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Herodotus (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Herodotus of Halicarnassus (c. 485—c. 425 BCE) is the author of the Histories, the oldest surviving historiographical work of Antiquity. Four times the size of Homer’s Iliad, it describes the origins and course of the conflicts between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states at the beginning of the 5th century BCE. In the first four books, Herodotus focuses on the growth of the Persian Empire under the Achaemenid kings and the ethnography of the peoples they attempted to subject. The main strand of Books 5 and 6 is the account of the Ionian Revolt, which led to the Persian expeditions against Greece. The last of these, Xerxes’ failed invasion (481–479 BCE), is the subject of the concluding Books 7–9. No other works of Herodotus are known to have existed.
  3.  
  4. Biography
  5. The sparse information about Herodotus’s life has come to us through scattered references in ancient works, as well as his entry in the Byzantine encyclopedia known as the Suda. Most scholars assume that Herodotus left his city of birth, Halicarnassus (Isager 1999), to travel across the Mediterranean world (Jacoby 1913, Myres 1953, Asheri 2007). The particular attention he pays to Egypt, Samos, and Athens suggests that he stayed in those places for some time and became familiar with local traditions (Lloyd 1975, Mitchell 1975, Forrest 1984, Ostwald 1991). More disputed are his visits to the East and the North; aspects of his descriptions of Babylon and the Scythians seem to rely on garbled oral traditions rather than empirical research (Armayor 1978). It is also believed that Herodotus was involved in the foundation of the Panhellenic colony Thurii at the end of his life (Jacoby 1913).
  6.  
  7. Armayor, O. K. 1978. Did Herodotus ever go to the Black Sea? Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 82:45–62.
  8.  
  9. DOI: 10.2307/311020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. A skeptical approach to Herodotus’s claims about his travels.
  12.  
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  15.  
  16. Asheri, David. 2007. General introduction. In A commentary on Herodotus Books I–IV. Edited by Oswyn Murray and Alfonso Moreno, 1–56. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. A brief and balanced discussion of the biographical material both inside and outside the Histories, pp. 1–7.
  21.  
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  23.  
  24.  
  25. Forrest, W. G. 1984. Herodotos and Athens. Phoenix 38:1–11.
  26.  
  27. DOI: 10.2307/1088084Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Historical analysis of Herodotus’s possible relationship with Athens.
  30.  
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  32.  
  33.  
  34. Isager, Signe. 1999. The pride of Halicarnassus: Editio princeps of an inscription from Salmakis. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 123:1–23.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A Greek inscription from Roman times in which Halicarnassus claims Herodotus as her own citizen.
  39.  
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  41.  
  42.  
  43. Jacoby, F. 1913. Herodotos. In Paulys Real–Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, supp. II. Edited by W. Kroll, 205–520. Stuttgart: Buchhandlung J. B. Metzler.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. An overview of most of the available biographical material on pp. 205–280. Paulys is available on microfiche, Leipzig: Saur, 1991; subscribers can access Neue Pauly.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Lloyd, A. B. 1975. Herodotus, Book II. Vol. 1, Introduction. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  53.  
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  55.  
  56. Discusses Herodotus’s travels in Egypt (pp. 61–76), with suggestions about the date of his journey and his itinerary.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60.  
  61. Mitchell, B. M. 1975. Herodotus and Samos. Journal of Hellenic Studies 95:113–122.
  62.  
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  64.  
  65. Contains an examination of Herodotus’s Samian narrative and its sources.
  66.  
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  68.  
  69.  
  70. Myres, J. L. 1953. Herodotus: Father of history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  71.  
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  73.  
  74. A historicizing approach based mainly on information from within the Histories (see pp. 1–16). Reprinted in 1999 (Oxford: Clarendon).
  75.  
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  77.  
  78.  
  79. Ostwald, Martin. 1991. Herodotus and Athens. Illinois Classical Studies 16:137–148.
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  82.  
  83. Argues that Herodotus, although he does not mention individual Athenian informants, became thoroughly familiar with the literary and philosophical world of Athens. He may have left the city for Thurii in an attempt to escape the imminent war with the Peloponnesians.
  84.  
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  86.  
  87.  
  88. General Overviews
  89. Jacoby’s monumental contribution to Paulys Real–Encyclopädie (Jacoby 1913) provides the starting point of modern scholarship into Herodotus and is still used today. The most insightful current discussions of Herodotus and his work are Immerwahr 1966, Fornara 1971, Gould 1989, Lateiner 1989, and Bichler and Rollinger 2000.
  90.  
  91. Bichler, Reinhold, and Robert Rollinger. 2000. Herodot. Hildesheim, Germany, Germany: Olms.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. Useful bibliography, topically organized.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99.  
  100. Fornara, Charles W. 1971. Herodotus: An interpretative essay. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  101.  
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  103.  
  104. Focuses on the question of how the Histories came to be written, firmly placing Herodotus into the context of his own time. Useful.
  105.  
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  107.  
  108.  
  109. Gould, John. 1989. Herodotus. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. Insightful discussion that seeks to appreciate Herodotus on his own merits by abolishing modern historiographical standards in judging his work. Acknowledges the idea of reciprocity as the guiding principle in the organization of the narrative of the Histories.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117.  
  118. Immerwahr, Henry R. 1966. Form and thought in Herodotus. APA Philological Monographs 23. Cleveland, OH: Press of Western Reserve Univ.
  119.  
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  121.  
  122. Landmark study into the principles behind the making of the Histories and its structure. Especially valuable are chapters 4–6 and the conclusion. Includes a comprehensive overview of the structure of the Histories (pp. 329–362). Reprinted in 1986 (Atlanta: Scholars Press).
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
  125.  
  126.  
  127. Jacoby, F. 1913. Herodotos. In Paulys Real–Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, supp. II. Edited by W. Kroll, 205–520. Stuttgart: Buchhandlung J. B. Metzler.
  128.  
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  130.  
  131. Masterful essay on all aspects of the Histories that has laid the foundation for modern Herodotean scholarship. Jacoby lends authority to the view that Herodotus was a staunch apologist of Periclean Athens (on which see Herodotus and Athens). Paulys is available on microfiche, Leipzig: Saur, 1991; subscribers can access Neue Pauly.
  132.  
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  134.  
  135.  
  136. Lateiner, Donald. 1989. The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  137.  
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  139.  
  140. Important investigation into the ways Herodotus structures the narrative of the Histories, arguing against the perception that his work seems ill-organized and amorphous.
  141.  
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  143.  
  144.  
  145. Introductory Works
  146. For a nonspecialist or starting undergraduate, Evans 1982, Waters 1985, and Romm 1998 provide good introductory surveys of the Histories. Briefer alternatives are supplied by Kurke 2000, Marincola 2001, and Strassler 2007.
  147.  
  148. Evans, J. A. S. 1982. Herodotus. Boston: Twayne.
  149.  
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  151.  
  152. Most of this book consists of a linear discussion of the most important episodes of the Histories. Contains a fine discussion of Herodotus’s sources, pp. 142–153.
  153.  
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  155.  
  156.  
  157. Kurke, Leslie. 2000. Charting the poles of history: Herodotos and Thoukydides. In Literature in the Greek and Roman worlds: A new perspective. Edited by Oliver Taplin, 133–154. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. Elegant comparative discussion of the two earliest historians.
  162.  
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  164.  
  165.  
  166. Marincola, John. 2001. Greek historians. Greece and Rome New Surveys in the Classics 31. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  167.  
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  169.  
  170. Includes a substantial chapter on Herodotus, pp. 19–60.
  171.  
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  173.  
  174.  
  175. Romm, James S. 1998. Herodotus. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  176.  
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  178.  
  179. Introduction to historical and literary aspects of the Histories, written with an eye to the nonspecialist.
  180.  
  181. Find this resource:
  182.  
  183.  
  184. Strassler, Robert B., ed. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. New York: Pantheon.
  185.  
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  187.  
  188. Includes an excellent introduction by Rosalind Thomas and numerous valuable appendices on many aspects of Herodotus’s work.
  189.  
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  191.  
  192.  
  193. Waters, Kenneth H. 1985. Herodotus the historian: His problems, methods and originality. London: Croom Helm.
  194.  
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  196.  
  197. Good general survey with useful bibliography.
  198.  
  199. Find this resource:
  200.  
  201.  
  202. Editions, Lexica, and Tools
  203. The Oxford Classical Text of Hude (Herodotus 1927) features the standard critical edition of the Histories. In the Budé series, Herodotus has been served by Legrand (Herodotus 1932–1954), whose solid edition also contains valuable annotations. Rosén’s more recent Teubner edition (Herodotus 1987–1997) has benefited from modern research into linguistics. His choices are often felt to be too controversial, however, for this edition to replace Hude’s. For any study of the Histories, Powell 1938 is indispensable. A useful discussion of many Herodotean names and places is provided by Strasburger 1984.
  204.  
  205. Herodotus. 1927. Historiae. Edited by C. Hude. 3d ed. 2 vols. Oxford Classical Texts. Oxford: Clarendon.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. The standard critical edition of the Histories.
  210.  
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  212.  
  213.  
  214. Herodotus. 1932–1954. Histoires. Edited and translated by P.-E. Legrand. 11 vols. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  215.  
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  217.  
  218. Highly sensible critical edition of the Histories with valuable annotations, translation, and introductions to the entire work as well as to individual passages.
  219.  
  220. Find this resource:
  221.  
  222.  
  223. Herodotus. 1987–1997. Historiae. Edited by Haiim B. Rosén. 2 vols. Stuttgart and Leipzig: Teubner.
  224.  
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  226.  
  227. Most recent edition of the entire Histories, based on modern research into linguistics, which sometimes leads to controversial choices.
  228.  
  229. Find this resource:
  230.  
  231.  
  232. Powell, J. Enoch. 1938. A lexicon to Herodotus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. Indispensable dictionary with references to all words at all their places in the Histories (including particles and articles, the latter arranged by case). Useful suggestions for translations of idiomatic expressions. Reprinted in 2004 (Hildesheim, Germany, Germany: Olms).
  237.  
  238. Find this resource:
  239.  
  240.  
  241. Strasburger, Gisela. 1984. Lexicon zur frühgriechischen Geschichte: Auf der Grundlage von Herodots Werk verfasst. Zurich and Munich: Artemis.
  242.  
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  244.  
  245. A thoughtful, useful discussion of many Herodotean names and places, given by Gisela Strasburger to Hermann Strasburger on his seventy-fifth birthday.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249.  
  250. Bibliographies
  251. Bibliographical support can be found in Bergson 1966, Marg 1982, Dewald and Marincola 1987, Bubel 1991, and Bakker, et al. 2002.
  252.  
  253. Bakker, Egbert J., Irene J. F. De Jong, and Hans van Wees, eds. 2002. Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  254.  
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  256.  
  257. With a vast bibliography, pp. 591–627.
  258.  
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  260.  
  261.  
  262. Bergson, Leif. 1966. Herodotus 1937–60. Lustrum 11:71–138.
  263.  
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  265.  
  266. Pays much attention to earlier scholarship that focuses on historical aspects.
  267.  
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  269.  
  270.  
  271. Bubel, Frank. 1991. Herodot-Bibliographie 1980–1988. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms-Weidmann.
  272.  
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  274.  
  275. Mentions more esoteric scholarship as well, such as Eastern European studies of the Thracians and Scythians.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279.  
  280. Dewald, Carolyn, and John Marincola. 1987. A selective introduction to Herodotean studies. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Edited by Deborah D. Boedeker and John Peradotto. Special issue, Arethusa 20:9–40.
  281.  
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  283.  
  284. An excellent discussion of the most important earlier scholarship.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Dewald, Carolyn, and John Marincola, eds. 2006. The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  290.  
  291. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292.  
  293. With a useful introduction and an up-to-date bibliography.
  294.  
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297.  
  298. Marg, Walter, ed. 1982. Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschung. 3d ed. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  299.  
  300. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  301.  
  302. Important edition of Herodotean studies of the mid-20th century, with a strong emphasis on German scholarship; bibliography, pp. 759–789.
  303.  
  304. Find this resource:
  305.  
  306.  
  307. Historical Commentaries
  308. For most of the 20th century, students of the Histories had to rely on the historical commentaries found in Sayce 1883 (Books 1–3), Macan 1895 (Books 4–6), Macan 1908 (Books 7–9) and How and Wells 1936 (all books). These commentaries have now been replaced by Lloyd 1975–1988 (Book 2), Scott 2005 (Book 6) and the Italian Mondadori series, whose works are currently being brought together by David Asheri and colleagues in a revised English edition of which the first part (Books 1–4) has recently been published (Asheri, et al. 2007).
  309.  
  310. Asheri, David, A. B. Lloyd, and A. Corcella. 2007. A commentary on Herodotus I–IV. Edited by Oswyn Murray and Alfonso Moreno. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. English edition based on the first four commentaries of the Italian Mondadori series. Includes a valuable introduction by Asheri and a reduced and revised version of the commentary on Book 2 by Lloyd himself.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. How, W. W., and J. Wells. 1936. A commentary on Herodotus. 3d ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon.
  320.  
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  322.  
  323. Historical commentary on the Histories. Still used as a work of reference, although much information is now outdated owing to progress in the fields of archaeology, history, and cultural anthropology. Reprinted, 1979.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Lloyd, A. B. 1975–1988. Herodotus Book II: Introduction and commentary. 3 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  329.  
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  331.  
  332. Comprehensive commentary on Herodotus’s Egypt book, with particularly valuable discussion of his approach to his material.
  333.  
  334. Find this resource:
  335.  
  336.  
  337. Macan, R. W. 1895. Herodotus: The fourth, fifth, and sixth books. 2 vols. London and New York: Macmillan.
  338.  
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  340.  
  341. Monumental commentary, now largely outdated.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Macan, R. W. 1908. Herodotus: The seventh, eighth, and ninth books. 3 vols. London: Macmillan.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. Monumental commentary, now largely outdated.
  351.  
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  353.  
  354.  
  355. Sayce, A. H. 1883. The ancient empires of the East: Herodotus I.–III. London: Macmillan.
  356.  
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  358.  
  359. Monumental commentary, now largely outdated.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Scott, Lionel. 2005. Historical commentary on Herodotus Book 6. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  365.  
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  367.  
  368. Recent historical commentary with rich and detailed discussions of the historical backgrounds behind Histories Book 6.
  369.  
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  371.  
  372.  
  373. Specialized Commentaries
  374. Bowie 2007 (on Book 8) and Flower and Marincola 2002 (Book 9) herald a new series of Cambridge commentaries in which the Histories are approached holistically. For grammatical and philological issues, the commentary of Stein 1881–1901 is still awaiting replacement. Bryn Mawr has issued helpful reading commentaries on the popular Books 1 (Sheets 1993) and 3 (Newmyer 1986).
  375.  
  376. Bowie, Angus M. 2007. Herodotus: Histories Book VIII. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  377.  
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  379.  
  380. Useful for its comments on contents, historical background, narrative, and grammar.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. Flower, Michael A., and John Marincola. 2002. Herodotus: Histories Book IX. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  386.  
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  388.  
  389. Useful for its comments on contents, historical background, narrative, and grammar. Good overview of current problems in Herodotean studies in the introduction.
  390.  
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  392.  
  393.  
  394. Newmyer, S. T. 1986. Herodotus, Book III. Bryn Mawr, PA: Thomas Library, Bryn Mawr College.
  395.  
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  397.  
  398. Commentary on the language of book III of the Histories, useful in particular for beginning readers of Herodotus.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Sheets, George A. 1993. Herodotus, Book I. Bryn Mawr, PA: Department of Greek, Bryn Mawr College.
  404.  
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  406.  
  407. Commentary on the language of book I of the Histories, useful in particular for beginning readers of Herodotus.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Stein, Heinrich. 1881–1901. Herodotos, erklärt von H. Stein. 5 vols. Berlin: Weidmann.
  413.  
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  415.  
  416. Valuable textual edition with a running philological commentary that is unique of its kind and still much used today. Reprinted, 1999.
  417.  
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  419.  
  420.  
  421. English Translations
  422. A number of translations of Herodotus’s Histories have appeared in print since the publication of Macaulay’s 19th-century classic (Herodotus 1890), happily now in print again in Lateiner’s revised version (see annotation), with the result that the English-language reader of Herodotus is now overwhelmed by choice. The most accessible to modern ears are perhaps four excellent full text editions—Grene (Herodotus 1987), de Sélincourt (Herodotus 1954), Waterfield (Herodotus 1998), and Purvis (Herodotus 2007)—along with one collection of excerpts by Blanco (Herodotus 1992). Older but still worthwhile, and available online, are Rawlinson (Herodotus 1858–1860) and Godley (Herodotus 1921–1924).
  423.  
  424. Herodotus. 1858–1860. The history of Herodotus. Translated by George Rawlinson.
  425.  
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  427.  
  428. Many editions available, some also online. Rich, archaic style. Revised in 1997 by Rosalind Thomas (Everyman Library, New York: Knopf)
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Herodotus. 1890. The history of Herodotus. Translated by G. C. Macaulay. 2 vols. London: Macmillan.
  434.  
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  436.  
  437. Online translations in two volumes at Project Gutenberg, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2; also About.com. Revised in 2004 with introduction and notes by Donald Lateiner. Barnes and Noble Classics. New York: Barnes and Noble. A gracious translation with useful modern notes.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Herodotus. 1921–1924. Works. Edited and translated by A. D. Godley. Loeb Classical Library. 4 vols. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
  443.  
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  445.  
  446. Translation available at Perseus.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Herodotus. 1954. The histories. Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  452.  
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  454.  
  455. A clear and reliable translation. Revised by John Marincola in 1996 (London: Penguin).
  456.  
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  458.  
  459.  
  460. Herodotus. 1987. The history. Translated by David Grene. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  461.  
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  463.  
  464. A readable, literary translation, though occasionally obscure.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Herodotus. 1992. The histories. Translated by Walter Blanco. Norton Critical Editions. New York: Norton.
  470.  
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  472.  
  473. Includes sizable excerpts from all books of the Histories, along with a selection of abbreviated modern critical essays on Herodotus.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477.  
  478. Herodotus. 1998. The histories. Translated by Robin Waterfield. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  479.  
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  481.  
  482. Especially valuable for the excellent introduction and notes by Carolyn Dewald.
  483.  
  484. Find this resource:
  485.  
  486.  
  487. Herodotus 2007. The landmark Herodotus: The histories. Edited by Robert B. Strassler; translated by Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Pantheon.
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. Includes an excellent introduction by Rosalind Thomas and numerous valuable appendices on many aspects of Herodotus’s work.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495.  
  496. Collections of Papers
  497. The size and broad scope of the Histories have stimulated many to write on individual passages, questions, and problems. The most significant scholarly papers are assembled in Marg 1982 and Dewald and Marincola 2006. The contributions of Luraghi 2001, Derow and Parker 2003, and Karageorges and Taifakos 2004 are important in contextualizing Greek historiography and Herodotus in particular against the background of Greek culture and society and attitudes toward the transmission of knowledge. The Histories as a piece of literature is the central focus of both Boedeker and Peradotto 1987 and Irwin and Greenwood 2007. Various approaches are combined in the rich Brill companion (Bakker, et al. 2002).
  498.  
  499. Bakker, Egbert J., Irene J. F. De Jong, and Hans van Wees, eds. 2002. Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Contains papers on Herodotus and his work, his world, his historical method, the Histories as a narrative, history, and ethnography.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507.  
  508. Boedeker, Deborah D., and J. Peradotto, eds. 1987. Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue. Arethusa 20.
  509.  
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511.  
  512. Volume entirely devoted to Herodotus’s Histories, with particular attention to the different roles of the narrator and his narrative (especially by Marincola, pp. 121–137; Dewald, pp. 147–170; and Nagy, pp. 175–184).
  513.  
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516.  
  517. Derow, Peter, and Robert Parker, eds. 2003. Herodotus and his world. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. Papers on historical and literary aspects, most of which are concerned with contextualizing the Histories. Divided into four parts: Narrative, Peoples and Places, Religion, and Herodotus and Athens.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525.  
  526. Dewald, Carolyn J., and John M. Marincola, eds. 2006. The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Collection of the most important recent contributions to Herodotean studies.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Irwin, Elizabeth, and Emily Greenwood, eds. 2007. Reading Herodotus: A study of the logoi in Book 5 of Herodotus’ Histories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. Linear discussion of individual passages of Book 5 that serves as an alternative to a commentary. With fine observations on Herodotean onomastics, in particular by Irwin.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Karageorges, Basos, and I. Taifakos, eds. 2004. The world of Herodotus: Proceedings of an international conference held at the Foundation Anastasios G. Leventis, Nicosia, September 18–21, 2003. Nicosia, Cyprus: Foundation Anastasios G. Leventis.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. A collection of papers discussing historical problems related to Herodotus’ Histories.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Luraghi, Nino, ed. 2001. The historian’s craft in the age of Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. Contains studies into the origins of Greek historiography that focus on the intellectual attitudes Herodotus shares with his contemporaries.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Marg, Walter, ed. 1982. Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschung. 3d ed. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. Important edition of Herodotean studies of the mid-20th century, with a strong emphasis on German scholarship.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Collections of Individual Authors
  572. See Strasburger 1982, Erbse 1992, and Evans 2006.
  573.  
  574. Erbse, Hartmut. 1992. Studien zum Verständnis Herodots. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. A collection of his papers on Herodotus.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Evans, J. A. S. 2006. The beginnings of history: Herodotus and the Persian wars. Campbellville, ON: Edgar Kent.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. A collection and annotated updating of his earlier articles.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Strasburger, Hermann. 1982. Studien zur alten Geschichte. Edited by W. Schmitthenner and R. Zoepffel. 2 vols. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms.
  593.  
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. A collection of his papers on ancient history, among other subjects on Herodotus.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Cultural and Intellectual Milieu
  602. The question of the cultural environment in which Herodotus lived and worked remains hotly debated, and goes hand in hand with that of what kind of thinker he was, and how we should go about interpreting the Histories. The common view until recently was that—though he lived into the Peloponnesian War at the end of the 5th century—Herodotus was a traditional thinker and storyteller, committed to traditional morality and religious belief (Harrison 2000, Fisher 2002) and looking back to Homer in his aim of sustaining kleos (Nagy 1987). Others instead emphasize Herodotus’s affinities with the thought world of contemporary “sophistic” Ionian and Athenian intellectual circles (Thomas 2000), his empirical investigative activity (Lateiner 1986, Darbo-Peschanski 1987), and his engagement with 5th-century intellectual and moral concerns (including distinctly Athenian ones: Meier 1987). They expose a rationalist and critical inquirer whose worldview is more secular and closer to Thucydides (Raaflaub 2002). Notable too has been the move to think about Herodotus less as influenced by particular ideas and thinkers than as interacting with them (Fowler 1996).
  603.  
  604. Darbo-Peschanski, Catherine. 1987. Le discours du particulier: Essai sur l’enquête hérodotéenne. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. Herodotus’s investigative activity is centered upon human, empirical inquiry and concerned to recount opinions regarding the particular, rather than to establish truth.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Fisher, Nick. 2002. Popular morality in Herodotus. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 199–224. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. Comprehensive overview, highlighting how Herodotus offers not consistent messages but “a subtle and flexible set of interconnected themes, hints, and explanations” (pp. 200–201).
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Fowler, R. L. 1996. Herodotus and his contemporaries. Journal of Hellenic Studies 116:62–87.
  623.  
  624. DOI: 10.2307/631956Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. Sets Herodotus in the context of contemporary historians and ethnographers, challenging Jacoby’s view that these mostly postdated the Histories.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Harrison, Thomas. 2000. Divinity and history: The religion of Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. Herodotus as traditional thinker and pious believer.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Lateiner, Donald. 1986. The empirical element in the methods of early Greek medical writers and Herodotus: A shared epistemological response. Antichthon 20:1–20.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. Makes the case that the Hippocratics and Herodotus shared ideas about what can be known and how, and about the limits of useful knowledge.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Meier, C. 1987. Historical answers to historical questions: The origins of history in ancient Greece. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue edited by Deborah D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:41–57.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. Contrasts Herodotus’s multi-subjective, contingency-oriented Histories with Eastern accounts of the past, connecting this with ways of thinking developed in the context of Greek politics.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Nagy, Gregory. 1987. Herodotus the logios. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue edited by Deborah D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:175–184.
  659.  
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. Herodotus as the last of the logioi, standing in the line of Homer in making a “public presentation” with a view to preserving kleos.
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Raaflaub, K. A. 2002. Philosophy, science, politics: Herodotus and the intellectual trends of his time. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 199–224. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. Approaches the Histories as a commentary on the political trends of Herodotus’s own time.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675.  
  676. Thomas, Rosalind. 2000. Herodotus in context: Ethnography, science and the art of persuasion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. Important investigation placing Herodotus in the context of ethnography, natural science, philosophy, and rhetoric.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684.  
  685. Engagement with Predecessors and Contemporaries
  686. Most scholars nowadays agree that the Histories was the first of its kind, and that no one had ever attempted to combine writings about the past and the peoples of the habitable world in a work of this scale. Given its innovative character, it can be assumed that the author looked to existing literary models, which he sought to adapt to his own specific purposes.
  687.  
  688. Herodotus and Homer
  689. Ancient critics already noted that Homer provided Herodotus with his most influential model. In his choice of subject matter, the monumental scale of his work, and its commemorating function, it is clear that Herodotus aspired to position himself in the tradition of his epic predecessor (see Huber 1965, Strasburger 1972, Marincola 2007, Boedeker 2002, and Pelling 2006).
  690.  
  691. Boedeker, Deborah Dickmann. 2002. Epic heritage and mythical patterns in Herodotus. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 97–116. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  692.  
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694.  
  695. Discussion of the ways in which epic and mythical traditions interact with Herodotus’s work, both by shaping the narrative of events and by influencing the scope and style of the work as a whole.
  696.  
  697. Find this resource:
  698.  
  699.  
  700. Huber, Ludwig. 1965. Herodots Homerverständnis. In Synusia:Festgabe für W. Schadewaldt. Edited by Helmut Flashar and K. Gaiser, 29–52. Pfullingen, Germany: Neske.
  701.  
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703.  
  704. Discusses specific allusions to Homer in Herodotus’ Croesus logos, among others.
  705.  
  706. Find this resource:
  707.  
  708.  
  709. Marincola, John. 2007. Odysseus and the historians. Syllecta Classica 18:1–79.
  710.  
  711. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  712.  
  713. Shows how the historiographical narrators share certain characteristics with the Odysseus figure known from the epics, for instance their inquisitive nature.
  714.  
  715. Find this resource:
  716.  
  717.  
  718. Pelling, C. B. R. 2006. Homer and Herodotus. In Epic interactions: Perspectives on Homer, Virgil, and the epic tradition presented to Jasper Griffin by former pupils. Edited by M. J. Clarke, B. G. F. Currie, and R. O. A. M. Lyne, 75–104. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  719.  
  720. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  721.  
  722. Discusses various verbal allusions to Homer in the Histories.
  723.  
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726.  
  727. Strasburger, Hermann. 1972. Homer und die Geschichtsschreibung. Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch–historische Klasse. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. Landmark study that points out the historiographical status of Homer’s epic and defines the most important thematic, structural, and verbal allusions that are found in the historian.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735.  
  736. Herodotus and Archaic Poetry
  737. Though their influence is less obvious than Homer’s, intertextual relationships with (contemporary) poetic genres can be demonstrated. For Archaic poetry in general, see Verdin 1977 and Boedeker 2000; for tragedy see Chiasson 1982, Chiasson 2003, and Saïd 2002; for elegy see Boedeker 2001.
  738.  
  739. Boedeker, Deborah D. 2000. Herodotus’s Genres. In Matrices of genre: Authors, canons, and society. Edited by Mary Depew and Dirk Obbink, 97–114. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  740.  
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742.  
  743. Exploration of the views of Herodotus on various kinds of narrative, both poetry and prose, in order to establish his own “parameters, methods, and intentions.”
  744.  
  745. Find this resource:
  746.  
  747.  
  748. Boedeker, Deborah D. 2001. Heroic historiography: Simonides and Herodotus on Plataea. In The new Simonides. Edited by D. D. Boedeker and D. Sider, 120–134. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  749.  
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Investigation into the likelihood of Herodotus’s use of Simonides’ elegy on Plataea as a source, with an analysis of convergences and differences between the accounts. In contrast to the elegy’s heroizing role, Herodotus is in a position to view the received traditions about Plataea critically.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756.  
  757. Chiasson, Charles C. 1982. Tragic diction in Herodotus: Some possibilities. Phoenix 36:156–161.
  758.  
  759. DOI: 10.2307/1087674Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  760.  
  761. Highlights several plausible borrowings from tragedy in the council scene at Xerxes’ court (7.8–18).
  762.  
  763. Find this resource:
  764.  
  765.  
  766. Chiasson, Charles C. 2003. Herodotus’ use of Attic tragedy in the Lydian logos. Classical Antiquity 22:5–36.
  767.  
  768. DOI: 10.1525/ca.2003.22.1.5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. Analysis of possible allusions to tragedy in the first half of Histories Book 1.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774.  
  775. Saïd, Suzanne. 2002. Herodotus and tragedy. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 117–147. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Critical discussion of the view that Herodotus is, like Thucydides, a “tragic” historian. Apart from the difficulties involved in the term “tragic” itself, Herodotus focuses on continuous instability rather than “an iron law of history” in which events recur in similar ways, which seems more akin to the genre of tragedy.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783.  
  784. Verdin, Herman. 1977. Les remarques critiques d’Hérodote et Thucydide sur la poésie en tant que source historique. In Historiographia antiqua: Commentationes Lovanienses in honorem W. Peremans septuagenarii editae. Edited by Willy Peremans, 53–76. Symbolae Litterarum et Philosophiae Lovaniensis Ser. A, 6. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univ. Press.
  785.  
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787.  
  788. Herodotus does not criticize lyric poetry as a historical source in the same way that he warns his readers against the use of epic poetry (for instance in his discussion of the Trojan saga, 2.116–120). He seems to have made use of poems because he considered the poets eyewitnesses of events, though he was aware of their potentially subjective nature.
  789.  
  790. Find this resource:
  791.  
  792.  
  793. Herodotus and Other Prose Authors, Thucydides
  794. Owing to fragmentary evidence, it is difficult to trace the exact nature of the influence of early and contemporary prose authors on Herodotus (Fowler 2006). Some observations have been made, however, on Herodotus’s relationship to Hecataeus (West 1991) and on traces of evidence of competition with other prose authors (Boedeker 2000). For the interrelationships among Herodotus, the sophists, and Thucydides see Hunter 1982, Johnson 1994, Rood 1999, Winton 2000, Dewald 2006, and Irwin 2007.
  795.  
  796. Boedeker, Deborah D. 2000. Herodotus’s genres. In Matrices of genre: Authors, canons, and society. Edited by Mary Depew and Dirk Obbink, 97–114. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  797.  
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799.  
  800. Exploration of the views of Herodotus on various kinds of narrative, both poetry and prose, in order to establish his own “parameters, methods, and intentions.”
  801.  
  802. Find this resource:
  803.  
  804.  
  805. Dewald, Carolyn. 2006. Paying attention: History as the development of a secular narrative. In Rethinking revolutions through ancient Greece. Edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin Osborne, 164–182. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  806.  
  807. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  808.  
  809. Nuanced comparison of Herodotus and Thucydides as narrators who encode into their texts their endeavors to understand the human, secular world.
  810.  
  811. Find this resource:
  812.  
  813.  
  814. Fowler, R. L. 2006. Herodotus and his prose predecessors. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 29–45. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  815.  
  816. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817.  
  818. Attempts to place Herodotus within his intellectual context by means of an overview of the most important methodological terms. Includes a helpful appendix (pp. 39–41) of Herodotus’s predecessors and contemporaries.
  819.  
  820. Find this resource:
  821.  
  822.  
  823. Hunter, Virginia J. 1982. Past and process in Herodotus and Thucydides. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  824.  
  825. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. Attempt to compare and contrast the historical methods of Herodotus and Thucydides.
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831.  
  832. Irwin, Elizabeth. 2007. The politics of precedence: First “historians” on first “thalassocrats.” In Debating the Athenian cultural revolution: Art, literature, philosophy, and politics, 430–380 BC. Edited by Robin Osborne, 188–203. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  833.  
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835.  
  836. Takes Minos as a case study in comparing Herodotus and Thucydides in their treatment of mythical material.
  837.  
  838. Find this resource:
  839.  
  840.  
  841. Johnson, William A. 1994. Oral performance and the composition of Herodotus’ Histories. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 35:229–254.
  842.  
  843. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  844.  
  845. Questions the assumption that Herodotus wrote with a view to oral performance, and proposes instead that his work forms part of an ongoing historiographic literary tradition.
  846.  
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849.  
  850. Rood, Timothy C. B. 1999. Thucydides’ Persian wars. In The limits of historiography: Genre and narrative in ancient historical texts. Edited by C. S. Kraus, 141–168. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  851.  
  852. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  853.  
  854. Intelligent analysis of the ways in which Thucydides shapes his narrative of the Sicilian expedition by making use of the model offered by Herodotus in his narrative of the Persian wars.
  855.  
  856. Find this resource:
  857.  
  858.  
  859. West, Stephanie. 1991. Herodotus’ portrait of Hecataeus. Journal of Hellenic Studies 111:140–160.
  860.  
  861. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  862.  
  863. Draws on evidence supplied by the Histories in discussing Herodotus’s relationship with his predecessor Hecataeus.
  864.  
  865. Find this resource:
  866.  
  867.  
  868. Winton, Richard. 2000. Herodotus, Thucydides and the Sophists. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman political thought. Edited by C. J. Rowe and M. Schofield, 89–121. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  869.  
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871.  
  872. Successive treatment of the sophists, Herodotus, and Thucydides, with plenty of examples quoted at length that highlight the respective authors’ responses to contemporary ideas about rhetoric, education, morality, law, and politics.
  873.  
  874. Find this resource:
  875.  
  876.  
  877. Herodotus and Athens
  878. Although we do not know exactly whether and, if so, when Herodotus lived in Athens (see Biography), he certainly awards the city a prominent place in the Histories, declaring himself obliged to observe that Athens is ultimately responsible for the survival of Greece against the Persians (7.139). Elsewhere, he praises the democratic system (Forsdyke 2001), but also criticizes it for causing the Athenians to vote in favor of supporting Aristagoras’s Ionian Revolt, thereby turning Persian anger against mainland Greece (5.97). Though it was once believed that Herodotus wrote the Histories in praise of Athens, the overall evidence points to a more ambiguous attitude (Strasburger 1955, Stadter 1992), which is also reflected in his portraits of Themistocles (Fornara 1971, Blösel 2004), architect of the victory of Salamis, and of Croesus, whose empire evokes that of the Athenians (Moles 1996).
  879.  
  880. Blösel, Wolfgang. 2004. Themistokles bei Herodot: Spiegel Athens im fünften Jahrhundert. Studien zur Geschichte und historiographischen Konstruktion des griechischen Freiheitskampfes 480 v. Chr. Historia Einzelschriften 183. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  881.  
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. Thorough study of all historical and historiographical evidence related to Themistocles’s presentation in the Histories.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888.  
  889. Fornara, Charles W. 1971. Herodotus: An interpretative essay. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  890.  
  891. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  892.  
  893. See chapter 3 on Herodotus, Themistocles, and Athens (pp. 37–58).
  894.  
  895. Find this resource:
  896.  
  897.  
  898. Forsdyke, Sara. 2001. Athenian democratic ideology and Herodotus’ Histories. American Journal of Philology 122:329–358.
  899.  
  900. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2001.0038Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  901.  
  902. On Herodotus as a neglected source for Athenian democratic ideology. Argues that Herodotus was influenced by specifically Athenian ways of representing political values.
  903.  
  904. Find this resource:
  905.  
  906.  
  907. Moles, John. 1996. Herodotus warns the Athenians. In Papers of the Leeds International Latin Seminar 9. Edited by F. Cairns and M. Heath, 259–284. Leeds, UK: Francis Cairns.
  908.  
  909. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. Seminal study of contemporary Athenian echoes in the presentation of the Lydian empire in the first half of Book 1 of the Histories. The fall of Croesus and his empire may well serve as a paradigm for Athens’s insolent imperialism.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915.  
  916. Stadter, Philip. 1992. Herodotus and the Athenian arche. Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, 3d series, 22:781–809.
  917.  
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919.  
  920. Argues that Herodotus provides signals in his narrative that invite his readers to recognize analogies with contemporary Athenian imperialist tendencies. The three signals discussed are aggression across continental boundaries, exaction of tribute, and enslavement of subject peoples.
  921.  
  922. Find this resource:
  923.  
  924.  
  925. Strasburger, Hermann. 1955. Herodot und das perikleische Athen. Historia 4:1–25.
  926.  
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928.  
  929. Reprinted in Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschung. Edited by W. Marg, 574–608 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1982). Argues against the view of (among others) Jacoby (see General Overviews) that Herodotus was a staunch apologist of Periclean Athens. On the basis of the Athenian material in the Histories, it looks as if Herodotus admired Athens but also distanced himself from its Athenocentric imperialist politics.
  930.  
  931. Find this resource:
  932.  
  933.  
  934. Historicity and Reliability
  935. A critical issue in the Histories, as in all historical writing, is the relationship between historiography as narration and the events it claims to describe. Many of the articles cited under Engagement with Predecessors and Contemporaries, Herodotus and History, Historical Methods, and Herodotus as Literature are also relevant to this issue.
  936.  
  937. Literary and Historicist Approaches
  938. Scholarship on the Histories has been polarized into two camps: traditional historicist approaches, on the one hand, emphasize Herodotus’s truth claims and approach him with the aim of determining his reliability (in factual accuracy and impartiality); and on the other hand are more recent literary approaches. The latter highlight Herodotus’s own selection and shaping of material (Lateiner 1989) and the “content of the form” (see Herodotus as Literature), and they raise the possibility that Herodotus at times aimed at presenting different sorts of “truth” (Flory 1987). Recent studies suggest possible routes of navigation between these poles (Moles 1993, Dillery 1996, Dewald 2007).
  939.  
  940. Dewald, Carolyn. 2007. The construction of meaning in the first three historians. In A companion to Greek and Roman historiography. Edited by John Marincola, 89–101. 2 vols. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
  941.  
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943.  
  944. A nuanced examination of how Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon articulate the process of historical narration as one that privileges reality.
  945.  
  946. Find this resource:
  947.  
  948.  
  949. Dillery, John. 1996. Reconfiguring the past: Thyrea, Thermopylae and narrative patterns in Herodotus. American Journal of Philology 117:317–354.
  950.  
  951. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952.  
  953. Considers how Herodotus’s shaping of the Thermopylae narrative reflects his thinking about historical truth.
  954.  
  955. Find this resource:
  956.  
  957.  
  958. Flory, Stewart. 1987. The archaic smile of Herodotus. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press.
  959.  
  960. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  961.  
  962. Chapter 2 (pp. 48–79) discusses Herodotus’s interest in anecdotes containing themes and motifs that are most suggestive rather than those that are most factually true.
  963.  
  964. Find this resource:
  965.  
  966.  
  967. Lateiner, Donald. 1989. The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  968.  
  969. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  970.  
  971. Important investigation into the ways in which Herodotus structures the narrative of the Histories, arguing against the perception that his work seems ill-organized and amorphous.
  972.  
  973. Find this resource:
  974.  
  975.  
  976. Moles, John. 1993. Truth and untruth in Herodotus and Thucydides. In Lies and fiction in the ancient world. Edited by Christopher Gill and T. P. Wiseman, 88–121. Exeter, UK: Univ. of Exeter Press.
  977.  
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979.  
  980. On the inextricable linkage of “literary” and “historical” elements, emphasizing the shifting and ambiguous relationship of ancient historiography to external reality.
  981.  
  982. Find this resource:
  983.  
  984.  
  985. Veracity
  986. Since Antiquity, Herodotus has had a double reputation as both “father of history” and “father of lies.”
  987.  
  988. The “Liar School”
  989. Part of the veracity debate centers on the question of the work’s relationship to the oral traditions it claims to report (see Sources and Oral Tradition): some scholars have questioned whether Herodotus intended to give us factual information at all (Fehling 1971, Armayor 1985, West 1985), arguing that his source citations are fabrications, intended to deceive his audience into accepting them as truthful.
  990.  
  991. Armayor, O. Kimball. 1985. Herodotus’ autopsy of the Fayoum: Lake Moeris and the Labyrinth of Egypt. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  992.  
  993. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  994.  
  995. Herodotus’s description of the Labyrinth and Lake Moeris viewed as irreconcilable with the geographical and archaeological evidence, and therefore as based not on personal observation but on literary models.
  996.  
  997. Find this resource:
  998.  
  999.  
  1000. Fehling, Detlev. 1971. Die Quellenangaben bei Herodot: Studien zur Erzählkunst Herodots. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  1001.  
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003.  
  1004. English translation, Herodotus and his “sources”: Citation, invention and narrative art (Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989). A highly controversial work.
  1005.  
  1006. Find this resource:
  1007.  
  1008.  
  1009. West, Stephanie. 1985. Herodotus’ epigraphical interests. Classical Quarterly n.s. 35:278–305.
  1010.  
  1011. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800040179Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1012.  
  1013. A skeptical account of the way in which Herodotus uses epigraphical documents as evidence.
  1014.  
  1015. Find this resource:
  1016.  
  1017.  
  1018. Responses to the “Liar School”
  1019. Responses to the “Liar School” have taken varied forms: highlighting corroboration of Herodotus’s account in other sources (Pritchett 1993), the comprehensible chronology of Archaic Greek history that emerges from his narrative (Rhodes 2003), and his use of autopsy as a key to unmediated knowledge (Schepens 1980); observations of how he himself is a discerning critic (Cartledge and Greenwood 2002) who practices skeptical source criticism (Fowler 1996) and reminds readers of the partisan nature of narrative (Dewald 1999), with his presentation of source citations advertising the dubious nature of his material (Erbse 1991, Shrimpton 1997); and the suggestion that these are not literal “source citations” at all (Luraghi 2001). See also Sources and Oral Tradition.
  1020.  
  1021. Cartledge, Paul, and Emily Greenwood. 2002. “Herodotus as a Critic: Truth, Fiction, Polarity.” In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 351–371. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1022.  
  1023. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1024.  
  1025. Examines Herodotus’s conception of his role and his construction of authority as critic of the traditions he reports.
  1026.  
  1027. Find this resource:
  1028.  
  1029.  
  1030. Dewald, Carolyn. 1999. The figured stage: Focalizing the initial narratives of Herodotus and Thucydides. In Contextualizing classics: Ideology, performance, dialogue: Essays in honor of John J. Peradotto. Edited by Thomas Faulkner, Nancy Felson, and David Konstan, 221–252. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
  1031.  
  1032. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1033.  
  1034. A narratological study arguing that the shifting focalizations of Herodotus’s preface expose the partial and partisan nature of storytelling.
  1035.  
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037.  
  1038.  
  1039. Erbse, Hartmut. 1991. Fiktion und Wahrheit im Werke Herodots. Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen 1991:131–150.
  1040.  
  1041. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1042.  
  1043. Counters Fehling in contending that Herodotus exposes the doubtful nature of accounts he regards as untruthful (see Fehling 1971 under The “Liar School”).
  1044.  
  1045. Find this resource:
  1046.  
  1047.  
  1048. Fowler, R. L. 1996. Herodotus and his contemporaries. Journal of Hellenic Studies 116:62–87.
  1049.  
  1050. DOI: 10.2307/631956Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051.  
  1052. Argues that Herodotus himself practices skeptical source criticism.
  1053.  
  1054. Find this resource:
  1055.  
  1056.  
  1057. Luraghi, Nino. 2001. Local knowledge in Herodotus’ Histories. In The historian’s craft in the age of Herodotus. Edited by Nino Luraghi, 138–160. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1058.  
  1059. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1060.  
  1061. By means of references to information he has heard from others, Herodotus reminds his readers of the local and collective nature of the knowledge that he assembles in the Histories.
  1062.  
  1063. Find this resource:
  1064.  
  1065.  
  1066. Pritchett, William Kendrick. 1993. The Liar School of Herodotos. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1067.  
  1068. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1069.  
  1070. Rebuts Fehling with a focus on archaeology and topography (see Fehling 1971 under The “Liar School”).
  1071.  
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073.  
  1074.  
  1075. Rhodes, P. J. 2003. Herodotean chronology revisited. In Herodotus and his world. Edited by P. Derow and R. Parker, 58–72. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1076.  
  1077. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1078.  
  1079. Includes a useful list of events (500–480 BCE) Herodotus describes that can be dated, pp. 71–72.
  1080.  
  1081. Find this resource:
  1082.  
  1083.  
  1084. Schepens, Guido. 1980. L’Autopsie dans la méthode des historiens grecs du Ve siècle avant J.–C. Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en schone Kunsten van België 93. Brussels: Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen.
  1085.  
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087.  
  1088. Thorough discussion of autopsy as the key to unmediated knowledge for ancient historians like Herodotus.
  1089.  
  1090. Find this resource:
  1091.  
  1092.  
  1093. Shrimpton, Gordon S. 1997. History and memory in ancient Greece. Montreal: McGill–Queen’s Univ. Press.
  1094.  
  1095. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1096.  
  1097. The appendix, written with K. M. Gillis, contains an overview of Herodotus’s source citations (pp. 229–265).
  1098.  
  1099. Find this resource:
  1100.  
  1101.  
  1102. Sources and Oral Tradition
  1103. The 19th-century interest in Quellenforschung (the “study of sources”) has been supplanted by intertextual approaches to the sources of the Histories (Hornblower 2002) and awareness that Herodotus’s references to collective informants may not be literal “source citations” (Luraghi 2001 and Luraghi 2006). Anthropological studies of the nature of oral tradition supply further important perspectives on the question of Herodotus’s reliability (see The “Liar School” and Responses to the “Liar School”), as they underline the complicated character of the traditions available to Herodotus (Thomas 1989, Giangiulio 2005) and the inappropriateness of the true/false framework, since the process of transmitting and recording a tale affects its content (see Cobet 1974, and more generally, Murray 1987 and Evans 1991), as does the process of writing it up as history (Cobet 1988).
  1104.  
  1105. Cobet, Justus. 1974. Review of D. Fehling, Die Quellenangaben bei Herodot. Studien zur Erzählkunst Herodots (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971). Gnomon 46:737–746.
  1106.  
  1107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1108.  
  1109. Counters Fehling in arguing that assessing the veracity of material Herodotus records on the basis of a true/false framework is inappropriate to the conditions of oral transmission (see Fehling 1971 under The “Liar School”).
  1110.  
  1111. Find this resource:
  1112.  
  1113.  
  1114. Cobet, Justus. 1988. Herodot und mündliche Überlieferung. In Vergangenheit in mündlicher Überlieferung. Edited by Jügen von Ungern–Sternberg and Hansjörg Renau, 226–233. Stuttgart: Teubner.
  1115.  
  1116. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1117.  
  1118. Considers the oral character of Herodotus’s Histories. In reworking the materials available to him, the historian engages in “myth construction,” as his account is filtered through his memory and informed by his contemporary circumstances.
  1119.  
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121.  
  1122.  
  1123. Evans, J. A. S. 1991. Herodotus, explorer of the past: Three essays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1124.  
  1125. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1126.  
  1127. Chapter 3 (pp. 89–146) discusses the epichoric nature of Herodotus’s sources, bringing to bear anthropological studies of African oral tradition.
  1128.  
  1129. Find this resource:
  1130.  
  1131.  
  1132. Giangiulio, Maurizio, ed. 2005. Erodoto e il “modello erodoteo”: Formazione e trasmissione delle tradizioni storiche in Grecia. Trento, Italy: Dipartimento di Scienze Filologiche e Storiche, Università degli Studi di Trento.
  1133.  
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135.  
  1136. Investigation of traditions on which Herodotus’s text is based and his text’s relationship to these. Includes a survey of the history of scholarship on oral tradition in the Histories.
  1137.  
  1138. Find this resource:
  1139.  
  1140.  
  1141. Hornblower, Simon. 2002. Herodotus and his sources of information. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 373–386. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1142.  
  1143. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1144.  
  1145. Accessible discussion of Herodotus’s handling of the sources of information available to him, literary as well as oral, and both identified and unidentified.
  1146.  
  1147. Find this resource:
  1148.  
  1149.  
  1150. Luraghi, Nino. 2001. Local knowledge in Herodotus’ Histories. In The historian’s craft in the age of Herodotus. Edited by Nino Luraghi, 138–160. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1151.  
  1152. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1153.  
  1154. Herodotus’s references to information he has heard from others remind readers of the local and collective nature of the knowledge that he assembles in the Histories.
  1155.  
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157.  
  1158.  
  1159. Luraghi, Nino. 2006. Meta–historiê: Method and genre. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 76–91. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1160.  
  1161. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1162.  
  1163. Argues that the Histories’ meta-discourse does not straightforwardly depict Herodotus’s historical method. His references to collective informants do not illustrate his process of gathering information, but remind readers of the nature of the knowledge the Histories assembles.
  1164.  
  1165. Find this resource:
  1166.  
  1167.  
  1168. Murray, Oswyn. 1987. Herodotus and oral history. In The Greek sources: Proceedings of the Groningen 1984 Achaemenid History Workshop. Edited by Heleen Sancisi–Weerdenburg and Amélie Kuhrt, 93–115. Achaemenid History 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1169.  
  1170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171.  
  1172. Reprinted in The historian’s craft in the age of Herodotus, edited by Nino Luraghi, pp. 16–44 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). A seminal article on the relationship of Herodotus and oral tradition.
  1173.  
  1174. Find this resource:
  1175.  
  1176.  
  1177. Thomas, Rosalind. 1989. Oral tradition and written record in Classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1178.  
  1179. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1180.  
  1181. Draws on anthropological studies in examining the different types of Athenian oral tradition, exposing their fluidity and interaction with written traditions.
  1182.  
  1183. Find this resource:
  1184.  
  1185.  
  1186. Sources: Philological Approaches
  1187. Internal analysis of the text can illuminate Herodotus’s methods in using and critiquing his sources in the case of particular episodes (Ceccarelli 1993, Vannicelli 2007).
  1188.  
  1189. Ceccarelli, Paola. 1993. La fable des poissons de Cyrus (Hérodote 1.141): Son origine et sa fonction dans l’économie des Histoires d’Hérodote. Métis 8:29–57.
  1190.  
  1191. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1192.  
  1193. Takes Histories 1.114 as a case study for investigating the relationship between historical actuality and Herodotus’s text, and particularly his principles of narrative selection and organization.
  1194.  
  1195. Find this resource:
  1196.  
  1197.  
  1198. Vannicelli, Pietro. 2007. To each his own: Simonides and Herodotus on Thermopylae. In A companion to Greek and Roman historiography. Edited by John Marincola, 315–321. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
  1199.  
  1200. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1201.  
  1202. Conveys how Herodotus uses narrative aporia to reflect the aporia in sources and traditions about Thermopylae.
  1203.  
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205.  
  1206.  
  1207. Herodotus and History
  1208. Recent years have seen a move away from using Herodotus’s text to determine actualities of Archaic and Classical history to regarding the Histories as an important source of representations, reflecting the ideologies and concerns of the groups on whose traditions it is based, and the mindset and attitudes of Herodotus in his shaping of the narrative, and of the audience at which it is aimed.
  1209.  
  1210. Herodotus and Greek History
  1211. The traditional focus on the Histories as a source for constructing Greek military history and constitutional development (Tozzi 1978, Boardman and Hammond 1982, Hart 1982, Lazenby 1993, and historically oriented commentaries (see Commentaries) has been enriched by exploration of what Herodotus’s stories reveal of the collective identity, beliefs, social and political ideologies, and self-presentations of his late 5th-century Greek audience (Kurke 1999, Malkin 2001, Forsdyke 2002, Forsdyke 2006, and Thomas 2004), and of his own thoughts and concerns as they surface from the Histories’ structure and themes (see Ethnography and the Other, Women, Kings and Tyrants, and Kings and Wise Advisors).
  1212.  
  1213. Boardman, John, and N. Hammond, eds. 1982. The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. 3, part 3: The expansion of the Greek world, eighth to sixth centuries B.C. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1214.  
  1215. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521234474Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1216.  
  1217. Useful overview of Archaic Greek history.
  1218.  
  1219. Find this resource:
  1220.  
  1221.  
  1222. Forsdyke, Sara. 2002. Greek history c. 525–480 BC. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 521–549. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1223.  
  1224. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1225.  
  1226. A survey of Herodotus’s treatment of Greek history, arguing that he skillfully collected, compared, and connected oral traditions of families and communities to form a coherent account.
  1227.  
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229.  
  1230.  
  1231. Forsdyke, Sara. 2006. Herodotus, political history and political thought. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 224–241. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1232.  
  1233. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1234.  
  1235. Outlines the move to examine political history as understood more broadly, as being implicated in social practices and norms.
  1236.  
  1237. Find this resource:
  1238.  
  1239.  
  1240. Hart, John. 1982. Herodotus and Greek history. London: Croom Helm.
  1241.  
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243.  
  1244. Useful discussion, also for the nonspecialist reader.
  1245.  
  1246. Find this resource:
  1247.  
  1248.  
  1249. Kurke, Leslie. 1999. Coins, bodies, games, and gold: The politics of meaning in Archaic Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1250.  
  1251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252.  
  1253. Explores coinage as a tool in the creation of social and political ideologies, viewing the Histories as the most democratic source for this.
  1254.  
  1255. Find this resource:
  1256.  
  1257.  
  1258. Lazenby, J. F. 1993. The defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Warminster, UK: Aris and Phillips.
  1259.  
  1260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1261.  
  1262. Emphasis on military history (equipment, strategy, tactics, topography), with detailed and often technical discussion.
  1263.  
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265.  
  1266.  
  1267. Malkin, Irad. 2001. Ancient perceptions of Greek ethnicity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1268.  
  1269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1270.  
  1271. Herodotus is central to several chapters; see especially Rosalind Thomas, pp. 213–233, highlighting the fluidity of his criteria of ethnicity.
  1272.  
  1273. Find this resource:
  1274.  
  1275.  
  1276. Thomas, Rosalind. 2004. Herodotus, Ionia and the Athenian empire. In The world of Herodotus: Proceedings of an international conference held at the Foundation Anastasios G. Leventis, Nicosia, September 18–21, 2003. Edited by Basos Karageorges and I. Taifakos, 27–42. Nicosia, Cyprus: Foundation Anastasios G. Leventis.
  1277.  
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279.  
  1280. Challenges the more commonly held view in arguing that Herodotus’s fundamental stance was not anti-Ionian.
  1281.  
  1282. Find this resource:
  1283.  
  1284.  
  1285. Tozzi, Pierluigi. 1978. La rivolta ionica. Pisa: Giardini.
  1286.  
  1287. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1288.  
  1289. An excellent, comprehensive study of the Ionian Revolt.
  1290.  
  1291. Find this resource:
  1292.  
  1293.  
  1294. Herodotus and Eastern History
  1295. Scholars nowadays agree that the Eastern history as described by Herodotus in his Histories should be used as a historical source only with the greatest of caution (Drews 1973). Enlightening, in this respect, is the approach taken by those who follow Olmstead 1959 in their efforts to reconstruct the Eastern empires on the basis of independent archaeological and documentary evidence and compare their findings with Herodotus’s accounts (Balcer 1987, Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1989, Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1999, Briant 1996, Lewis 1997, Cawkwell 2005). Comparison of Herodotus and a Persian source for the same event can clarify whether he used that source (Asheri 1999).
  1296.  
  1297. Asheri, David. 1999. Erodoto e Bisitun. In Presentazione e scrittura della storia: Storiografia, epigrafi, monumenti. Atti del Convegno di Pontignano (Aprile 1996). Edited by Emilio Gabba, 101–116. Como: Edizioni New Press.
  1298.  
  1299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1300.  
  1301. A point-by-point comparison of topics common to Darius’s Bisitun inscription and Herodotus’s account of Persian history in Book 3, reaching the conclusion that Herodotus cannot have had access to a Greek copy of the inscription.
  1302.  
  1303. Find this resource:
  1304.  
  1305.  
  1306. Balcer, Jack Martin. 1987. Herodotus and Bisitun: Problems in ancient Persian historiography. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  1307.  
  1308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1309.  
  1310. A comparative historical analysis of Herodotus’s account of Persian history on the basis of an inscription in Bisitun that records the royal heritage of Darius.
  1311.  
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313.  
  1314.  
  1315. Briant, Pierre. 1996. Histoire de l’empire perse: De Cyrus à Alexandre. Paris: Fayard.
  1316.  
  1317. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1318.  
  1319. English translation, From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002). A monumental, comprehensive study of the history of the Achaemenid Empire.
  1320.  
  1321. Find this resource:
  1322.  
  1323.  
  1324. Cawkwell, George. 2005. The Greek wars: The failure of Persia. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1325.  
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327.  
  1328. With a critical discussion of Herodotus’s accounts of the Ionian Revolt (chapter 4) and the Persian attempt to conquer Greece (chapter 5).
  1329.  
  1330. Find this resource:
  1331.  
  1332.  
  1333. Drews, Robert. 1973. The Greek accounts of Eastern history. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1334.  
  1335. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1336.  
  1337. Analysis of what Greek sources wrote about non-Greek history, with much attention to Herodotus’s Histories (chapter 3, pp. 45–96).
  1338.  
  1339. Find this resource:
  1340.  
  1341.  
  1342. Lewis, David M. 1997. Persians in Herodotus. In Selected papers in Greek and Near Eastern history. By David M. Lewis, edited by P. J. Rhodes, 345–361. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1343.  
  1344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1345.  
  1346. On the basis of a comparison with the Persepolis Fortification Texts, Lewis controversially concludes that Herodotus’s Persian prosopography is essentially true to the period of the Persian wars.
  1347.  
  1348. Find this resource:
  1349.  
  1350.  
  1351. Olmstead, A. T. 1959. History of the Persian Empire. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  1352.  
  1353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1354.  
  1355. Looks at the Achaemenid Empire from an Eastern rather than Greek point of view, which leads to a revaluation of the role in Persian history of the Persian wars against Greece.
  1356.  
  1357. Find this resource:
  1358.  
  1359.  
  1360. Sancisi–Weerdenburg, Heleen. 1989. The personality of Xerxes, King of Kings. In Archaeologica Iranica et Orientalis: Miscellanea in honorem Louis Vanden Berghe. Edited by L. de Meyer and E. Haerinck, 579–590. Ghent: Peeters.
  1361.  
  1362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1363.  
  1364. Reprinted In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 579–590 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002). Warns against Hellenocentric bias in historical studies of Xerxes’ role as an Achaemenid king. From Achaemenid iconography and epigraphical evidence (such as the Daivainscription) Xerxes emerges as a representative of an ideology that sought to emphasize the unchangeable nature of Persian kingship.
  1365.  
  1366. Find this resource:
  1367.  
  1368.  
  1369. Sancisi–Weerdenburg, Heleen. 1999. The Persian kings and history. In The limits of historiography: Genre and narrative in ancient historical texts. Edited by C. S. Kraus, 91–112. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1370.  
  1371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1372.  
  1373. With focus on the inscription of Bisitun, argues that Darius created a text that had no precursor in his own culture to serve his imperial propaganda.
  1374.  
  1375. Find this resource:
  1376.  
  1377.  
  1378. Historical Methods
  1379. Herodotus advertises a thoroughly empirical approach to his material, in which autopsy is the key to knowledge (Schepens 1980, Müller 1981), though one should abstain from breaking the law or infringing upon the customs of other peoples, as he teaches his readers by staging kings engaged in empirical research (Christ 1994). Much of the past material that Herodotus deals with, however, cannot possibly have been derived from autopsy and must therefore have been constructed by means of other, more narrative principles (Immerwahr 1966, Hunter 1982, Darbo-Peschanski 1987, Lateiner 1989, Luraghi 2006). To a certain extent, this holds true for the ethnographical material as well (Hartog 1980).
  1380.  
  1381. Christ, M. R. 1994. Herodotean kings and historical inquiry. Classical Antiquity 13:167–202.
  1382.  
  1383. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1384.  
  1385. Convincing exploration of the ways in which kings behave as inquirers in the Histories, arguing that they are often impeded by their position of authority.
  1386.  
  1387. Find this resource:
  1388.  
  1389.  
  1390. Darbo-Peschanski, Catherine. 1987. Le discours du particulier: Essai sur l’enquête hérodotéenne. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
  1391.  
  1392. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1393.  
  1394. On the ways in which Herodotus presents himself as an inquirer in his work, in ongoing critical engagement with his informants.
  1395.  
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397.  
  1398.  
  1399. Hartog, François. 1980. Le miroir d’Hérodote: Essai sur la représentation de l’autre. Paris: Gallimard.
  1400.  
  1401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1402.  
  1403. English translation, The mirror of Herodotus: An essay on the interpretation of the Other (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). Influential study into the rationale behind Herodotus’s arrangement of his ethnographical material, taking his Scythian logos as an example.
  1404.  
  1405. Find this resource:
  1406.  
  1407.  
  1408. Hunter, Virginia J. 1982. Past and process in Herodotus and Thucydides. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1409.  
  1410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1411.  
  1412. Attempt to compare and contrast the historical methods of Herodotus and Thucydides.
  1413.  
  1414. Find this resource:
  1415.  
  1416.  
  1417. Immerwahr, Henry R. 1966. Form and thought in Herodotus. APA Philological Monographs 23. Cleveland: Press of Western Reserve Univ.
  1418.  
  1419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1420.  
  1421. Landmark study of the principles behind the making of the Histories and its structure. Especially valuable in chapters 4–6 and conclusion. With a comprehensive overview of the structure of the Histories, pp. 329–362.
  1422.  
  1423. Find this resource:
  1424.  
  1425.  
  1426. Lateiner, Donald. 1989. The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  1427.  
  1428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1429.  
  1430. Important investigation into the ways in which Herodotus structures the narrative of the Histories, arguing against the perception that his work seems ill-organized and amorphous.
  1431.  
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433.  
  1434.  
  1435. Luraghi, Nino. 2006. Meta–historiê: Method and genre. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 76–91. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1436.  
  1437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1438.  
  1439. Discussion of the ways in which Herodotus handled his source material and organized his narrative.
  1440.  
  1441. Find this resource:
  1442.  
  1443.  
  1444. Müller, Dietram. 1981. Herodot—Vater des Empirismus? Mensch und Erkenntnis im Denken Herodots. In Gnomosyne: Menschliches Denken und Handeln in der frühgriechischen Literatur. Festschrift für Walter Marg zum 70. Geburtstag. Edited by G. Kurz, D. Müller and Walter Nicolai, 299–318. Munich: Beck.
  1445.  
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447.  
  1448. A lucid summary of Herodotus’s empirical approach in comparison with his contemporaries and predecessors.
  1449.  
  1450. Find this resource:
  1451.  
  1452.  
  1453. Schepens, Guido. 1980. L’Autopsie dans la méthode des historiens grecs du Ve siècle avant J.–C. Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en schone Kunsten van België 93. Brussels: Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen.
  1454.  
  1455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1456.  
  1457. Thorough discussion of autopsy as the key to unmediated knowledge for ancient historians like Herodotus.
  1458.  
  1459. Find this resource:
  1460.  
  1461.  
  1462. Herodotus as Literature
  1463. In recent decades the appreciation of Herodotus’s Histories as a work of literature has substantially increased. The subsections hereof contain a selection of important publications that have appeared in this field. Gray 2002 and Griffiths 2006 supply accessible introductions to Herodotus as writer of stories.
  1464.  
  1465. Gray, Vivienne. 2002. Short stories in Herodotus’ Histories. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 291–317. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1466.  
  1467. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1468.  
  1469. Thoughtful overview.
  1470.  
  1471. Find this resource:
  1472.  
  1473.  
  1474. Griffiths, Alan. 2006. Stories and storytelling in the Histories. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 130–144. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1475.  
  1476. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1477.  
  1478. A sparkling discussion with plenty of examples.
  1479.  
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481.  
  1482.  
  1483. The Herodotean Narrator
  1484. The different ways in which the Herodotean narrator emerges from the Histories were analyzed for the first time by both Dewald 1987 and Marincola 1987 in the Arethusa volume on Herodotus (see also Dewald 2002). Rösler 1991 concentrates on the ways in which Herodotus presents himself in his text. The relationship between the Herodotean narrator and his Homeric predecessor is the focus of two important articles, De Jong 1999 and De Jong 2004, whereas the enlightening study of the proem found in Bakker 2002 reveals a self-conscious narrator who invites his readers to listen critically and question and judge the material that he presents in a work that can be seen as an “enactment” of his inquiries.
  1485.  
  1486. Bakker, E. J. 2002. The making of history: Herodotus’ historiês apodexis. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 3–32. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1487.  
  1488. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1489.  
  1490. Bakker’s enlightening study reveals a self-conscious narrator who invites his readers to listen critically and question and judge the material that he presents in a work that can be seen as an “enactment” of his inquiries.
  1491.  
  1492. Find this resource:
  1493.  
  1494.  
  1495. De Jong, Irene J. F. 1999. Aspects narratologiques des Histoires d’Hérodote. Lalies: Actes des sessions de linguistique et de littérature 19:217–275.
  1496.  
  1497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1498.  
  1499. Apart from the narrator, the paper discusses the structure of the Histories, foreshadowing and suspense, the relationship between speech and narrative context, and the narrative strategies employed in the account of the battle of Salamis.
  1500.  
  1501. Find this resource:
  1502.  
  1503.  
  1504. De Jong, Irene J. F. 2004. Herodotus. In Studies in ancient Greek narrative. Vol. 1, Narrators, narratees, and narratives in ancient Greek literature. Edited by I. J. F. De Jong, R. Nünlist, and A. Bowie, 101–114. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1505.  
  1506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1507.  
  1508. A discussion of various aspects of the Herodotean narrator, who appears more overt than his Homeric predecessor. Pays attention to the narratees as well.
  1509.  
  1510. Find this resource:
  1511.  
  1512.  
  1513. Dewald, Carolyn. 1987. Narrative surface and authorial voice in Herodotus’ Histories. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue dited by D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:147–170.
  1514.  
  1515. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1516.  
  1517. Argues that the Herodotean narrator, which she calls the histor, appears in the narrative as an onlooker, as an investigator, as a critic and finally as a writer who is struggling with the vast amount of material that he seeks to present.
  1518.  
  1519. Find this resource:
  1520.  
  1521.  
  1522. Dewald, Carolyn. 2002. “I didn’t give my own genealogy”: Herodotus and the authorial persona. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 267–289. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1523.  
  1524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1525.  
  1526. Discussion of the “I” in the text of the Histories, distinguishing between two registers: the “I” of the narrator in managing the logoi and the “I” of the histor in representing data.
  1527.  
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529.  
  1530.  
  1531. Marincola, John. 1987. Herodotean narrative and the narrator’s presence. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue edited by D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:121–137.
  1532.  
  1533. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1534.  
  1535. An overview and discussion of the autobiographical statements in the Histories, which are divided into specific statements of eyewitness, specific statements of what Herodotus says he did not see, and statements in which Herodotus notes that he himself had personal contact with a specific source.
  1536.  
  1537. Find this resource:
  1538.  
  1539.  
  1540. Rösler, Wolfgang. 1991. Die “Selbsthistorisierung” des Autors: Zur Stellung Herodots zwischen Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit. Philologus 135:215–220.
  1541.  
  1542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1543.  
  1544. On the ways in which Herodotus presents himself in his work.
  1545.  
  1546. Find this resource:
  1547.  
  1548.  
  1549. Narrative Techniques
  1550. Badian 1994 heralded a move toward investigating in light of narratological theory, how Herodotus exploits features of narrative in recounting and explaining history. The relationship between historical events and their presentation in the historian’s account is addressed in terms of temporal relations, point of view, narrative voice, and a range of other narrative devices (De Jong 1999, Munson 2001, Cobet 2002, Munson 2005, Rood 2007). Other studies examine ways in which such devices shape reader responses and invite deeper reflection on the meaning of historical events, on the character and transmission of oral traditions, and on the very character of the historical work that emerges (Dewald 1993, Dewald 1999, Baragwanath 2008).
  1551.  
  1552. Badian, E. 1994. Herodotus on Alexander I of Macedon: A study in some subtle silences. In Greek historiography. Edited by Simon Hornblower, 107–130. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1553.  
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555.  
  1556. Examines Herodotus’s omissions as expressive.
  1557.  
  1558. Find this resource:
  1559.  
  1560.  
  1561. Baragwanath, Emily. 2008. Motivation and narrative in Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1562.  
  1563. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1564.  
  1565. Explores Herodotus’s deliberately fluid and complex portrayals of motivation.
  1566.  
  1567. Find this resource:
  1568.  
  1569.  
  1570. Cobet, Justus. 2002. The organization of time in the Histories. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 387–412. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1571.  
  1572. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1573.  
  1574. A rich analysis, with a diagram on p. 394 integrating Herodotus’s overt indications of time.
  1575.  
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577.  
  1578.  
  1579. De Jong, Irene J. F. 1999. Aspects narratologiques des Histoires d’Hérodote. Lalies: Actes des sessions de linguistique et de littérature 19:217–275.
  1580.  
  1581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1582.  
  1583. Discusses the narrator, the structure of the Histories, foreshadowing and suspense, the relationship between speech and narrative context, and the narrative strategies employed in the account of the battle of Salamis.
  1584.  
  1585. Find this resource:
  1586.  
  1587.  
  1588. Dewald, Carolyn. 1993. Reading the world: The interpretation of objects in Herodotus’ Histories. In Nomodeiktes: Greek studies in honor of Martin Ostwald. Edited by R. M. Rosen and J. Farrell, 55–70. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1589.  
  1590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591.  
  1592. Wide-ranging discussion of significant objects as markers in the Histories of the limits of human perception and interpretation.
  1593.  
  1594. Find this resource:
  1595.  
  1596.  
  1597. Dewald, Carolyn. 1999. The figured stage: Focalizing the initial narratives of Herodotus and Thucydides. In Contextualizing classics: Ideology, performance, dialogue: Essays in honor of John J. Peradotto. Edited by Thomas Faulkner, Nancy Felson, and David Konstan, 221–252. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
  1598.  
  1599. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1600.  
  1601. A narratological study arguing that the shifting focalizations of Herodotus’s preface expose the partial and partisan nature of storytelling.
  1602.  
  1603. Find this resource:
  1604.  
  1605.  
  1606. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 2001. Telling wonders: Ethnographic and political discourse in the work of Herodotus. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1607.  
  1608. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1609.  
  1610. Draws on narratology in distinguishing different levels of Herodotus’s text, and then analyzing his use of comparison and analogy as interpretative strategies.
  1611.  
  1612. Find this resource:
  1613.  
  1614.  
  1615. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 2005. Black doves speak: Herodotus and the languages of barbarians. Cambridge, MA: Center for Hellenic Studies and Harvard Univ. Press.
  1616.  
  1617. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1618.  
  1619. How Herodotus deals with foreign speech.
  1620.  
  1621. Find this resource:
  1622.  
  1623.  
  1624. Rood, T. C. B. 2007. Herodotus. In Time in ancient Greek literature. Edited by Irene J. F. De Jong and René Nünlist, 115–130. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1625.  
  1626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1627.  
  1628. Takes a narratological perspective in examining Herodotus’s handling of time (frequency, speed of narration, order of events).
  1629.  
  1630. Find this resource:
  1631.  
  1632.  
  1633. Narrative Structure
  1634. Following the landmark studies of Immerwahr 1966, Cobet 1971, and Fornara 1971, scholars are nowadays inclined to focus on the different ways in which Herodotus creates a cohesive narrative, in spite of the large amount of ethnographical and geographical material that he inserts in his digressions. Some, like Beck 1971 and Long 1987, focus on the discourse level, whereas others, like De Jong 2002, study the ways in which the interweaving of various time layers creates structural unity. More thematic readings are offered by Van der Veen 1996, who recognizes that Herodotus traces back the origins of great developments to seemingly minor incidents, and Boedeker 1988 and Dewald 1997, who investigate the difficult problem of how to read the closing chapters of the Histories.
  1635.  
  1636. Beck, Ingrid. 1971. Die Ringkomposition bei Herodot und ihre Bedeutung für die Beweistechnik. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms.
  1637.  
  1638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1639.  
  1640. An analysis of the way in which circular composition influences the structure of Herodotus’s argumentation.
  1641.  
  1642. Find this resource:
  1643.  
  1644.  
  1645. Boedeker, Deborah D. 1988. Protesilaos and the end of Herodotus’ Histories. Classical Antiquity 7:30–48.
  1646.  
  1647. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1648.  
  1649. Highlights ways in which Herodotus’s story of the vengeance of Protesilaos suggests parallels between the Trojan War and Xerxes’ invasion, exhibiting a pattern in the Histories whereby lesser characters act out broader moral or cosmological paradigms.
  1650.  
  1651. Find this resource:
  1652.  
  1653.  
  1654. Cobet, Justus. 1971. Herodots Exkurse und die Frage der Einheit seines Werkes. Historia Einzelschriften 17. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner.
  1655.  
  1656. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1657.  
  1658. Important study that seeks to defend Herodotus against those who criticize his work for lacking coherence, arguing that the material in the digressions explains and enriches the main story.
  1659.  
  1660. Find this resource:
  1661.  
  1662.  
  1663. De Jong, Irene J. F. 2002. Narrative unity and units. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 245–266. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1664.  
  1665. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1666.  
  1667. Focuses on the interweaving of time layers in Book 6. With a good overview of the scholarly debate on the unity of the Histories.
  1668.  
  1669. Find this resource:
  1670.  
  1671.  
  1672. Dewald, Carolyn. 1997. Wanton kings, pickled heroes, and gnomic founding fathers: Strategies of meaning at the end of Herodotus’ Histories. In Classical closure: Reading the end in Greek and Latin literature. Edited by D. H. Roberts, F. M. Dunn and D. Fowler, 62–82. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1673.  
  1674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1675.  
  1676. A discussion of the question of why the otherwise conspicuous formal closure of narrative sections is lacking at the end of the Histories. Dewald argues that the open ending may have been intentional and can be explained by the author’s ideology of continuous change, in which the future is unpredictable.
  1677.  
  1678. Find this resource:
  1679.  
  1680.  
  1681. Fornara, Charles W. 1971. Herodotus: An interpretative essay. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1682.  
  1683. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1684.  
  1685. See chapter 1 (pp. 1–23) for a discussion of the question of unitarians versus separatists in relation to the Egypt book.
  1686.  
  1687. Find this resource:
  1688.  
  1689.  
  1690. Immerwahr, Henry R. 1966. Form and thought in Herodotus. APA Philological Monographs 23. Cleveland: Press of Western Reserve Univ.
  1691.  
  1692. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1693.  
  1694. Landmark study into the principles behind the making of the Histories and its structure. Especially valuable in chapters 4–6 and conclusion. With a comprehensive overview of the structure of the Histories, pp. 329–362.
  1695.  
  1696. Find this resource:
  1697.  
  1698.  
  1699. Long, Timothy. 1987. Repetition and variation in the short stories of Herodotus. Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie 179. Frankfurt am Main: Athenäum.
  1700.  
  1701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1702.  
  1703. Intelligent study that shows how Herodotus’s shorter episodes are held together by verbal repetition and variations on the same verbal roots.
  1704.  
  1705. Find this resource:
  1706.  
  1707.  
  1708. Van der Veen, Jan Ebele. 1996. The significant and the insignificant: Five studies in Herodotus’ view of history. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1709.  
  1710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1711.  
  1712. The author convincingly demonstrates how the great historical events that Herodotus narrates can often be traced back to seemingly insignificant incidents.
  1713.  
  1714. Find this resource:
  1715.  
  1716.  
  1717. Language and Style
  1718. Though comprehensive studies of Herodotus’s language and style are lacking, recent decades have witnessed a substantial output of articles and books that seek to explain particular aspects by using insights derived from modern linguistic theories, in particular discourse analysis, which attempts to investigate linguistic behavior in communicative situations. The realization that Herodotus composed his work with an eye on performance and therefore relied on discourse-dividing strategies that he derived from spoken language lies at the heart of Lang 1984, Munson 1993, Slings 2002, and Bakker 2006. For studies into particular areas see Rijksbaron 1988 (on tenses), Dik 1995 (word order at sentence level), and Slings 1997 (particles).
  1719.  
  1720. Bakker, Egbert J. 2002. The making of history: Herodotus’ historiês apodexis. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 3–32. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1721.  
  1722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1723.  
  1724. Nuanced examination of the coexistence of old and new in Herodotus as suggested by the semantics of his “display” (apodexis) of history. Highlights the critical importance of understanding Herodotus’s vocabulary for understanding also the larger kinds of analysis.
  1725.  
  1726. Find this resource:
  1727.  
  1728.  
  1729. Bakker, Egbert J. 2006. The syntax of historiê: How Herodotus writes. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 92–102. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1730.  
  1731. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1732.  
  1733. Describes Herodotus’s style as a “complex, adaptive” response to the requirement of uniting the enormous diversity of traditions he encountered during his research. Focuses on aspects of the paratactic syntax and deixis in the Histories.
  1734.  
  1735. Find this resource:
  1736.  
  1737.  
  1738. Bakker, Stéphanie J. 2009. The noun phrase in Ancient Greek: A functional analysis of the order and articulation of NP constituents in Herodotus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1739.  
  1740. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1741.  
  1742. Focuses mainly on word order within the noun phrase from a pragmatic point of view.
  1743.  
  1744. Find this resource:
  1745.  
  1746.  
  1747. Dik, Helma. 1995. Word order in Ancient Greek: A pragmatic account of word order variation in Herodotus. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1748.  
  1749. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1750.  
  1751. Acknowledges a standard word order in Herodotus’s simple sentences of the pragmatic functions: topic, focus, predicate, other elements.
  1752.  
  1753. Find this resource:
  1754.  
  1755.  
  1756. Lang, Mabel L. 1984. Herodotean narrative and discourse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1757.  
  1758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1759.  
  1760. Argues that the Histories shows ample traces of oral characteristics, particularly in the structure of its narrative, in which Lang points to patterns, for instance in the presentation of speeches.
  1761.  
  1762. Find this resource:
  1763.  
  1764.  
  1765. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 1993. Herodotus’ use of prospective sentences and the story of Rhampsinitus and the thief in the Histories. American Journal of Philology 114:27–44.
  1766.  
  1767. DOI: 10.2307/295380Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1768.  
  1769. The author looks for statements in Herodotus’s narrative that are not “representative” but have a different illocutionary purpose.
  1770.  
  1771. Find this resource:
  1772.  
  1773.  
  1774. Rijksbaron, Albert. 1988. The discourse function of the imperfect. In In the footsteps of Raphael Kühner. Edited by A. Rijksbaron, H. A. Mulder, and G. C. Wakker, 237–254. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1775.  
  1776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1777.  
  1778. Intelligent analysis of the use of the imperfect tense in larger stretches of narrative as a means to create a frame or build up suspense.
  1779.  
  1780. Find this resource:
  1781.  
  1782.  
  1783. Slings, S. R. 1997. Adversative relators between PUSH and POP. In New approaches to Greek particles. Edited by Albert Rijksbaron, 101–129. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1784.  
  1785. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1786.  
  1787. Discusses, among others, Herodotus’s use of particles at the beginning and the end of digressions.
  1788.  
  1789. Find this resource:
  1790.  
  1791.  
  1792. Slings, S. R. 2002. Oral strategies in the language of Herodotus. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 53–77. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1793.  
  1794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1795.  
  1796. Acknowledges that Herodotean discourse contains many characteristics of oral language that should not be considered “primitive” or “agrammatical.”
  1797.  
  1798. Find this resource:
  1799.  
  1800.  
  1801. Speeches
  1802. Compared to speeches in later historians, Herodotus’s speeches are more varied in form (Lang 1984) and function, and often resemble conversations rather than rhetorical set pieces (Heni 1976). Their explanatory function in the narrative of the Histories was first analyzed by Hohti 1976, and subsequently more subtly brought out by Pelling 2006 and De Bakker 2007, who focus on the interrelationship between the contents of the speeches and their immediate and wider context. Scardino 2007 takes a combined narratological and rhetorical approach.
  1803.  
  1804. De Bakker, M. P. 2007. Speech and authority in Herodotus’ Histories. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Amsterdam.
  1805.  
  1806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1807.  
  1808. A discussion of the ways in which the speeches that Herodotus attributes to his characters and sources endorse his historiographical authority.
  1809.  
  1810. Find this resource:
  1811.  
  1812.  
  1813. Heni, Rudolf. 1976. Die Gespräche bei Herodot. Heidelberg: Heillbron.
  1814.  
  1815. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1816.  
  1817. A discussion of the different functions of the conversations in the Histories.
  1818.  
  1819. Find this resource:
  1820.  
  1821.  
  1822. Hohti, Paavo. 1976. The interrelation of speech and action in the Histories of Herodotus. Commentationes humanarum litterarum 57. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
  1823.  
  1824. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1825.  
  1826. A limited overview of the contents of the speeches that distinguishes between speeches that cause the narrative to move on and speeches that do not.
  1827.  
  1828. Find this resource:
  1829.  
  1830.  
  1831. Lang, Mabel L. 1984. Herodotean narrative and discourse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1832.  
  1833. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1834.  
  1835. A structural analysis of the speeches and conversations as they are presented by the historian, with the author indicating patterns that are familiar from oral storytelling.
  1836.  
  1837. Find this resource:
  1838.  
  1839.  
  1840. Pelling, C. B. R. 2006. Speech and narrative in the Histories. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 103–121. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1841.  
  1842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1843.  
  1844. An analysis that sets into their context some major scenes with speeches, mostly from the Histories’ later books.
  1845.  
  1846. Find this resource:
  1847.  
  1848.  
  1849. Scardino, Carlo. 2007. Gestaltung und Funktion der Reden bei Herodot und Thukydides. Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 250. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  1850.  
  1851. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1852.  
  1853. Monumental study with an overview of the speeches in the Histories, subjecting them to narratological and comparative analysis.
  1854.  
  1855. Find this resource:
  1856.  
  1857.  
  1858. Causation and Explanation
  1859. The long-held assumption that Herodotus was interested only in supplying superficial, personal causes has been challenged by scholarship illuminating the seriousness and sophistication of his treatment of historical causation (Immerwahr 1956, van Wees 2002). The important contributions of Gould 1989 and Gould 2001 reveal reciprocity (positive and negative) to be a deep structuring and explanatory device, grounded in contemporary culture, and thus contest the notion of vengeance as simply a personal motivating device (De Romilly 1971). Discussion goes beyond addressing Herodotus’s explicit formulations (Munson 2001) to examine in a broader light the presentation of the relationship of divine and human causation (see The Divine), the role of fate, multiple explanations, character and motivation, and the bearing on causation of perceptions and rhetoric (Lateiner 1989, Harrison 2003, Baragwanath 2008. See also works cited under Politics, Ethnography and the Other, Women, Kings and Tyrants, and Kings and Wise Advisors.
  1860.  
  1861. Baragwanath, Emily. 2008. Motivation and narrative in Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1862.  
  1863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1864.  
  1865. A study of Herodotus’s portrayal of human motivation.
  1866.  
  1867. Find this resource:
  1868.  
  1869.  
  1870. De Romilly, Jacqueline. 1971. La vengeance comme explication historique dans l’oeuvre d’Hérodote. Revue des Études Grecques 84:314–337.
  1871.  
  1872. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1873.  
  1874. Highlights the role of vengeance in the Histories as personal motivation and important linking device.
  1875.  
  1876. Find this resource:
  1877.  
  1878.  
  1879. Gould, John. 1989. Herodotus. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  1880.  
  1881. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1882.  
  1883. Chapter 4 (pp. 63–85): “Why things happen.”
  1884.  
  1885. Find this resource:
  1886.  
  1887.  
  1888. Gould, John. 2001. Give and take in Herodotus. In Myth, ritual, memory, and exchange: Essays in Greek literature and culture. By John Gould, 283–303. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1889.  
  1890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1891.  
  1892. Considers the grammar of gift exchange in the Histories as fundamental to Herodotus’s understanding of the world and to the logic of his narrative.
  1893.  
  1894. Find this resource:
  1895.  
  1896.  
  1897. Harrison, Thomas. 2003. The cause of things: Envy and the emotions in Herodotus’ Histories. In Envy, spite and jealousy: The rivalrous emotions in ancient Greece. Edited by David Konstan and K. Rutter, 143–163. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
  1898.  
  1899. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1900.  
  1901. Includes a (partial) “taxonomy of motivation” in the Histories (pp. 146–150).
  1902.  
  1903. Find this resource:
  1904.  
  1905.  
  1906. Immerwahr, Henry R. 1956. Aspects of historical causation in Herodotus. Transactions of the American Philological Association 87:241–280.
  1907.  
  1908. DOI: 10.2307/283883Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1909.  
  1910. Causation in the Histories is complex and multiple, and functions on several levels: immediate, “permanent” (expansionism and vengeance), and metaphysical; and it plays an important part in organizing the work.
  1911.  
  1912. Find this resource:
  1913.  
  1914.  
  1915. Lateiner, Donald. 1989. The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  1916.  
  1917. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1918.  
  1919. Chapter 9 (pp. 189–210): “Event and explanation: Herodotean interpretations.”
  1920.  
  1921. Find this resource:
  1922.  
  1923.  
  1924. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 2001. ANANKE in Herodotus. Journal of Hellenic Studies 121:30–50.
  1925.  
  1926. DOI: 10.2307/631826Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1927.  
  1928. Examines Herodotus’s use of words of the ananke family to determine what external and internal constraints are depicted as affecting the causality of events.
  1929.  
  1930. Find this resource:
  1931.  
  1932.  
  1933. van Wees, Hans. 2002. Herodotus and the past. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 321–349. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1934.  
  1935. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1936.  
  1937. A nuanced study bringing out the sophistication of Herodotus’s exposition of world history. Highlights his emphasis on origins, on describing and explaining the rise and fall of empires, and on the causes of war.
  1938.  
  1939. Find this resource:
  1940.  
  1941.  
  1942. Content and Themes
  1943. Studies cited in this section and its subsections give a sense of the issues Herodotean scholars have focused on over past years.
  1944.  
  1945. Politics
  1946. That Herodotus had a vested interest in politics emerges most clearly from the Constitutional Debate (3.88), which leads to the accession of Darius (Apffel 1957, Bringmann 1976, Lasserre 1976, Lateiner 1984, Pelling 2002). Whereas the discussion in this passage is conducted on an abstract level, debates in the later books show in more practical ways how speakers are constrained by the political setting and structure in which they speak (Pelling 2006). Herodotus’s attitude to politics in general is the subject of Shimron 1989 and Thompson 1996.
  1947.  
  1948. Apffel, Helmut. 1957. Die Verfassungsdebatte bei Herodot (3,80–82). Ph.D. diss., Erlangen.
  1949.  
  1950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1951.  
  1952. Thorough analysis that seeks to anchor the Constitutional Debate firmly in its context, while denying rhetorical or sophistic influence. Reprinted in 1979 (New York: Arno).
  1953.  
  1954. Find this resource:
  1955.  
  1956.  
  1957. Bringmann, Klaus. 1976. Die Verfassungsdebatte bei Herodot 3,80–82 und Dareios’ Aufstieg zur Königsherrschaft. Hermes 104:266–279.
  1958.  
  1959. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1960.  
  1961. Intelligent discussion that seeks to redefine the Constitutional Debate in the Histories as one in a series of steps undertaken by Darius to secure the Persian kingship.
  1962.  
  1963. Find this resource:
  1964.  
  1965.  
  1966. Lasserre, Frédéric. 1976. Hérodote et Protagoras: Le débat sur les constitutions. Museum Helveticum 33.2: 65–84.
  1967.  
  1968. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1969.  
  1970. Uses the Constitutional Debate to argue that Herodotus was strongly influenced by the thought-world of the sophists, in particular Protagoras.
  1971.  
  1972. Find this resource:
  1973.  
  1974.  
  1975. Lateiner, Donald. 1984. Herodotean historiographical patterning: “The Constitutional Debate.” Quaderni di Storia 20:257–284.
  1976.  
  1977. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1978.  
  1979. Contextual analysis of the statements that Herodotus’s characters utter in the Constitutional Debate, with an overview of the places in the Histories where Otanes’s characteristics of autocrats are made concrete.Reprinted, slightly revised, in his The historical method of Herodotus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), pp. 163–186.
  1980.  
  1981. Find this resource:
  1982.  
  1983.  
  1984. Pelling, C. B. R. 2002. Speech and action: Herodotus’ Debate on the Constitutions. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 48:123–158.
  1985.  
  1986. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1987.  
  1988. Discusses the question of the Constitutional Debate’s historicity, its position in the larger narrative of Darius’s accession, and the arguments that are used in the debate itself as well as the ways in which they are phrased.
  1989.  
  1990. Find this resource:
  1991.  
  1992.  
  1993. Pelling, C. B. R. 2006. Speech and narrative in the Histories. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 103–121. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1994.  
  1995. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1996.  
  1997. An analysis that sets into their context some major scenes with speeches, mostly from the Histories’ later books.
  1998.  
  1999. Find this resource:
  2000.  
  2001.  
  2002. Raaflaub, K. A. 1987. Herodotus’ political thought and the meaning of history. In Herodotus and the invention of history. Special issue edited by D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:221–248.
  2003.  
  2004. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2005.  
  2006. Shows how Herodotus’s presentation of the past contains retrojections of political terms and ideas that belonged to his own time, thereby revealing the topical relevance of history.
  2007.  
  2008. Find this resource:
  2009.  
  2010.  
  2011. Shimron, Binyamin. 1989. Politics and belief in Herodotus. Historia Einzelschriften 58. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  2012.  
  2013. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2014.  
  2015. Discussion of the extent to which Herodotus can be considered a political historian, especially when his religious views are taken into account as well as the role of mythology in his work.
  2016.  
  2017. Find this resource:
  2018.  
  2019.  
  2020. Thompson, Norma. 1996. Herodotus and the origins of the political community: Arion’s leap. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  2021.  
  2022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2023.  
  2024. Claims a position for Herodotus in the canon of political thought.
  2025.  
  2026. Find this resource:
  2027.  
  2028.  
  2029. Ethnography and the Other
  2030. The Histories’ stated aim is to memorialize achievements of both Greeks and non-Greeks, and its first four books are devoted to ethnographical accounts of Lydians, Persians, Egyptians, Scythians, and others.
  2031.  
  2032. Anthropological Approaches
  2033. Scholars influenced by cultural anthropology focus on the internal coherence of Herodotus’s ethnographies and their construction of the “Other” according to Greek categories of thought (Hartog 1980, Redfield 1985, Gray 1995, Bichler 2000, Vasunia 2001). See also Problematizing the Greek/Other Opposition.
  2034.  
  2035. Bichler, Reinhold. 2000. Herodots Welt: Der Aufbau der Historie am Bild der fremden Länder und Völker, ihrer Zivilisation und ihrer Geschichte. With supplements by D. Feil and W. Sieberer. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
  2036.  
  2037. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2038.  
  2039. Argues that the non-Greek world was essential to Herodotus’s understanding of his own world and conception of history, with chapters focusing on successive groups of the Histories’ non-Greek peoples. Includes maps by Sieberer of areas of the world as imagined by Herodotus: Asia, Egypt, the Near East, Libya, Scythia, Thrace and western Europe (pp. 407–414).
  2040.  
  2041. Find this resource:
  2042.  
  2043.  
  2044. Gray, Vivienne. 1995. Herodotus and the rhetoric of otherness. American Journal of Philology 116:185–211.
  2045.  
  2046. DOI: 10.2307/295440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2047.  
  2048. Contends that the rhetoric of the otherness of royal barbaric power, more than female otherness, structures the presentation of women in Herodotus’s stories of Candaules, Astyages, and Xerxes.
  2049.  
  2050. Find this resource:
  2051.  
  2052.  
  2053. Hartog, François. 1980. Le miroir d’Hérodote: Essai sur la représentation de l’autre. Paris: Gallimard.
  2054.  
  2055. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2056.  
  2057. English translation, The mirror of Herodotus: An essay on the interpretation of the Other (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). Influential study into the rationale behind Herodotus’s arrangement of his ethnographical material, taking his Scythian logos as an example.
  2058.  
  2059. Find this resource:
  2060.  
  2061.  
  2062. Redfield, James. 1985. Herodotus the tourist. Classical Philology 80:97–118.
  2063.  
  2064. DOI: 10.1086/366908Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2065.  
  2066. Reprinted in Greeks and Barbarians. Edited by Thomas Harrison, 24–49 (New York: Routledge, 2002). Seminal study of the structures and systematic oppositions (especially hard versus soft) that underlie Herodotus’s ethnographies, shaping his understanding of the world and of historical events.
  2067.  
  2068. Find this resource:
  2069.  
  2070.  
  2071. Vasunia, Phiroze. 2001. The gift of the Nile: Hellenizing Egypt from Aeschylus to Alexander. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2072.  
  2073. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2074.  
  2075. Chapters 2 and 3 (pp. 75–135) on Herodotus’s representation of Egyptian space and time.
  2076.  
  2077. Find this resource:
  2078.  
  2079.  
  2080. Problematizing the Greek/Other Opposition
  2081. Recent accounts qualify the picture that surfaces from anthropological approaches (see Anthropological Approaches) by exposing ways in which the Histories problematize the opposition of Greek versus Other (Pelling 1997, Munson 2001) and promote cultural relativism (Nenci, et al. 1990, Thomas 2000, Rood 2006), and by drawing attention to the agency of non-Greek informants in Herodotus’s constructions of his ethnographic accounts (Moyer 2002). Some challenge more radically the notion of Greek/Persian polarity in Herodotus (Isaac 2004).
  2082.  
  2083. Isaac, Benjamin H. 2004. The invention of racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2084.  
  2085. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2086.  
  2087. Challenges the notion that Herodotus disparaged Persia or viewed the Persian wars as a conflict over moral ideals rather than just political independence (pp. 257–274).
  2088.  
  2089. Find this resource:
  2090.  
  2091.  
  2092. Moyer, Ian S. 2002. Herodotus and an Egyptian mirage: The genealogies of the Theban priests. Journal of Hellenic Studies 122:70–90.
  2093.  
  2094. DOI: 10.2307/3246205Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2095.  
  2096. Highlights the agency of Egyptian priests in Herodotus’s construction of his account of Egypt.
  2097.  
  2098. Find this resource:
  2099.  
  2100.  
  2101. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 2001. Telling wonders: Ethnographic and political discourse in the work of Herodotus. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  2102.  
  2103. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2104.  
  2105. Subtle examination of how Herodotus’s ethnographic descriptions communicate meaning and frequently undermine the Greek/barbarian polarity.
  2106.  
  2107. Find this resource:
  2108.  
  2109.  
  2110. Nenci, Giuseppe, Walter Burkert, and Olivier Reverdin, eds. 1990. Hérodote et les peuples non grecs: Neuf exposés suivis de discussions. Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
  2111.  
  2112. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2113.  
  2114. A variety of contributions (in Italian, English, German and French) on Herodotus’s descriptions of foreign cultures and customs.
  2115.  
  2116. Find this resource:
  2117.  
  2118.  
  2119. Pelling, C. B. R. 1997. East is east and west is west—or are they? National stereotyping in Herodotus.
  2120.  
  2121. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2122.  
  2123. Nuanced exploration of Herodotus’s use as well as destabilization of the Greek/Other polarity.
  2124.  
  2125. Find this resource:
  2126.  
  2127.  
  2128. Rood, T. C. B. 2006. Herodotus and foreign lands. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 290–305. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2129.  
  2130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2131.  
  2132. Thoughtful and accessible account of how Herodotus’s ethnographic descriptions shape his audience’s understanding of his narrative and the world.
  2133.  
  2134. Find this resource:
  2135.  
  2136.  
  2137. Thomas, Rosalind. 2000. Herodotus in context: Ethnography, science and the art of persuasion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2138.  
  2139. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2140.  
  2141. Important investigation placing Herodotus in the context of ethnography, natural science, philosophy and rhetoric. Chapter 4 (pp. 102–134) on nomos and ethnic character.
  2142.  
  2143. Find this resource:
  2144.  
  2145.  
  2146. Women
  2147. Herodotus’s expansive understanding of history—in stark contrast to that of Thucydides—entailed the presentation of women in numerous and important capacities in various cultural and social relations. Since Wolff 1964, a landmark study recognizing the central role of women in the Histories’ narrative structure, others have addressed the depiction of women as historical agents, contesting earlier assumptions of negative and anecdotal portrayals to reveal how women act as defenders of custom and serve as indices of a community’s culture (Dewald 1986). Scholarship influenced by cultural anthropology addresses the presentation of women in terms of the Other, approaching gender in the Histories as a system related to wider Greek cultural codes (Rosellini and Saïd 1978). This structural exploration of the men/women binary has been complicated and qualified (Munson 1988, Gray 1995, Blok 2002), including through observation of the oblique reflection of historical reality in Herodotus’s depictions of Persian women (Sancisi–Weerdenburg 1983, Brosius 1998).
  2148.  
  2149. Blok, Josine. 2002. Women in Herodotus’ Histories. In Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Edited by E. J. Bakker, I. J. F. De Jong and H. van Wees, 225–242. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  2150.  
  2151. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2152.  
  2153. Provides a helpful overview.
  2154.  
  2155. Find this resource:
  2156.  
  2157.  
  2158. Brosius, Maria. 1998. Women in ancient Persia, 559–331 BC. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2159.  
  2160. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2161.  
  2162. Herodotus discussed in the context of wider debate on Greek attitudes toward royal women of the Achaemenid court and the evidence for women from Persepolis and Neo-Babylonian texts.
  2163.  
  2164. Find this resource:
  2165.  
  2166.  
  2167. Dewald, Carolyn. 1986. Women and culture in Herodotus’ Histories. In Reflections of women in Antiquity. Edited by Helene P. Foley, 91–125. New York: Gordon and Breach Science.
  2168.  
  2169. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2170.  
  2171. A comprehensive overview of the women who appear in the Histories, both individuals and groups, arguing that Herodotus’s portrayals of women highlight their partnership with men in establishing and maintaining social order. Includes an extensive list of passages in which women and the feminine appear, topically organized (pp. 120–125).
  2172.  
  2173. Find this resource:
  2174.  
  2175.  
  2176. Gray, Vivienne. 1995. Herodotus and the rhetoric of otherness. American Journal of Philology 116:185–211.
  2177.  
  2178. DOI: 10.2307/295440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2179.  
  2180. Contends that the rhetoric of the otherness of royal barbaric power, more than female otherness, structures the presentation of women in Herodotus’s stories of Candaules, Astyages, and Xerxes.
  2181.  
  2182. Find this resource:
  2183.  
  2184.  
  2185. Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. 1988. Artemisia in Herodotus. Classical Antiquity 7:91–106.
  2186.  
  2187. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2188.  
  2189. Examines how the paradoxical manly woman Artemisia serves in Herodotus’s narrative as an analogy to Athens.
  2190.  
  2191. Find this resource:
  2192.  
  2193.  
  2194. Rosellini, Michèle, and Suzanne Saïd. 1978. Usages des femmes et autres nomoi chez les “sauvages” d’Hérodote: essai de lecture structurale. Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa 8:949–1005.
  2195.  
  2196. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2197.  
  2198. The system of inversion that underlies Herodotus’s ethnographic descriptions of sexuality and marital customs involves degrees of difference rather than simple opposition of Greek and non-Greek.
  2199.  
  2200. Find this resource:
  2201.  
  2202.  
  2203. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen. 1983. Exit Atossa: Images of women in Greek historiography on Persia. In Images of women in Antiquity. Edited by A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt, 20–33. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press.
  2204.  
  2205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2206.  
  2207. Argues that Herodotus presents a Hellenized account of tensions within the Persian family.
  2208.  
  2209. Find this resource:
  2210.  
  2211.  
  2212. Wolff, E. 1964. Das Weib des Masistes. Hermes 92:51–81.
  2213.  
  2214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2215.  
  2216. Reprinted in Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschung. Edited by W. Marg, 574–608 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1982). Highlights the central role of women in the Histories’ narrative structure.
  2217.  
  2218. Find this resource:
  2219.  
  2220.  
  2221. Myth
  2222. Myth (in the sense of the legendary past) pervades the entire Histories, occurring in the accounts of Herodotus’s informants and used by the historian himself to contextualize more recent history, lend intelligibility, and suggest analogies and parallels (Finley 1975, Boedeker 1988). Discussion of the relationship between the Histories’ mythical and historical material (Vandiver 1991, Stadter 2004) focuses on the much-debated question of whether Herodotus distinguishes between “mythical” and “historical” expanses of time (Williams 2002), and the implications in terms of meaning and historicity of the mythical motifs and subtexts of “historical” stories (Boedeker 1987, Boedeker 1993, Sourvinou–Inwood 1991, Griffiths 1999).
  2223.  
  2224. Boedeker, Deborah D. 1987. The two faces of Demaratus. In Herodotus and the invention of History. Special issue edited by D. D. Boedeker and J. Peradotto. Arethusa 20:185–207.
  2225.  
  2226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2227.  
  2228. Examines the mythical-religious and narrative patterns that inform Herodotus’s Demaratus stories, addressing their significance as commentary on the larger historical narrative.
  2229.  
  2230. Find this resource:
  2231.  
  2232.  
  2233. Boedeker, Deborah D. 1988. Protesilaos and the end of Herodotus’ Histories. Classical Antiquity 7:30–48.
  2234.  
  2235. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2236.  
  2237. Highlights ways in which Herodotus’s story of the vengeance of Protesilaos suggests parallels between the Trojan War and Xerxes’ invasion, exhibiting a pattern in the Histories whereby lesser characters act out broader moral or cosmological paradigms.
  2238.  
  2239. Find this resource:
  2240.  
  2241.  
  2242. Boedeker, Deborah D. 1993. Hero cult and politics: The bones of Orestes. In Cultural poetics in Archaic Greece: Cult, performance, politics. Edited by Carol Dougherty and Leslie Kurke, 164–177. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2243.  
  2244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2245.  
  2246. A study of the dual historical and narrative functions of Herodotus’s story (1.66–8) of the translation to Sparta of the bones of the hero Orestes.
  2247.  
  2248. Find this resource:
  2249.  
  2250.  
  2251. Finley, Moses I. 1975. Myth, memory and history. In his The use and abuse of history. By Moses Finley, 11–33. London: Chatto and Windus.
  2252.  
  2253. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2254.  
  2255. With highly valuable reflections on the concept of time in Antiquity.
  2256.  
  2257. Find this resource:
  2258.  
  2259.  
  2260. Griffiths, Alan. 1999. Euenius the negligent nightwatchman (Herodotus 9.92–6). In From myth to reason. Edited by R. G. A. Buxton, 169–182. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2261.  
  2262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2263.  
  2264. Analysis of the coexistence of mythical and historical material in the account of Euenius.
  2265.  
  2266. Find this resource:
  2267.  
  2268.  
  2269. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1991. “Reading” Greek culture: Texts and images, rituals and myths. Oxford: Clarendon.
  2270.  
  2271. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2272.  
  2273. Chapter 4.3 (pp. 244–284), “‘Myth’ and history: On Herodotos 3.48 and 3.50–53,” on the mythical structures that underlie Herodotus’s account of Periander and his son Lycophron.
  2274.  
  2275. Find this resource:
  2276.  
  2277.  
  2278. Stadter, Philip. 2004. From the mythical to the historical paradigm: The transformation of myth in Herodotus. In Historia y mito: El pasado legendario como fuente de autoridad. Edited by J. M. Candau Morón, F. J. González Ponce, and G. C. Andreotti, 31–46. Malaga, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones Centro de Ediciones de La Diputación de Málaga.
  2279.  
  2280. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2281.  
  2282. Examines how Herodotus worked with mythical material to turn it into history, focusing on Helen and Croesus.
  2283.  
  2284. Find this resource:
  2285.  
  2286.  
  2287. Vandiver, Elizabeth. 1991. Heroes in Herodotus: The interaction of myth and history. Studien zur klassischen Philologie 56. Frankfurt am Main: Lang.
  2288.  
  2289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2290.  
  2291. With special focus on Heracles.
  2292.  
  2293. Find this resource:
  2294.  
  2295.  
  2296. Williams, B. A. O. 2002. Truth and truthfulness: An essay in genealogy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2297.  
  2298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2299.  
  2300. Chapter 7 (pp. 149–171) contains an overview of the discussion of Herodotus’s alleged distinction between a spatium historicum and mythicum.
  2301.  
  2302. Find this resource:
  2303.  
  2304.  
  2305. The Divine
  2306. Religion plays a large role in Herodotus’s ethnographies as well as in his main narrative, and Delphi was an important source (Flower 1991). Modern opinion on Herodotus’s attitude to the divine ranges widely, from those who view him as a rationalist who allows no space to the divine in historical explanation (Lateiner 1989, Shimron 1989), to those who regard him as a pious believer and the Histories as infused with divine explanation (Gould 1994, Harrison 2000, Mikalson 2003). Others find in him an open-minded skeptic who focuses on ritual rather than theology and highlights the elusive nature of knowledge about the gods (Burkert 1990, Scullion 2006).
  2307.  
  2308. Burkert, Walter. 1990. Herodot als Historiker fremder Religionen. In Hérodote et les peuples non grecs. Edited by Giuseppe Nenci, et al., 1–39. Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
  2309.  
  2310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2311.  
  2312. Illuminates Herodotus’s religious views from his treatment of non-Greek ritual and belief.
  2313.  
  2314. Find this resource:
  2315.  
  2316.  
  2317. Flower, H. I. 1991. Herodotus and the Delphic traditions about Croesus. In Georgica: Greek Studies in honour of George Cawkwell, BICS Supp. 58. Edited by M. A. Flower and M. Toher, 57–77. London: Univ. of London, Institute for Classical Studies.
  2318.  
  2319. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2320.  
  2321. Delphi as an important source for Herodotus.
  2322.  
  2323. Find this resource:
  2324.  
  2325.  
  2326. Gould, John. 1994. Herodotus and religion. In Greek historiography. Edited by Simon Hornblower, 91–106. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2327.  
  2328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2329.  
  2330. Addresses sources of modern discontent with Herodotus’s attitude to the divine.Reprinted in his Myth, ritual, memory, and exchange: Essays in Greek literature and culture, pp. 359–377 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).
  2331.  
  2332. Find this resource:
  2333.  
  2334.  
  2335. Harrison, Thomas. 2000. Divinity and history: The religion of Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2336.  
  2337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2338.  
  2339. A study of Herodotus as traditional thinker and pious believer, with divine explanation playing a central role in the Histories. Comprehensive in its references to scholarship on religion in Herodotus.
  2340.  
  2341. Find this resource:
  2342.  
  2343.  
  2344. Lateiner, Donald. 1989. The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
  2345.  
  2346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2347.  
  2348. Chapter 9 (pp. 189–210) on causal explanation in Herodotus.
  2349.  
  2350. Find this resource:
  2351.  
  2352.  
  2353. Mikalson, Jon D. 2003. Herodotus and religion in the Persian wars. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
  2354.  
  2355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2356.  
  2357. A study of Greek religious practices and attitudes in the historical context of the Persian wars, with chapter 3 (pp. 136–165) on “Some religious beliefs and attitudes of Herodotus.”
  2358.  
  2359. Find this resource:
  2360.  
  2361.  
  2362. Scullion, Scott. 2006. Herodotus and Greek religion. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 192–208. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2363.  
  2364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2365.  
  2366. Provides a balanced and helpful overview.
  2367.  
  2368. Find this resource:
  2369.  
  2370.  
  2371. Shimron, Binyamin. 1989. Politics and belief in Herodotus. Historia Einzelschriften 58. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  2372.  
  2373. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2374.  
  2375. Chapter 4 (pp. 26–57) on “Religion and politics.”
  2376.  
  2377. Find this resource:
  2378.  
  2379.  
  2380. Kings and Tyrants
  2381. The Histories can, at least in parts, be considered a study of one-man rule. From the opening chapters on Gyges and Candaules (on which see Stahl 1968, Snell 1973) Herodotus introduces his readers to a long list of kings and tyrants (on the latter see Gray 1996 and Dewald 2003), who each in his own way have altered the course of history (see Waters 1971 for an overview). By staging kings engaged in empirical research, he differentiates between their characters and uses them as foils against which to display his own empirical, more ethical approach (Christ 1994). Prominent among them is the Lydian king Croesus, whose rise and fall provide the material for an emblematic narrative that serves as an impressive warning for any ambitious ruler aspiring to a state of permanent blessedness (Stahl 1975, Duplouy 1999, Pelling 2006).
  2382.  
  2383. Christ, M. R. 1994. Herodotean kings and historical inquiry. Classical Antiquity 13:167–202.
  2384.  
  2385. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2386.  
  2387. Convincing exploration of the ways in which kings behave as inquirers in the Histories, arguing that they are often impeded by their position of authority.
  2388.  
  2389. Find this resource:
  2390.  
  2391.  
  2392. Dewald, Carolyn. 2003. Form and content: The question of tyranny in Herodotus. In Popular tyranny: Sovereignty and its discontents in ancient Greece. Edited by Kathryn A. Morgan, 25–58. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
  2393.  
  2394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2395.  
  2396. Discussion of Herodotus’s presentation of tyranny, arguing that there exists a “tension between the viewpoints of the individual logoi about the Greek tyrants and that of the overarching and unifying theme of imperial despotism” (p. 49).
  2397.  
  2398. Find this resource:
  2399.  
  2400.  
  2401. Duplouy, Alain. 1999. L’utilisation de la figure de Crésus dans l’idéologie aristocratique athénienne: Solon, Alcméon, Miltiade et le dernier roi de Lydie. L’Antiquité Classique 68:1–22.
  2402.  
  2403. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2404.  
  2405. Important study that sheds a different light on the characterization of Croesus, arguing that his ideals resemble those of contemporary Athenian aristocrats and should not be seen as a typically Eastern phenomenon from which Herodotus’s Greek audience would automatically take distance.
  2406.  
  2407. Find this resource:
  2408.  
  2409.  
  2410. Gray, Vivienne J. 1996. Herodotus and the images of tyranny: The tyrants of Corinth. American Journal of Philology 117:361–389.
  2411.  
  2412. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.1996.0047Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2413.  
  2414. On generic tyrannical behavior as it is highlighted in the stories of the Corinthian tyrants.
  2415.  
  2416. Find this resource:
  2417.  
  2418.  
  2419. Pelling, C. B. R. 2006. Educating Croesus: Talking and learning in Herodotus’ Lydian logos. Classical Antiquity 25:141–177.
  2420.  
  2421. DOI: 10.1525/ca.2006.25.1.141Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2422.  
  2423. An analysis of the way in which the narrative and speeches of the first book of the Histories characterize Croesus as a late learner.
  2424.  
  2425. Find this resource:
  2426.  
  2427.  
  2428. Snell, Bruno. 1973. Gyges und Kroisos als Tragödien–Figuren. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 12:197–205.
  2429.  
  2430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2431.  
  2432. Discusses the 5th-century literary and dramatic context in which Herodotus’s portrait of Gyges and Croesus can be situated.
  2433.  
  2434. Find this resource:
  2435.  
  2436.  
  2437. Stahl, Hans-Peter. 1968. Herodots Gyges–Tragödie. Hermes 96:385–400.
  2438.  
  2439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2440.  
  2441. Herodotus’s Gyges and Candaules episode discussed against the background of a comparative analysis of the other versions of the Gyges story in ancient literature.
  2442.  
  2443. Find this resource:
  2444.  
  2445.  
  2446. Stahl, Hans-Peter. 1975. Learning through suffering? Croesus’ conversations in the History of Herodotus. Yale Classical Studies 24:1–36.
  2447.  
  2448. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2449.  
  2450. Important analysis of Croesus by means of a careful study of the speeches ascribed to him by Herodotus.
  2451.  
  2452. Find this resource:
  2453.  
  2454.  
  2455. Waters, Kenneth H. 1971. Herodotos on tyrants and despots: A study in objectivity. Historia Einzelschriften 15. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner.
  2456.  
  2457. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2458.  
  2459. Controversial study of the Histories’ tyrants and despots, arguing that their behavior is too diverse to allow for such historiographical patterning in their characterization as is acknowledged by others, most notably Lateiner 1989.
  2460.  
  2461. Find this resource:
  2462.  
  2463.  
  2464. Kings and Wise Advisors
  2465. For the purpose of characterization, Herodotus uses wise advisors as foils against whose advice the wisdom and insight of kings can be measured (Bischoff 1932, Lattimore 1939). Most significant among these are Solon (Regenbogen 1982, Chiasson 1986, Shapiro 1996) and Artabanus (Pelling 1991), advisors to Croesus and Xerxes, respectively.
  2466.  
  2467. Bischoff, Heinrich. 1932. Der Warner bei Herodot. Ph.D. diss., Marburg. Leipzig, 1932.
  2468.  
  2469. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2470.  
  2471. Canonical study on the role of wise advisors in the Histories.
  2472.  
  2473. Find this resource:
  2474.  
  2475.  
  2476. Chiasson, Charles C. 1986. The Herodotean Solon. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 27:249–262.
  2477.  
  2478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2479.  
  2480. Discusses the possible relationship between the historical Solon and Herodotus’s portrait of him in the Histories.
  2481.  
  2482. Find this resource:
  2483.  
  2484.  
  2485. Lattimore, Richmond. 1939. The wise adviser in Herodotus. Classical Philology 34:24–35.
  2486.  
  2487. DOI: 10.1086/362196Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2488.  
  2489. Canonical overview of the different types of wise advisors in the Histories.
  2490.  
  2491. Find this resource:
  2492.  
  2493.  
  2494. Pelling, C. B. R. 1991. Thucydides’ Archidamus and Herodotus’ Artabanus. In Georgica: Greek studies in honour of George Cawkwell. Edited by M.A. Flower and M. Toher, 120–142. BICS Suppl. 58. London: Univ. of London, Institute for Classical Studies.
  2495.  
  2496. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2497.  
  2498. Contains a discussion of the conservative advisory role played by Artabanus at the court of Xerxes.
  2499.  
  2500. Find this resource:
  2501.  
  2502.  
  2503. Regenbogen, O. 1982. Die Geschichte von Solon und Krösus: Eine Studie zur Geistesgeschichte des 5. und 6. Jahrhunderts. In Herodot: Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschung. Edited by Walter Marg, 375–403. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  2504.  
  2505. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2506.  
  2507. Suggests positioning the Solon and Croesus episode in the religious thought-world of the late Archaic–early Classical period.
  2508.  
  2509. Find this resource:
  2510.  
  2511.  
  2512. Shapiro, Susan O. 1996. Herodotus and Solon. Classical Antiquity 15:348–362.
  2513.  
  2514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2515.  
  2516. Through an analysis of the wider narrative context, Shapiro shows how Herodotus endorses the viewpoints that he ascribes to Solon in his advice to Croesus.
  2517.  
  2518. Find this resource:
  2519.  
  2520.  
  2521. Reception and Influence
  2522. Herodotus’s significant influence on later historians emerges most clearly from the diachronic study of Marincola 1997 (see also Evans 1968, Hornblower 2006), whereas his reception by his predecessor Thucydides is discussed by Rood 1999. Marincola 1994 provides a study of Herodotus’s hostile reception by Plutarch. Momigliano 1966 and Momigliano 1990 give excellent overviews of the postclassical reception of the Histories, while the more recent Bridges, et al. 2007 addresses the cultural reception of the Persian wars, including Herodotus’s narrative of it.
  2523.  
  2524. Bridges, Emma, Edith Hall, and P. J. Rhodes, eds. 2007. Cultural responses to the Persian wars: Antiquity to the third millennium. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2525.  
  2526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2527.  
  2528. Collection of interdisciplinary essays that discuss the impact of the Persian wars in both ancient and modern times.
  2529.  
  2530. Find this resource:
  2531.  
  2532.  
  2533. Evans, J. A. S. 1968. Father of history or father of lies: The reputation of Herodotus. Classical Journal 64:11–17.
  2534.  
  2535. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2536.  
  2537. Brief yet wide-ranging account of Herodotus’s double reputation.
  2538.  
  2539. Find this resource:
  2540.  
  2541.  
  2542. Hornblower, Simon. 2006. Herodotus’ influence in Antiquity. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 306–318. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2543.  
  2544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2545.  
  2546. Brief essay describing Herodotus’s reception in later Antiquity.
  2547.  
  2548. Find this resource:
  2549.  
  2550.  
  2551. Marincola, John. 1994. Plutarch’s refutation of Herodotus. Ancient World 25:191–203.
  2552.  
  2553. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2554.  
  2555. Discussion of Plutarch’s hostile reception of the Histories.
  2556.  
  2557. Find this resource:
  2558.  
  2559.  
  2560. Marincola, John. 1997. Authority and tradition in ancient historiography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2561.  
  2562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2563.  
  2564. Important study that shows the development of narrative and organizational principles in ancient historians from Herodotus to Ammianus Marcellinus.
  2565.  
  2566. Find this resource:
  2567.  
  2568.  
  2569. Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1966. The place of Herodotus in the history of historiography. In Studies in historiography. Edited by Arnaldo Momigliano, 127–142. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  2570.  
  2571. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2572.  
  2573. Seminal essay on Herodotus’s reception, especially in early modern history. Reprinted in 1985 (New York: Garland).
  2574.  
  2575. Find this resource:
  2576.  
  2577.  
  2578. Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1990. The classical foundations of modern historiography. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2579.  
  2580. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2581.  
  2582. An attempt to reassess the value of ancient historiography in the light of the vast change in perspective in modern historiography, seeking to demonstrate a clear line of continuity between classical historiography and modern history.
  2583.  
  2584. Find this resource:
  2585.  
  2586.  
  2587. Rood, T. C. B. 1999. Thucydides’ Persian wars. In The limits of historiography: Genre and narrative in ancient historical texts. Edited by C. S. Kraus, 141–168. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  2588.  
  2589. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2590.  
  2591. Intelligent analysis of the ways in which Thucydides shapes his narrative of the Sicilian expedition by making use of the model offered by Herodotus in his narrative of the Persian wars.
  2592.  
  2593. Find this resource:
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