and Seljuks along with the Fatamid Caliphate (909–1171) in Egypt and the Umayyad Caliphate (929–1031) of Spain. The Ottoman conquest of the Mamluk state led to the establishment of the Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924).
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Scholarship on the caliphate is long-standing and impressive in addressing questions of Islamic historiography, theory, and histories of this institution. Although a large body of literary evidence exists (largely biographies or chronicles), most date to the Abbasid era rather than to the time of Muhammad, the Rashidun, or even the Umayyads. This has led to considerable controversy regarding both the reliability of sources and the proper interpretation of the early years of the Islamic state and its conquests. al-Tabari 2007 is the most comprehensive and important of these narratives. Humphreys 1991 provides researchers with a critical tool to evaluate this early historiography, while Gibb 1982 and Arnold 1965 provide good overviews on the theory of the caliphate. Kennedy 2004 provides detailed histories of the caliphate throughout the medieval era, while Bearman, et al. 1960–2005 and Hodgson 1974 examine this history well into modern times.
  8.  
  9. Arnold, Thomas W. The Caliphate. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
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  11. New edition with concluding chapter by Sylvia Haim. Focuses on the theory and history of the caliphate. Originally published in 1924.
  12. Arnold, Thomas W. The Caliphate. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Bearman, P. J., Th. Bianquis, Clifford E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopedia of Islam. 12 vols. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005.
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  16. This monumental work is the most comprehensive reference work on Islam, with detailed articles by top scholars on the Islamic world.
  17. Bearman, P. J., Th. Bianquis, Clifford E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopedia of Islam. 12 vols. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Gibb, Hamilton A. R. Studies on the Civilization of Islam. Edited by Stanford J. Shaw and William R. Polk. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
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  21. This collection of essays on Islamic civilization, first published in 1962, includes several on the development of Islamic historiography as well as political theory regarding the caliphate. One chapter considers the development of Sunni political theory, contending it was never properly reflected by the political institutions of the caliphate, while another provides an insightful analysis of al-Mawardi’s views on the caliphate at a critical juncture when its temporal power was seized by the Buyids.
  22. Gibb, Hamilton A. R. Studies on the Civilization of Islam. Edited by Stanford J. Shaw and William R. Polk. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Hodgson, Marshall G. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
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  26. A classic survey of Islamic history in three volumes, including consideration of all aspects of the caliphate.
  27. Hodgson, Marshall G. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Humphreys, R. Stephen. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
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  31. A critical study of the sources, methods, and scholarship on the political and social history of the medieval Middle East and North Africa.
  32. Humphreys, R. Stephen. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
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  34. Kennedy, Hugh. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge, 2001.
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  36. A well-balanced study of the social and political considerations associated with the compositions of the caliphs’ armies and their corresponding impact upon the caliphate over its first three hundred years.
  37. Kennedy, Hugh. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge, 2001.
  38. Find this resource:
  39. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. 2d ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education, 2004.
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  41. Provides an excellent introduction to Islamic history through the 11th century as well as a fine bibliographical essay and a list of general and more specialized works in Western languages, including available translations of primary sources.
  42. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. 2d ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education, 2004.
  43. Find this resource:
  44. al-Tabari. The History of al-Tabari. 40 vols. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007.
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  46. Major series of translated volumes of the most widely acclaimed Arabic chronicle of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the Umayyad Caliphate, and the Abbassid Caliphate to 915. The first thirty-nine volumes were published separately between 1985 and 1999, with the full forty-volume set (including index) released in 2007.
  47. al-Tabari. The History of al-Tabari. 40 vols. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Bibliographies
  50.  
  51. The best starting point for research on the caliphate is the electronic bibliographic resources available in most academic libraries. These include the library’s bibliographic database as well as additional state university system databases where available. In addition, most libraries subscribe to additional online databases. WorldCat is the most comprehensive and up-to-date bibliographic resource available through library subscription for books, periodicals, and archival materials. The Gale Virtual Reference Library includes extensive lists of encyclopedias and specialized reference works with useful bibliographies and reference articles searchable by keyword, subject, author, publication title, and so on. Academic Search Complete (EBSCOhost) serves as a comprehensive online database for scholarly articles and book reviews published in peer-reviewed academic journals and periodicals. ProQuest Research Library (Proquest) is similar to Academic Search Complete, but the journal coverage is somewhat different. Another Proquest database available for library subscription is Index Islamicus, which indexes some three thousand journals along with conference proceedings, books, and reviews on the Middle East and the Islamic world. JSTOR is another excellent digital archive. It includes full-text coverage of scholarly journals, some dating back more than one hundred years. However, journal issues published in the past three to five years are not available. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, also available though library subscription, serves as a more specialized database on Islamic studies, with separate searches available for bibliography, biography, and primary sources. In print, Norton 1995 includes an extensive list of books and articles on aspects of the caliphate. These were compiled by Richard W. Bulliet in the section titled “Islamic World to 1500.”
  52.  
  53. Academic Search Complete (EBSCOhost).
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. A comprehensive online database for scholarly articles and book reviews published in peer-reviewed academic journals and periodicals. Searchable by keyword, subject, author, and title, with full text available.
  56. Academic Search Complete (EBSCOhost).
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
  59. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  60. Includes extensive lists of encyclopedias and specialized reference works, with useful bibliographies and reference articles searchable by keyword, subject, author, publication title, and so on.
  61. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Index Islamicus.
  64. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  65. Indexes some three thousand journals along with conference proceedings, books, and reviews on the Middle East and the Islamic world.
  66. Index Islamicus.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. JSTOR.
  69. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70. An excellent digital archive that includes full-text coverage of scholarly journals, some dating back more than one hundred years, though journal issues published in the past three to five years are not available.
  71. JSTOR.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  75. This excellent reference work includes introductions, bibliographical citations largely dated between 1961 and 1992, annotations on aspects of the caliphate in the section entitled “Islamic World to 1500” by Richard W. Bulliet, and similar entries by Carter V. Findley and other contributors on the Ottoman Caliphate and the Sokoto Caliphate in sections titled “Middle East and North Africa Since 1500” and “Sub-Saharan Africa.”
  76. Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  77. Find this resource:
  78. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  79. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80. Searchable by author, title, era, county, region, and topic. Serves as a specialized database on Islamic studies, with separate searches available for bibliography, biography, and primary sources.
  81. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  82. Find this resource:
  83. ProQuest Research Library (Proquest).
  84. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85. Similar to Academic Search Complete, but the journal coverage is somewhat different. Searches are similar, with full text available.
  86. ProQuest Research Library (Proquest).
  87. Find this resource:
  88. WorldCat.
  89. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  90. The most comprehensive and up-to-date bibliographic resource available through library subscription for books, periodicals, and archival materials. It includes bibliographic, abstract, and full-text information from libraries in 112 countries.
  91. WorldCat.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Reference Works
  94.  
  95. Gale Virtual Reference Library, an online reference database available by library subscription, is the best starting point, as it identifies articles and bibliographies on the caliphate searchable by keyword, subject, author, and publication title in more than 1,500 encyclopedias and other reference works, several of which are listed in this section. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, also available through library subscription, serves as a more specialized electronic database on Islamic studies, with more than 3,500 articles and chapters available and searchable by author, title, era, county, region, and topic. It allows limited searches by bibliography, biography, and primary sources. Another electronic reference with free access (and also available in print) is Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, a great reference for the history and cultures of those speaking Iranian languages. However, the best reference work available in print is Bearman, et al. 1960–2005.
  96.  
  97. Bearman, P. J., Th. Bianquis, Clifford E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopedia of Islam. 12 vols. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. This monumental work is the most comprehensive reference work on Islam, with detailed articles by top scholars.
  100. Bearman, P. J., Th. Bianquis, Clifford E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopedia of Islam. 12 vols. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005.
  101. Find this resource:
  102. Bosworth, Clifford E. The Islamic dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1980.
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  104. A good source of information about Islamic dynasties providing useful overviews of rulers, places, and dates.
  105. Bosworth, Clifford E. The Islamic dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1980.
  106. Find this resource:
  107. Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  109. This reference work includes a fine essay and bibliography for Caliph by Glenn E. Perry as well as another entry on the Khilafat movement of India.
  110. Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  111. Find this resource:
  112. Esposito, John L., ed. Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  114. An updated and enlarged version of Esposito 1995.
  115. Esposito, John L., ed. Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. An online reference database available by library subscription, with searches by keyword, subject, author, and publication title in more than 1,500 encyclopedias and other reference works.
  120. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
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  122. Martin, Richard C., ed. Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004.
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  124. Includes thematic articles and biographies, including an entry “Caliphate” by Muhammad Qasim Zaman.
  125. Martin, Richard C., ed. Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004.
  126. Find this resource:
  127. Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. This excellent reference work includes introductory essays, bibliographical citations largely dated between 1961 and 1992, annotations on aspects of the caliphate in the section titled “Islamic World to 1500” by Richard W. Bulliet, and similar entries by Carter V. Findley and other contributors on the Ottoman Caliphate and the Sokoto Caliphate in sections titled “Middle East and North Africa Since 1500” and “Sub-Saharan Africa.”
  130. Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  131. Find this resource:
  132. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  133. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  134. Available through library subscription, this is a specialized electronic database on Islamic studies, with more than 3,500 articles and chapters available and searchable by author, title, era, county, region, and topic. Limited searches by bibliography, biography, and primary sources can be done.
  135. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Simon, Reeva S., Philip Mattar, and Richard W. Bulliet, eds. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. 4 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 1996.
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  139. Includes a brief essay and bibliography on the abolishment of the Ottoman Caliphate.
  140. Simon, Reeva S., Philip Mattar, and Richard W. Bulliet, eds. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. 4 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 1996.
  141. Find this resource:
  142. Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iranica Online.
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  144. An online reference with free access, but also available in print. A great reference for the history and cultures of those who speak Iranian languages.
  145. Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iranica Online.
  146. Find this resource:
  147. Journals
  148.  
  149. A large number of academic journals publish scholarly articles and book reviews on the caliphate. Most are affiliated with professional associations from specific fields of discipline or area studies. Nearly all the journals cited here are indexed in the online bibliographies and reference works listed in Bibliographies and in Reference Works. Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean and the Journal of Near Eastern Studies are generally limited to the medieval eras, while the others tend to have articles on a wider range of Islamic and Semitic studies through to the modern era.
  150.  
  151. Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean.
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  153. A publication of the Society for the Medieval Mediterranean; publishes numerous articles on the caliphate.
  154. Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean.
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  156. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies.
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  158. Published by Taylor and Francis on behalf of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies; publishes articles on the caliphate as well as other subjects.
  159. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies.
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  161. Der Islam.
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  163. An independent journal that publishes articles on the history and culture of Islam in German, French, and English, including articles on the caliphate.
  164. Der Islam.
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  166. Die Welt des Islams: International Journal for the Study of Modern Islam.
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  168. An independent journal that has published numerous articles on the caliphate in German, English, and French.
  169. Die Welt des Islams: International Journal for the Study of Modern Islam.
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  171. International Journal of Middle East Studies.
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  173. Published by the Middle East Studies Association, the premier scholarly organization devoted to Middle East area studies; often publishes articles on the Islamic caliphate.
  174. International Journal of Middle East Studies.
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  176. Journal of Near Eastern Studies.
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  178. Published by the University of Chicago’s Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations since 1884; includes contributions on the caliphate.
  179. Journal of Near Eastern Studies.
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  181. Journal of Semitic Studies.
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  183. An independent journal devoted to Semitic studies from ancient to modern times; includes articles on the historiography of the caliphate.
  184. Journal of Semitic Studies.
  185. Find this resource:
  186. Studia Islamica.
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  188. An independent journal published by Maisonneuve and Larose, Studia Islamica publishes articles in French and English on medieval and modern Islamic lands of the Mediterranean and southwestern Asia, including studies of the caliphate.
  189. Studia Islamica.
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  191. The Rashidun, Or Rightly Guided Caliphate
  192.  
  193. The Rightly Guided Caliphate, or Rashidun (632–661), comprised the first four caliphs primarily associated with the earliest Islamic state centered in Medina. These included Abu Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab, ʿUthman ibn Affan, and ʿAli, who were regarded as elected by the community based on their membership in the Qurash tribe of Muhammad, leadership ability, religious piety, and mental and physical fitness. Responsibilities of the caliph included command of the army, leadership in prayer and pilgrimage, administration of justice in accordance with Islamic law, collection of taxes and booty, and the provision of security, prosperity, and welfare for all. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Orientalist scholars performed important work transcribing and translating source materials, helping to building a narrative on early Islam that was generally considered reliable until about 1960, when a radical critique of these sources challenged the credibility of accepted notions regarding Muhammad and the early conquests. The sources in this section address this reappraisal of early Islamic narratives. They expose the reader to these different approaches, with Donner 1998 offering a sound “traditional-critical” critique of the “skeptical approach” highlighted by the work of Crone and Cook 1977.
  194.  
  195. Crone, Patricia, and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1977.
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  197. A skeptical and revisionist interpretation of Muhammad and the early caliphate based upon a rejection of traditional Islamic historiography in favor of Greek and Syriac sources.
  198. Crone, Patricia, and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1977.
  199. Find this resource:
  200. Donner, Fred M. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.
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  202. Excellent inquiry into the expansion of Islamic lands under the early caliphate, with an analysis of the available primary sources.
  203. Donner, Fred M. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Donner, Fred M. Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, no. 14. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1998.
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  207. This study engages in the controversy regarding early Islamic legitimacy of authority, offering a critical but less skeptical analysis of the beginning of Islamic narrative traditions.
  208. Donner, Fred M. Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, no. 14. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1998.
  209. Find this resource:
  210. Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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  212. A critical reappraisal of the Rashidun caliphate, with a sympathetic treatment of ʿAli’s role in the disagreements that resulted in the demise of the rule of the “Rightly Guided Caliphate” and the schism between Sunni and Shiʿite Islam.
  213. Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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  215. Nagel, H. M. T. “Some Considerations Concerning the Pre-Islamic and the Islamic Foundations of the Authority of the Caliphate.” In Studies on the First Century of Islamic Society. Edited by G. H. A. Juynboll. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
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  217. A fine analysis included among a series of papers on Islamic history.
  218. Nagel, H. M. T. “Some Considerations Concerning the Pre-Islamic and the Islamic Foundations of the Authority of the Caliphate.” In Studies on the First Century of Islamic Society. Edited by G. H. A. Juynboll. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
  219. Find this resource:
  220. The Umayyad Caliphates of Damascus and Cordoba
  221.  
  222. The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) was established by Muʿawiya of the Umayyad clan following his confrontation with ʿAli, which is regarded as Islam’s first civil war. Upon ʿAli’s death, Muʿawiya was recognized as caliph, and he proceeded to shift the seat of power to Damascus, Syria, where he had been governor. His success in establishing the principle of dynastic succession to his son, Yazid—despite opposition from ʿAli’s son, Husein, factions in Medina, and elsewhere—spelled the end of the principle of election. The sources listed in this section provide a foundation for study of current knowledge and scholarly controversies regarding the first Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus (Crone and Hinds 1986) as well as the later Umayyad Caliphate in Cordoba, Spain (Jayyusi 1992 and Safran 2000).
  223.  
  224. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
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  226. Controversial study of the early caliphate and Umayyad claim as “caliph of God” rather than “successor of the Prophet of God.” With its focus on the issue of religious authority in early Islam, the book asserts that the Umayyad caliphs claimed both temporal and religious authority as God’s representative on earth. This contradicts Sunni views, which reserve religious authority for the learned scholars (ulema).
  227. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Hawting, Gerald R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, A.D. 661–750. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
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  231. A brief but useful account of the Umayyad Caliphate. Second edition includes a new bibliographical essay on recent scholarship on the Umayyads.
  232. Hawting, Gerald R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, A.D. 661–750. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
  233. Find this resource:
  234. Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, ed. The Legacy of Muslim Spain. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1992.
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  236. A comprehensive study of Muslim Spain, published in an encyclopedic format on the quincentenary of the end of Islamic rule. Includes translations of many essays not originally written in English.
  237. Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, ed. The Legacy of Muslim Spain. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1992.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Safran, Janina M. The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in al-Andalus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
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  241. A fine analysis of Umayyad claims in Islamic Spain for caliphal legitimacy against rivals in Baghdad and Cairo, based on a wide-ranging examination of the documentary evidence and Umayyad culture.
  242. Safran, Janina M. The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in al-Andalus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
  243. Find this resource:
  244. Wellhausen, Julius. The Arab Kingdom and its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta, 1927.
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  246. Early and influential study of the Umayyad Caliphate. Reprinted by Routledge in 2000.
  247. Wellhausen, Julius. The Arab Kingdom and its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta, 1927.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. The Abbasid Caliphate
  250.  
  251. The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) rose to power in Iraq under the descendents of al-ʿAbbas, an uncle of Muhammad, as a result of dissatisfaction largely stemming from non-Arab Muslims (mawali) and Shiʿites. With the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate, the center of political power shifted eastward to the new capital of Baghdad. The Abbasid dynasty presided over an imperial caliphate associated with enormous wealth and royal patronage of the arts and sciences, considered to be the zenith of Islamic civilization. However, by the 10th century Abbasid political control was lost to new secular rulers, including the Shiʿa Buyids and Sunni Seljuks, who continued to recognize the symbolic role of the caliphs as successor to Muhammad and head of the Islamic ummah (community). Two other rival caliphates were established during this period; the Shiʿite Fatamid Caliphate (909–1171) founded by Ubayd Allah in Qayrawan (Tunisia) and later Cairo and the Umayyad Caliphate of Spain (929–1031) founded by Abd al-Rahman III, a descendent of the emir of Spain, Abd al-Rahman, who had escaped the Abbasid massacre in 750. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 1258 to the Mongols, an Abbasid shadow caliphate was reestablished under the Mamluks of Cairo, until its defeat by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. A wide range of sources is listed here, both primary and secondary. They shed important light upon various periods as well as individual caliphs of the Abbasid era. Works on controversies associated with the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and al-Mamʿun (el-Hibri 1999, Lapidus 1975), on issues of law and government (Lassner 1980, al-Mawardi 1996), and on the status of the caliphate in the late Abbasid era (Hanne 2007, Miskawayh 1920–1921) are highlighted.
  252.  
  253. Cooperson, Michael. Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma’mun. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  255. Good biographical study of the early Abbasid era, based on a reevaluation of Arab historical narratives.
  256. Cooperson, Michael. Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma’mun. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  258. Goitein, S. D. A Mediterranean Society. 6 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967–1993.
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  260. A magisterial study of Jewish communities in the medieval Mediterranean world, based on the Cairo Geniza with invaluable information on Fatimid Egypt.
  261. Goitein, S. D. A Mediterranean Society. 6 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967–1993.
  262. Find this resource:
  263. Hanne, Eric. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007.
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  265. Examines power and authority in the late Abbasid Caliphate, disproving the widely held notion of caliphs as ineffectual puppets to the Buyids.
  266. Hanne, Eric. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007.
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  268. el-Hibri, Tayeb. Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the Abbasid Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  270. This book engages in a reinterpretation of Abbasid narrative chronicles of Harun al-Rashid and al-Mamʿun based upon literary criticism in order to reveal their views on social, political, and religious issues at odds with their dynastic patrons.
  271. el-Hibri, Tayeb. Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the Abbasid Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  273. Kennedy, Hugh N. The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble, 1981.
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  275. Well-written analysis of this early era of the Abbasid Caliphate.
  276. Kennedy, Hugh N. The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble, 1981.
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  278. Lapidus, Ira M. “The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6, no. 4 (1975): 363–385.
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  280. Provides a critical analysis of events surrounding al-Maʿmun’s inquisition (mihna), which centered on questions of theology and faith with the aim of enhancing his religious authority.
  281. Lapidus, Ira M. “The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6, no. 4 (1975): 363–385.
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  283. Lassner, Jacob. The Shaping of ʿAbbasid Rule. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
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  285. Explores the Abbasid Caliphate’s government and administration of provinces, using a critical evaluation of available primary sources.
  286. Lassner, Jacob. The Shaping of ʿAbbasid Rule. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
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  288. Al-Mawardi. The Ordinances of Government. Translated by W. H. Wahba. Reading, UK: Garnet, 1996.
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  290. A classic primary source, providing a comprehensive consideration of Islamic law and government written by a prominent and trusted jurist of the late Abbasid Caliphate. The work confirms the legitimacy and symbolic role of the caliphate.
  291. Al-Mawardi. The Ordinances of Government. Translated by W. H. Wahba. Reading, UK: Garnet, 1996.
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  293. Miskawayh, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. The Eclipse of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate. 7 vols. Edited by H. F. Amedroz and D. S. Margoliouth. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1920–1921.
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  295. Valuable primary source, written during the 10th century, on decline of the Abbasid Caliphate during the Buyid era.
  296. Miskawayh, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. The Eclipse of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate. 7 vols. Edited by H. F. Amedroz and D. S. Margoliouth. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1920–1921.
  297. Find this resource:
  298. The Ottoman Caliphate
  299.  
  300. The Ottoman Caliphate originated with Selim I’s defeat of the Mamluks in 1517, which eventually reunited much of the Islamic lands east of the Zagros Mountains. Ruling from Istanbul, the Ottoman sultans advanced their claim as caliphs, particularly in the late 19th century, when they were faced with expanded European hegemony over their lands. This claim gained favor not only among Ottoman Muslims but also among Muslims of South and Southeast Asia, which had come under Western colonial rule. However, not all Arab Muslims recognized the Ottoman caliph’s call for resistance during World War I, decrying the lack of proper blood ties to the Quraysh, thereby lending support to the Arab revolt. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and the Turkish nationalists who established the Turkish Republic following the Ottoman defeat in World War I abolished the caliphate in 1924, leading to an Indian Khilafat movement to revive the caliphate. Although this failed call still resonates within the Islamic world among those opposed to the status quo, a revival of this symbol of Islamic temporal and spiritual leadership and unity remains elusive. The sources cited in this section represent some of the best scholarship regarding reform of the Ottoman Caliphate, its ideological justification, and the controversies regarding its abolishment by the Republic of Turkey. Deringil 1999, Karpat 2002, and Landau 1990 focus more closely on issues of social and political change in response to both internal and external challenges, while Toynbee 1927, Hourani 1983, and Minault 1982 focus more fully on the movement to abolish the Ottoman Caliphate and responses within the Muslim world. Shaw and Shaw 1977 and Lewis 2002 provide a more comprehensive treatment of the Ottoman Caliphate and its demise.
  301.  
  302. Deringil, Selim. The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999.
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  304. Fresh analysis of Abdulhamid II’s efforts to advance an imperial ideology that could meet the internal and external challenges of his times.
  305. Deringil, Selim. The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798–1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
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  309. Focuses on Arab intellectual responses to the Ottoman Caliphate and on efforts toward its restoration following its abolition.
  310. Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798–1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  311. Find this resource:
  312. Karpat, Kemal H. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  314. An important work on the transformation of the late Ottoman Empire’s political and social institutions through the emergence of new social considerations and political ideas juxtaposed with Islam.
  315. Karpat, Kemal H. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Landau, Jacob M. The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
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  319. A landmark study of the rise of pan-Islam during the 19th and 20th centuries, including its connection to the caliphate.
  320. Landau, Jacob M. The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
  321. Find this resource:
  322. Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 3d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  324. Good discussion on the Ottoman Caliphate and the rational for its abolition.
  325. Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 3d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Minault, Gail. The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
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  329. A detailed study of the symbol of the Ottoman caliph relative to political mobilization among Muslims in India.
  330. Minault, Gail. The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
  331. Find this resource:
  332. Shaw, Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw. Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Vol. 2 of History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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  334. Textbook study of this era with an emphasis on the reform of the Ottoman Caliphate and the emergence of the Republic of Turkey.
  335. Shaw, Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw. Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Vol. 2 of History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Toynbee, Arnold Jospeph. “The Abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Turkish Great National Assembly and the Progress for the Secularization Movement in the Islamic World.” In Survey of International Affairs, 1925. Vol. 1, The Islamic World since the Peace Settlement. By Arnold Joseph Toynbee. London: British Institute of International Affairs, 1927.
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  339. Focuses on the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate and the reaction in the Islamic world.
  340. Toynbee, Arnold Jospeph. “The Abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Turkish Great National Assembly and the Progress for the Secularization Movement in the Islamic World.” In Survey of International Affairs, 1925. Vol. 1, The Islamic World since the Peace Settlement. By Arnold Joseph Toynbee. London: British Institute of International Affairs, 1927.
  341. Find this resource:
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