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Viking Art

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Viking Art refers to the visual art produced by those of Scandinavian origin or descent, both at home and abroad, during the Viking Age (c. 800–1100). The term refers not to art in the sense of fine art or painting but to decoration, for almost all the artifacts decorated with Viking art styles also have a practical function—ornamental metalwork such as jewelry being the most common because it was frequently deposited in graves to accompany the dead. We also see Viking art on stone monuments such as memorials and, much more rarely because of poorer rates of survival, on wooden furniture and ships. Almost all of these objects have been recovered through archaeology, and thus the study of Viking art and archaeology are closely interrelated. The study of Viking art is chiefly concerned with style. In their 1966 survey, David Wilson and Ole Klindt-Jensen carried out the first systematic characterization of the subject in English, identifying a series of successive art styles by way of their diagnostic motifs, regional expressions, and date range and positioning Viking art within a continuum of Germanic animal art stretching back to the Scandinavian Migration Period of the 5th century (Wilson and Klindt-Jensen 1980, cited under General Overviews). This approach is still favored by most (see especially works by David Wilson, Signe Horn Fuglesang and James Graham-Campbell). One notable advance is that the chronology of Viking art has been refined by recent dendrochronological (tree-ring) dating (see Bonde and Christiansen 1993; Müller-Wille 2001; Roesdahl 1994; all cited under Dating). Significantly, scholars have also begun to interpret “meaning” in Viking art’s motifs, figures, and narratives (see Graham-Campbell 2013, cited under General Overviews, and entries under Symbolism) although overall this topic attracts surprisingly little attention. Both approaches are, however, reflected in the bibliography below, which aims to balance a subject bibliography for each major stylistic phase (Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge, Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes) with an emphasis on message, media, and craftsmanship.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Most of the following overviews treat Viking art as a series of overlapping stylistic phases, providing introductions to each phase’s motifs, date range, and regional expression. The best starting point for this subject and an essential reference is Wilson and Klindt-Jensen 1980. Wilson is one of the world’s leading authorities on Viking art; more recent synopsis by him can be found in Wilson 2008 and, for Swedish-language readers, Wilson 1995. Graham-Campbell, et al. 1996 is also an authoritative introduction to the subject and should be consulted by those interested in a particular region or medium. Anker 1970 places Viking-Age art in its historical context. Graham-Campbell 2013 is the most up-to-date account, concluding with a chapter on “Content and Legacy.”
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  9. Anker, Peter. The Art of Scandinavia. Vol. 1. London: Paul Hamlyn, 1970.
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  11. Originally published in French as part of the Zodiaque series in 1969, this is the first volume (to CE 1200) of a two-part survey of medieval art in Scandinavia (including tapestries and stave-church architecture), containing an introduction to and outline of Viking art and notable for its chapter on figurative art.
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  13. Graham-Campbell, James. Viking Art. London: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
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  15. Recent guide to Viking art by one of the leading authorities. Viking art is presented as a series of overlapping stylistic phases and is brought fully up-to-date by the inclusion of new finds. A separate chapter considers the meaning of Viking art, including narrative and figural scenes, and connections between art and religious belief. An essential and accessible account, also valuable for its many color illustrations, maps, and suggestions for further reading.
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  17. Graham-Campbell, James, Signe Horn Fuglesang, Ingmar Jansson, and Helen Clarke. “Viking Art.” In Oxford Art Online: Grove Art Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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  19. Useful encyclopedia entry with multiple contributing authors, notably Signe Horn Fuglesang. Not only considers the phases of Viking ornament but also devotes separate sections to recurring motifs (e.g., masks, plant motifs), production techniques for different media, and regional surveys. The account of Viking art east of the Baltic is especially useful as such descriptions in English are otherwise rare. A subject bibliography, only up-to-date as of 1996, follows each section. Available online by subscription.
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  21. Wilson, David M. Vikingetidens Konst. Signums svenska konsthistoria 2. Lund, Sweden: Bokförlaget Signum, 1995.
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  23. An updated account (from Wilson and Klindt-Jensen 1980) of the relative sequence of Viking-Age ornament, detailing its origins, motifs, and dating. As part of a series on Swedish art, the book concentrates on the manifestation of each style as it is found in Sweden, including a separate chapter on Gotland “picture-stones.” In Swedish. No English summary, but the book contains many color plates and a good bibliography.
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  25. Wilson, David M. “The Development of Viking Art.” In The Viking World. Edited by Stefan Brink with Neil Price, 323–338. London: Routledge, 2008.
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  27. Concise account of the origins, appearance, and date of the different phases of Viking art, beginning with Style E (Oseberg and Broa styles). A much abridged summary version of Wilson’s book-length Swedish-language publication of 1995 (Wilson 1995) and a useful starting point.
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  29. Wilson, David M., and Ole Klindt-Jensen. Viking Art. 2d ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980.
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  31. Still an authoritative and essential account of the stylistic phases of Viking-Age animal art, despite its age. Klindt-Jensen surveys pre-Viking art and the Oseberg style, while Wilson devotes separate chapters to each successive Viking-Age style, from Borre to Urnes. Characterized by detailed, formal stylistic descriptions, which are useful for identifying diagnostic features. The black-and-white plates at the back include most of the relevant artifacts known at the time and are a valuable resource in their own right. First published in 1966 (London: George Allen and Unwin).
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  33. Exhibition Catalogues
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  35. Despite its age, Graham-Campbell 1980 remains a very useful and well-illustrated reference, encompassing a wide range of Viking-Age objects relevant to the understanding of Viking Art. Roesdahl and Wilson 1992 includes a vast survey of artifacts, although many of its images are small. Williams, et al. 2014 is an accessible yet academically informed accompaniment to the most recent international Viking exhibition.
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  37. Graham-Campbell, James. Viking Artefacts: A Select Catalogue. London: British Museum, 1980.
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  39. An illustrated catalogue of Viking-Age material culture written to accompany the 1980 British Museum Viking exhibition. The artifacts are grouped thematically, with separate chapters on dress and adornment, crafts, coins and Viking art, among others. Contains detailed object descriptions, date ranges, and references.
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  41. Roesdahl, Else, and David M. Wilson, eds. From Viking to Crusader: The Scandinavians and Europe 800–1200. New York: Rizzoli, 1992.
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  43. Book to accompany a 1992–1993 Council of Europe exhibition in Paris, Berlin, and Copenhagen in two parts. The first comprises a series of essays by an international mix of authors, arranged thematically under “Scandinavia and Europe,” “Culture and Society,” and “Artifacts and manuscripts.” The second part is a large (168-page) catalogue with over six hundred artifacts (many unfortunately produced at a small scale). Separate subject and general bibliographies.
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  45. Williams, Gareth, Peter Pentz, and Matthias Wemhoff, eds. Vikings. Life and Legend. London: British Museum, 2014.
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  47. Superbly illustrated accompaniment to the recent Viking exhibition, held in Copenhagen, London, and Berlin in 2013–2014. Artifact highlights, including many recent discoveries, are set within the context of detailed survey chapters on themes including “Contacts and Exchange,” “Power and Aristocracy,” and “Belief and Ritual.” An immersive volume, although the failure to address Viking art as a subject in its own right is regrettable.
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  49. Animal Art Styles
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  51. The main stylistic phases of Viking art are principally concerned with animal motifs and are presented here in chronological order, preceded by a section on the emergence and classification of Viking-Age decoration.
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  53. The Principles of Stylistic Groupings
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  55. The principal Viking art styles emerged out of the tradition of Germanic animal ornament in Scandinavia and have been subdivided on the basis of distinct motif groups. Salin 1935 (originally published in 1904) offers a pioneering and still used three-phase classification of Germanic animal ornament, while Shetelig 1920 identifies the Oseberg style on the basis of wooden carvings contained in the early 9th-century Oseberg ship burial (excavated in 1904) as well as the terminology used for most subsequent phases of Viking art. Lindqvist 1931 does the same for the style groups now identified in Late Viking-Age art. The conventional approach to stylistic groupings is criticized in Karlsson 1983, and Jansson 1985 is relevant for the principles of typological study. Almgren 1955 offers a different approach to the classification of Viking art, and Wilson 2007 provides a historiographical review.
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  57. Almgren, Bertil. Bronsnycklar och Djurornamentik vid Övergången från Vendeltid till Vikingatid. Uppsala, Sweden: Appelberg, 1955.
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  59. Arising out of a study of decorated bronze keys from Scandinavia and Western Europe (in Swedish), Almgren offers an original approach to the analysis of early Viking art by examining the curves used by ornamental metalworkers in the creation of their designs. His method has not, however, found general acceptance, being considered “at once too particular and too subjective” (p. 20, Wilson and Klindt-Jensen 1980, cited under General Overviews).
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  61. Jansson, Ingmar. Ovala Spännbucklor: En Studie av Vikingatida Standardsmycken med Utgångspunkt från Björkö-fynden. Aun 7. Uppsala Sweden: Uppsala Institute of North European Archaeology, 1985.
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  63. English title: Oval Brooches: A Study of Viking Period Standard Jewelery based on the Finds from Björkö (Birka), Sweden. Doctoral thesis (in Swedish) with an extensive English summary. Some four thousand oval brooches are known, dominated by a few highly standardized types. Jansson sheds new light on the principles of typological study of Viking-Age ornament by demonstrating the degeneration of decoration through mechanical copying.
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  65. Karlsson, Lennart. Nordisk Form: Om Djurornamentik. The Museum of National Antiquities, Stockholm, Studies 3. Stockholm: Statens Historiska Museum, 1983.
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  67. An overview (in Swedish) of Nordic animal ornament from the 5th to 11th century and its “medieval survival.” Larsson argues against the artificial classification of Scandinavian animal ornament into style groups by way of a catalogue of “100 style terms which currently complicate the debate” (although, in fact, most are obsolete) and a plea for “term-revision” (p. 101, Wilson 2001, cited under Early Art (Oseberg, Borre and Jellinge Styles). There is an extensive English summary: “Nordic Form—On Animal Ornament.”
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  69. Lindqvist, Sune. “Yngre Vikingastilar.” In Kunst, Nordisk Kultur. Vol. 27. Edited by Haakon Shetelig, 144–147. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1931.
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  71. Important survey (in Swedish) of Late Viking art because Lindqvist was the first to stress the indigenous qualities of Viking art and introduced the Mammen style for the late phase of what Shetelig 1920 had designated the Jellinge style, thereby completing the current systemization of Viking art. See also (in Kunst): Jan Petersen, “Eldre Vikingestil” (pp. 124–143), C. A. Nordman, “Nordisk Ornamentik i Finlands Järnålder’ (pp. 180–201), and Haakon Shetelig, “Billedfremstillinger i Jernalderens Kunst” (pp. 202–224).
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  73. Salin, Bernhard. Die Altgermanische Thierornamentik. 2d ed. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1935.
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  75. The classic typological study (in German) of the development of Germanic animal ornament in Europe from the end of the Roman period to c. 800. Originally published in 1904. Salin’s stylistic sequence, based on detailed analysis of its individual components, and terminology (Styles I–III) remain in use. His survey concludes with the earliest phase of Viking art, which he included in his Style III, although this is now subdivided (Style III/E).
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  77. Shetelig, Haakon. Osebergfundet. Vol. 3, Vestfoldskolen. Edited by A. W. Brøgger, Hjalmar Falk, and Haakon Shetelig. Kristiania, Norway: Universitetets Oldsaksamling, 1920.
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  79. Volume devoted to the carved wooden art of the Oseberg ship and its contents (cart, sledges, animal-head posts, etc.). Shetelig identified the work of a group of master carvers, recognized as the Vestfold school, labeling their art as the Oseberg style. He formulated the terminology for most of the later styles of Viking art as used today. In Norwegian. Some copies contain an English summary. Author’s name also appears as Schetelig.
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  81. Wilson, David M. “The Recognition of Viking Art.” In Cultural Interaction between East and West: Archaeology, Artefacts and Human Contacts in Northern Europe. Edited by Ulf Fransson, Marie Svedin, Sophie Bergerbrant and Fedir Androshuck, 312–315. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 44. Stockholm: Stockholm University, 2007.
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  83. An historiographical essay in which Wilson documents the process of the identification and systemization of Viking art during the late 19th and early 20th centuries and the establishment of its current terminology, which he suggests remains generally acceptable for the purpose of its study (cf. Karlsson 1983).
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  85. Early Art (Oseberg, Borre and Jellinge Styles)
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  87. The Oseberg style is named after the woodcarvings uncovered in the Oseberg ship burial and marks the first stylistic phase of Viking-Age art. Shetelig 1920 (cited under the Principles of Stylistic Groupings) is the classic account and can be supplemented by Fuglesang 1982 and Wilson 2001, both of which also treat the subsequent Borre and Jellinge styles. The Broa mounts are discussed in Thunmark-Nylén 1992. A key theme in discussion of the Oseberg and Borre styles is the origin and application of the so-called gripping beast motif, for which see Wamers 1999, Helmbrecht 2005, and Fuglesang 2013. Terslev and Hiddensee are best considered stylistic phases of the Borre style and are found principally on high-status gold and silver jewelry. Johansen 1912 and Paulsen 1936 are the original publications of the Terslev and Hiddensee hoards, respectively, while a recent typology of Terslev ornaments is presented in Kleingärtner 2004. On the Terslev and Hiddensee styles, see too listings under Gold and Silver.
  88.  
  89. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Early Viking Art.” Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium Historiam Pertinentia series 2 8.2 (1982): 125–173.
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  91. Introduction to and survey of Scandinavian art from the mid-8th to mid-10th century, describing and evaluating the successive stylistic groups (completed by Fuglesang 1981, cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]). Fuglesang first distinguishes between Style E (as on the Broa mounts) and the Oseberg style, followed by a discussion of the subsequent Borre and Jellinge styles.
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  93. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Copying and Creativity in Early Viking Ornament.” In Early Medieval Art and Archaeology in the Northern World. Studies in Honour of James Graham-Campbell. Edited by Andrew Reynolds and Leslie Webster, 826–841. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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  95. Discusses the copying and adaption in Norway of Frankish ornaments in the 9th-century Hoen hoard (Fuglesang and Wilson 2006, cited under Gold and Silver) and reviews the gripping beast problem, rejecting the conclusion of Wamers 1999 of a continental origin for the motif and suggesting that Scandinavian gripping beasts resulted from the creative copying and partial transformation of Anglo-Saxon models.
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  97. Helmbrecht, Michaela. “Der Frühe Nordische Greiftierstil: Studien zu einer Stilistischen, Räumlichen und Chronologischen Gliederung.” Offa 61–62 (2005): 239–307.
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  99. Typological analysis and catalogue of 116 artifacts in the so-called early gripping beast style (late 8th to third quarter of the 9th century), excluding examples from Gotland. The author finds that most of artifacts decorated with the motif are associated with female dress but suggests that the geographical origins of the motif are impossible to establish (for the origins of the gripping beast motif, see Fuglesang 2013; Wamers 1999; Wilson 2001). In German, with a short English summary.
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  101. Johansen, K. Friis. “Solvskatten fra Terslev.” Aarbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighet og Historie 20 (1912): 189–216.
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  103. The original publication (in Danish) of the Viking-Age silver hoard from Terslev, Denmark, including filigree-decorated pendants with distinctive knot ornament, sometimes known as the Terslev style but better considered a variation on the Borre style (see Kleingärtner 2004). Further pendants demonstrate the adoption of spiral motifs in Scandinavia (notably as C-scrolls), seemingly derived from English and Continental vine-scroll ornament (e.g., Fuglesang 1982).
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  105. Kleingärtner, Sunhild. “Fibeln und Anhänger vom Typ Terslev und ihre Gegossenen Imitatioen.” In Zwischen Tier und Kreuz. Untersuchungen zur wikingerzeitlichen Ornamentik im Ostseeraum. Edited by Michael Müller-Wille, 205–376. Neumünster, Germany: Wachholtz, 2004.
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  107. German-language article on filigree-and-granulation brooches and pendants in the Terslev style and their cast variants. The author discusses the function, date, and distribution of the material and establishes several different style groups (also adopted and summarized in English in Kershaw 2013, cited under Metalwork [including Coins]), while stressing the importance of Hedeby in the reception and manufacture of the style-phase. Includes high-quality illustrations and a detailed illustrated catalogue, in which filigree-and-granulation artifacts, cast variants, and dies are presented separately.
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  109. Paulsen, Peter. Der Goldschatz von Hiddensee. Führer zur Urgeschichte 13. Leipzig, Germany: C. Rabitzsch, 1936.
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  111. The original publication (in German) of a Viking-Age gold hoard found on the beach (in 1872 and 1874) at Hiddensee, near Rügen, Germany, consisting of a magnificent set of jewelry: a filigree-decorated Borre-style disc brooch and necklace of ten cruciform pendants (with bird-headed suspension loops), and four small spacers (some presumably missing), with a neck-ring of twisted rods. See Armbruster and Eilbracht 2006; Svanberg 1998, both cited under Gold and Silver.
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  113. Thunmark-Nylén, Lena. “Gammalt och Nytt i Broa: med Tillägnan i Anledning av Serien Gotlands Järnålder 1892–1992.” Fornvännen 87.4 (1992): 225–240.
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  115. Groups the twenty-two bridle mounts from Broa, Gotland, into two groups (A and B) on the basis of their stylistic and technical features. Suggests that only the mounts in Group B were intended for their original purpose, with the older mounts from Group A having been reused (it is suggested, controversially, from a Christian cult object). In Swedish, with an English summary.
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  117. Wamers, Egon. “Zwischen Salzburg und Oseberg. Zu Ursprung und Ikonographie des Nordischen Grieftierstils.” In Völker an Nord- und Ostsee und die Franken. Edited by Uta von Freeden, Ursula Koch, and Alfried Wieczorek, 195–228. Bonn, Germany: R. Habelt, 1999.
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  119. A detailed discussion (in German) of the origins of the gripping beast style and its emergence in the early Viking art of Scandinavia, around 800, returning to the old idea of its background in the continental Tassilo chalice style of the early Carolingian period (cf. Fuglesang 2013; Wilson 2001). With a short English summary.
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  121. Wilson, David M. “The Earliest Animal Styles of the Viking Age.” In Tiere–Menschen–Götter: Wikingerzeitliche Kunststile und ihre neuzeitliche Rezeption. Edited by Michael Müller-Wille and Lars Olof Larsson, 131–156. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001.
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  123. Description of the development of animal ornament in Early Viking art from its origins in Style III to the Borre and Jellinge styles (and the emergence of the 10th-century Mammen style), with a particular concern for chronology. Wilson’s discussion of Style III/E (at Broa and Oseberg) includes consideration of the origins of the gripping beast motif from an English perspective.
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  125. Late Art (Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles)
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  127. The Late Viking-Age styles date from the mid-10th century to the end of the Viking Age. Fuglesang is the principal scholar in this field. Her chapter in Iversen 1991 is the best starting point for the Mammen style and can be read together with Muhl 1990 (or Roesdahl 1998, cited under Wood, Ivory, and Antler Carving). Fuglesang 1980 is a book-length study of the Ringerike style; Fuglesang 1981 and Fuglesang 2001 offer shorter reviews of each phase of Late Viking-Age art. Ringerike and Urnes are the styles most often applied to runestones, for which see Fuglesang 1998 (also see Gräslund 1990–1991; Gräslund 1992, both cited under Stone Sculpture). Røstad 2012 is a recent account of bird brooches from Norway decorated in Late Viking-Age styles (also see Pedersen 2001, cited under Symbolism).
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  129. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. Some Aspects of the Ringerike Style: A Phase of 11th Century Scandinavian Art. Mediaeval Scandinavia Supplements 1. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1980.
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  131. Influential doctoral thesis establishing the fundamental definition of the 11th-century Ringerike style of Viking art, including a detailed catalogue (to the 1970s), with in-depth discussion. Although Ringerike employs Mammen-style animal motifs, with some alterations, its major innovations are in plant motifs and composition schemes, displaying influence from both Anglo-Saxon and Ottonian ornament.
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  133. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Stylistic Groups in Late Viking and Early Romanesque Art.” Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium Historiam Pertinentia series 2 8.1 (1981): 79–125.
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  135. Survey of Scandinavian art from the mid-10th century into the 12th century, describing and evaluating the successive stylistic groups from the Mammen to the Urnes-Romanesque styles. Innovations in Late Viking art suggest European influence, particularly during the Mammen and Ringerike phases, but with stronger indigenous assertion in the Urnes phase; the adoption of Romanesque art in Scandinavia was the “ultimate European victory” (for Early Viking art, see Fuglesang 1982, cited under Early Art [Oseberg, Borre and Jellinge Styles]).
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  137. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Swedish Runestones of the Eleventh Century: Ornament and Dating.” In Runeninschriften als Quellen interdisziplinärer Forschung: Abhandlungen des Vierten Internationalen Symposiums über Runen und Runeninschriften in Göttingen vom 4.–9. August 1995. Edited by Klaus Düwel, 197–218. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 15. Göttingen, Germany: de Gruyter, 1998.
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  139. An important overview of the nature of the Late Viking-Age art (Ringerike to Urnes style) on the (over two thousand) decorated runic memorial stones, with discussion of its stylistic groupings and chronological development, taken up in Fuglesang 2001 and, for iconography, in Fuglesang 2007 (cited under Narrative and Figural Art). For the “Runestone style” see Gräslund 1990–1991 and Gräslund 1992 (both cited under Stone Sculpture).
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  141. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Animal Ornament: The Late Viking Period.” In Tiere–Menschen–Götter: Wikingerzeitliche Kunststile und ihre Neuzeitliche Rezeption. Edited by Michael Müller-Wille and Lars Olof Larsson, 157–194. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001.
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  143. Surveys the morphology, dating, and distribution of the designs attributed to the Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes styles, with discussion of the possible symbolic content of the ornament during this period of early Christianity in Scandinavia. Whereas the Mammen and Ringerike styles were created in Denmark, with influence from Germany and England, Fuglesang concludes that the Urnes style was mainly an indigenous development.
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  145. Iversen, Mette, ed. Mammen: Grav, Kunst og Samfund i Vikingetid. Højbjerg, Denmark: Jysk Arkeologisk Selskab, 1991.
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  147. A major collection of papers concerning the 1868 excavation and contents of the Mammen grave in Denmark, including the decorated axe that defines the Mammen style; it was reexcavated in 1986 and the wooden chamber-grave dendrochronologically dated to 970–971. See especially Signe Horn Fuglesang, “The Axe-Head from Mammen and the Mammen Style” (pp. 83–108); see also Jansson 1991 (cited under Dating) and several papers on the textiles (cf. Munksgaard 1984, cited under Decorated Textiles).
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  149. Muhl, Arnold. “Der Bamberger und der Camminer Schrein: Zwei im Mammenstil verzierte Prunkkästchen der Wikingerzeit.” Offa 47 (1990): 241–420.
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  151. Detailed account of two Mammen-style masterpieces, known as the Bamberg and Cammin caskets, of carved antler and ivory with engraved metal mounts. Neither displays any Christian iconography, although both came to be used as reliquaries. The paper is extensively illustrated, including numerous analytical drawings of the animal motifs, anthropomorphic masks, and vegetal ornament. In German, with a short English summary.
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  153. Røstad, Ingunn Marit. “En Fremmed Fugl: «Danske» Smykker og Forbindelser på Østlandet i Overgangen mellom Vikingtid og Middelalder.” Viking 75 (2012): 181–210.
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  155. Discussion in Norwegian (with English summary: “A Strange Bird: ‘Danish’ Brooches and Affiliations in Eastern Norway in the Viking and Medieval Ages”) of two connected series of Late Viking-Age brooches of Danish origin with a restricted distribution in Norway, both probably produced from a common model during the period c. 1050–1100, with the suggestion that they were worn as an expression of Danish affiliation.
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  157. Narrative and Figural Art
  158.  
  159. Several of the works below are concerned with identifying in Viking art episodes from Old Norse sagas: prose narratives principally concerned with family history and feuds, written down in Iceland during the 13th and 14th centuries. Particularly prominent in Viking Art is the Sigurd legend, as related in Völsunga saga, in which Sigurd slays the dragon Fafnir and, subsequently, the smith, Regin. Ellis 1942 is a useful starting point on this topic, whereas Margeson 1983 identifies Sigurd scenes on stone sculpture from the Isle of Man. A similar approach is taken by Staecker 2006, in the author’s case-study of two picture-stones from Gotland; this can be read alongside Nylén and Lamm 1988 for an accessible and wider-ranging interpretation of imagery of Gotlandic sculpture. Wilson 1998 reassesses the chronology of later Gotland picture-stones. Both Snædal 2010 and Blindheim 1977 discuss religious imagery on famous stone sculpture, and Kopár 2012 is the latest account of imagery on sculpture from northern England. Fuglesang 2007 differs from the other works in developing a conceptual approach to the interpretation of narrative scenes and is a good complement to Norrman 2005 (cited under Decorated Textiles); both should be read by those interested in Viking-Age tapestries. Fuglesang 1981 is a stand-alone study on representations of the crucifix in Viking art. Also relevant to this topic are Bailey 1980 (cited under Stone Sculpture; for detailed descriptions of the Gosforth and Middleton crosses) and Shetelig 1920 (cited under the Principles of Stylistic Groupings; for the Oseberg carvings).
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  161. Blindheim, Martin. “A Norwegian Eleventh-Century Picture Stone: The Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem.” Journal of the British Archaeological Association 130 (1977): 145–156.
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  163. Interprets the pictorial cycle depicted on a runestone from Dynna, Norway, with the journey of the Magi, thus identifying the stone as the earliest monument in Norway with Christian iconography.
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  165. Ellis, Hilda. “Sigurd in the Art of the Viking Age.” Antiquity 16 (1942): 216–236.
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  167. Useful, short survey of the Viking-Age wood and stone carvings from Scandinavia and Britain that depict the Sigurd legend. The depictions show that the legend was established well before it was preserved in written form in the 13th century. For discussion of the Sigurd legend in Viking art, also see Margeson 1983 and Graham-Campbell 2013, pp. 175–178 (cited under General Overviews).
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  169. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Crucifixion Iconography in Viking Scandinavia.” In Proceedings of the 8th Viking Congress, 1977. Edited by Hans Bekker-Nielsen, Peter Foote, and Olaf Olsen, 73–94. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1981.
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  171. Attempts to trace the origins of select crucifixion motifs on Scandinavian crosses dated to the 10th century and later, in which Christ is shown either bound on the cross or entwined by scroll.
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  173. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Ekphrasis and Surviving Imagery in Viking Scandinavia.” Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 3 (2007): 193–223.
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  175. Thoughtful but involved article that explores the relationship between Scandinavian picture poems (i.e., skaldic poems that describe visual art) and surviving examples of Viking art. Suggests that both art and poetry emphasize heroic themes. Particularly useful for understanding the narrative scenes of the Oseberg tapestry. Compare with Christensen and Nockert 2006 (cited under Decorated Textiles).
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Kopár, Lilla. Gods and Settler: The Iconography of Norse Mythology in Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2012.
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  179. A survey and interpretation of c. 30 stone sculptures from northern England (late 9th–mid-11th century) displaying images drawn from Scandinavian mythological and heroic sagas (e.g., Wayland the Smith, Sigurd, the wolf Fenrir, and Valkyries). The first significant work on Anglo-Scandinavian sculpture since Bailey 1980 (cited under Stone Sculpture), although the uneven quality of images limits its usefulness as a source for art history.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Margeson, Sue. “On the Iconography of the Manx Crosses.” In The Viking Age in the Isle of Man. Edited by Christine Fell, Peter Foote, James Graham-Campbell, and Robert Thomson, 95–106. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 1983.
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  183. Discusses pictorial depictions of mythological scenes, human figures and animals, and the Sigurd legend on stone carvings from the Isle of Man. The Sigurd iconography carried on four stones from Man is the earliest known and is evidence that the legend was current in the 10th century.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Nylén, Erik, and Jan Peder Lamm. Stones, Ships and Symbols: The Picture Stones of Gotland from the Viking Age and Before. Stockholm: Gidlunds, 1988.
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  187. Popular account of Gotland picture-stones that discusses their motifs under a number of thematic headings, including spirals, myths, dress, rings, and paganism and Christianity. Pages 171–172 usefully summarize the typology of Lindqvist 1941–1942 (cited under Stone Sculpture), while a catalogue encompasses all picture-stones known in 1987.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Snædal, Thórgunnur. “Ailikn’s Wagon and Ódinn’s Warriors: The Pictures on the Gotlandic Ardre Monuments.” In The Viking Age: Ireland and the West. Edited by John Sheehan and Donnchadh Ó Corráin, 441–449, Dublin: Four Courts, 2010.
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  191. Connects the imagery on four Christian memorial stones from Ardre church, Gotland, to scenes from pagan mythology carried on earlier 10th-century Gotlandic picture-stones.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Staecker, Jorn. “Heroes, Kings and Gods: Discovering Sagas on Gotlandic Picture-Stones.” In Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives: Origins, Changes and Interactions. Edited by Anders Andrén, Kristina Jennbert, and Catharina Raudvere, 363–368. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic, 2006.
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  195. Suggests that depictions on two famous Gotlandic picture-stones (Ardre VIII and Alskog Tjängvide I) relate not to Norse mythology, as is commonly assumed, but to episodes from Völsunga saga.
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  197. Wilson, David M. “The Gotland Picture-Stones. A Chronological Reassessment.” In Studien zur Archäologie des Ostseeraumes, von der Eisenzeit zum Mittelalalters: Festschrift für Michael Müller-Wille. Edited by Anke Wesse, 49–52. Neumünster, Germany: Wachholtz, 1998.
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  199. Reconsiders the chronology of some of the later Gotland picture-stones (700–1100), first proposed by Lindqvist 1941–1942 (cited under Stone Sculpture).
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  201. Expansion and Reception Abroad
  202.  
  203. In addition to appearing in the Scandinavian homelands, Viking art styles (with the exception of the Oseberg style) were also adopted in overseas Scandinavian settlements, both in the East and West. At issue is the extent to which art styles retained their Scandinavian character or were modified in a foreign setting in line with native tastes. Fuglesang 1986 is an important article for understanding cross-cultural influences in Viking and Anglo-Saxon art and can be supplemented with Webster 2012. Ó Floinn 2001 and O’Meadhra 1979–1987 both deal with Ireland; for which also see Murray 2014 and Lang 1988 (both cited under Late Styles). For a broader geographical view of the impact of Viking art in the West, see Graham-Campbell 1987. English-language accounts of the impact of Viking art in the East are rare, but Jansson 1987 provides an authoritative study; see too Jansson 1999 (cited under Early Styles). Wicker 2011 offers a perspective on the modern-day reception of Viking art.
  204.  
  205. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “The Relationship between Scandinavian and English Art from the Late Eighth to the Mid-Twelfth Century.” In Sources of Anglo-Saxon Culture. Edited by Paul E. Szarmach, 203–241. Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, 1986.
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  207. A seminal paper for its period (mid-1980s) providing an extensive overview of the debate between archaeologists and art historians concerning the nature and extent of reciprocal influences between the Viking-Age art of Scandinavia and that of England during the late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman periods (from the origins of Viking art to the Urnes/Romanesque style).
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  209. Graham-Campbell, James. “From Scandinavia to the Irish Sea: Viking Art Reviewed.” In Ireland and Insular Art, A.D. 500–1200: Proceedings of a Conference at University College Cork, 31 October–3 November 1985. Edited by Michael Ryan, 144–152. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1987.
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  211. A review of the literature to 1985 discussing the nature and extent of the influence of Viking art on that of Britain and Ireland, by region, including comments on terminology, typology, and methodology.
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  213. Jansson, Ingmar. “Communications between Scandinavia and Eastern Europe in the Viking Age: The Archaeological Evidence.” In Untersuchungen zu Handel und Verkehr der vor- und frühgeschichtlichen Zeit in Mittel- und Nordeuropa, Teil IV. Der Handel der Karolinger- und Wikingerzeit. Edited by Klaus Düwel, 773–807. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987.
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  215. Unfinished ornaments found in the cultural layers of the settlements at Staraja Ladoga and Rjurikovo Gorodišče, near Novgorod (see Jansson 1999, cited under Early Styles) and fragments of clay molds in Gnezdovo near Smolensk provide evidence for Viking-Age craftsmen working in a Scandinavian tradition among the Rus, combined with a review of finds of imported Scandinavian objects.
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  217. Ó Floinn, Raghnall. “Irish and Scandinavian Art in the Early Medieval Period.” In The Vikings in Ireland. Edited by Anne-Christine Larsen, 87–97. Roskilde, Denmark: Viking Ship Museum, 2001.
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  219. A short but informative summary of the Scandinavian impact on the development of Irish art from the 9th to 12th centuries, emphasizing that it was only from the early 11th century that Viking art had any appreciable influence on the native tradition (see Ó Floinn 1987, cited under Late Styles).
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  221. O’Meadhra, Uaininn. Early Christian, Viking and Romanesque Art: Motif-Pieces from Ireland. 2 vols. Theses and Papers in North-European Archaeology 7 and 17, Institute of Archaeology, University of Stockholm. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1979–1987.
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  223. Doctoral thesis, in two parts, cataloguing and discussing 160 early medieval motif-pieces from Ireland (to 1973), many published for the first time. These mostly bone and stone fragments display panels of finished and unfinished designs (hence their alternative designation as trial-pieces), throwing much light on learning attempts and workshop practices. Includes an important group from Viking Dublin, although many more have been found there since, as elsewhere including Viking Waterford (see Ó Floinn 2001).
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  225. Webster, Leslie. Anglo-Saxon Art: A New History. London: British Museum, 2012.
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  227. This recent introduction to Anglo-Saxon art by a leading authority concludes with the chapter, “The North Ascendant: The Viking Impact” (pp. 209–31), which surveys the development of distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian styles in England from the late 9th to early 12th centuries.
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  229. Wicker, Nancy. “Would There Have Been Gothic Art Without the Vikings? The Contribution of Scandinavian Medieval Art.” Medieval Encounters 17 (2011): 198–229.
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  231. Questions why Viking-Age Scandinavian art is so often marginalized in contemporary surveys of Medieval European Art, thus offering a perspective on its modern-day reception.
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  233. Early Styles
  234.  
  235. The earliest Viking art style adopted outside of Scandinavia was the Borre style, which was expressed in both conventional and new forms in England and the Isle of Man. Wilson 1976 is a good starting point for the impact of the style in England but should be read alongside the updated accounts by Kershaw 2010 and Paterson 2002 (cited under Metalwork [including Coins]). Wilson 2008 covers Borre- and Jellinge-style and later sculpture in the Isle of Man. Only Jansson 1999 treats the reception of 9th- and 10th-century Scandinavian styles in the East.
  236.  
  237. Jansson, Ingmar. “Scandinavian Finds from the 9th–10th Centuries on Rjurikovo Gorodišče.” In Fenno-ugri et Slavi 1997. Cultural Contacts in the Area of the Gulf of Finland in the 9th–13th Centuries. Papers Presented by the Participants in the Archaeological Symposium “Cultural Contacts in the Area of the Gulf of Finland in the 9th–13th Centuries,” 13–14 May 1997 in the National Museum of Finland. Edited by Paula Purhonen, 44–59. Helsinki: Museovirasto, 1999.
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  239. Description and analysis of the Scandinavian objects from the excavations at Gorodišče, the predecessor of Novogorod (compared with the find material from Birka in Sweden), including evidence for jewelry production, demonstrating its mixed population of local inhabitants and Scandinavian immigrants whose influence faded away at the end of the 10th century.
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  241. Kershaw, Jane. Viking-Age Scandinavian Art Styles and Their Appearance in the British Isles. Part 1, Early Viking-Age Art Styles. Finds Research Group AD700–1700, Datasheet 42. London: Finds Research Group, 2010.
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  243. Short review of the impact of Early Viking art on Britain and Ireland, with an emphasis on finds from England. It is concerned with both the Borre style, including related Terslev-type ornaments and vegetal motifs on trefoil brooches, and the Jellinge style, and discusses Insular, notably Anglo-Scandinavian, expressions of Viking ornament.
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  245. Wilson, David M. “The Borre Style in the British Isles.” In Minjar og Mentir afmælisirit helgað Kristjáni Eldjárn. Edited by Guðni Kolbeinsson, 502–509. Reykjavík, Iceland: Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóaðs, 1976.
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  247. The starting point for consideration of the adoption of the Borre style in Britain and Ireland and the development of its distinctive Insular version, with its particular variation on the Scandinavian ring-chain motif. It should, however, be noted that finds of ornamental metalwork since the 1970s have resulted in a wider repertoire of Borre-style motifs being represented in the Insular corpus (see Kershaw 2013; Paterson 2002, both cited under Metalwork [including Coins]).
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Wilson, David M. The Vikings in the Isle of Man. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2008.
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  251. Authoritative account of the archaeological evidence for the Viking settlement of the Isle of Man containing Wilson’s most recent survey and discussion of the ornament and iconography of the important group of Manx memorial crosses, displaying Scandinavian influence, from the 10th and 11th centuries. See chapter 3, “From Paganism to Christianity,” pp. 57–86.
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  253. Late Styles
  254.  
  255. The later Viking-Age art styles have a wide geographic distribution outside of the Scandinavian homelands. Wilson 2008 (cited under Early Styles) discusses the Mammen style in the Isle of Man, while Graham-Campbell 1995 (cited under Gold and Silver) addresses the production of the Mammen style in the Irish Sea region. For England, a useful starting point is Kershaw 2010, whereas Owen 2001 addresses the Urnes style in particular. Lang 1988, Ó Floinn 1987, and Murray 2014 address the reception and development of Late Viking-Age art styles in Ireland. For the spread of Viking art to the East, see Jansson 1992, Lehtosalo-Hilander 1985, and Mägi-Lôugas 1993.
  256.  
  257. Jansson, Ingmar. “Scandinavian Oval Brooches Found in Latvia.” In Die Kontakte zwischen Ostbaltikum und Skandinavien im frühen Mittelalter. Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 9 (1992): 61–77.
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  259. Latvia is one of the countries east of the Baltic that has yielded a large quantity of Viking-Age Scandinavian jewelry. This survey of oval brooches demonstrates that the fashion for wearing them was adopted by the native Finno-Ugrian population in both Finland and Latvia (as also the southeast Ladoga region), with local production taking place roughly during the 11th and 12th centuries.
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  261. Kershaw, Jane. Viking-Age Scandinavian Art Styles and Their Appearance in the British Isles. Part 2, Late Viking-Age Art Styles. Finds Research Group AD700–1700, Datasheet 43. London: Finds Research Group, 2010.
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  263. Short review of the nature and impact of the Late Viking art styles (Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes) on Britain and Ireland, from the late 10th to the 12th century, including their distinctive local versions.
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  265. Lang, James T. Viking-Age Decorated Wood: A Study of its Ornament and Style. Medieval Dublin Excavations 1962–81, Series B. Vol. 1. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1988.
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  267. Definitive catalogue and discussion of some 150 decorated wooden objects recovered from the Dublin excavations, with their stratigraphical dating to the 10th and 11th centuries. Lang distinguishes ten styles (including a West Viking style, with links to northern England), reflecting a continuing native artistic tradition receptive to influences from Viking art (notably the Ringerike style) and Anglo-Saxon art (Winchester style).
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  269. Lehtosalo-Hilander, Pirkko-Liisa. “Viking Age Spearheads in Finland.” In Society and Trade in the Baltic during the Viking Age. Edited by Sven-Olof Lindquist, 237–250. Acta Visbyensia 7. Visby, Sweden: Gotlands Fornsal, 1985.
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  271. More than sixty Late Viking-Age spearheads found in Finland have silver ornamented sockets, the majority of which are decorated with animals in the Swedish, Runestone style. At least seven different animal forms of Urnes-style type are distinguished, with parallels on Gotland. See also Mägi-Lôugas 1993.
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  273. Mägi-Lôugas, Marika. “On the Relations between the Countries around the Baltic as indicated by the Background of Viking Age Spearhead Ornament.” Fornvännen 88 (1993): 211–221.
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  275. Surveys a group of Viking-Age silver-ornamented spearheads (late 9th/early 10th-century to 11th century) found in Estonia, Latvia, and Finland. Concludes that although the majority were imported from Scandinavia there may have been some attempts at local manufacture, following Scandinavian models, toward the end of the Viking Age.
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  277. Murray, Griffin. The Cross of Cong. A Masterpiece of Medieval Irish Art. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2014.
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  279. The first detailed study of the Cross of Cong, made to enshrine a relic of the True Cross in 1123, at the monastery of Roscommon. Its animal ornament is strongly influenced by Late Viking art, warranting the stylistic label “Hiberno-Urnes.” Based on Murray’s doctoral thesis, this book explores the political, religious, cultural, and artistic background of the cross, with a catalogue of ecclesiastical objects produced by the same workshop.
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  281. Ó Floinn, Raghnall. “Schools of Metalworking in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Ireland.” In Ireland and Insular Art A.D. 500–1200: Proceedings of a Conference at University College Cork, 31 October–3 November 1985. Edited by Michael Ryan, 179–187. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1987.
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  283. Important study of the impact of the Ringerike and Urnes styles of Viking art on Irish metalworking in the 11th and 12th centuries, identifying five main groups or schools, the most original of which (perhaps at the monastery of Roscommon) was responsible for the Cross of Cong and St Manchan’s shrine. For the Cross of Cong, also see Murray 2014.
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  285. Owen, Olwyn. “The Strange Beast That Is the English Urnes Style.” In Vikings and the Danelaw. Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress. Edited by James Graham-Campbell, Richard Hall, Judith Jesch, and David N. Parsons, 203–222. Oxford: Oxbow, 2001.
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  287. A clear account of the metalwork and sculpture from England displaying Urnes-style decoration (together with an unfinished manuscript sketch), distinguishing between the classic Scandinavian Urnes style and those works produced locally under its influence. The latter compositions are less balanced and less elegant than their Scandinavian counterparts.
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  289. Dating
  290.  
  291. The stylistic phases of Viking art are dated with reference to dendrochronology, coin-dated hoards, and historical inscriptions (in the case of art on stone memorials). There is broad agreement on the relative sequence of Viking-Age art styles, discussed in most of the general overviews, although a minor debate exists about the dating brackets of the Borre style (see especially Wilson 1995 (cited under General Overviews) and Fuglesang and Wilson 2006 (cited under Gold and Silver). Bonde and Christiansen 1993, Roesdahl 1994, and Müller-Wille 2001 present important evidence from dendrochronology (tree-ring dating). Skibsted Klæsøe 1999 offers a more conventional chronology based on artifact typology, which has not, however, been widely accepted. Late Viking-Age art styles have fewer chronological anchors. These are addressed in Fuglesang 1984 as well as Fuglesang 1981, Fuglesang 1998, and Fuglesang 2001 (all cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]).
  292.  
  293. Bonde, Niels, and Arne Emil Christiansen. “Dendrochronological Dating of the Viking-Age Ship burials at Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune, Norway.” Antiquity 67 (1993): 575–583.
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  295. Describes the methods and results of dendrochronological analysis on the chamber graves contained in three Norwegian ship burials, which had profound implications for the dating of early Viking-Age art styles.
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  297. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Woodcarving from Oslo and Trondheim and Some Reflections on Period Styles.” In Festskrift til Thorleif Sjøvold på 70-årsdagen. Edited by Mari Høgestöl, Jan Henning Larsen, Eldrid Straume, and Birthe Weber, 93–108. Universitetets Oldsaksamlings Skrifter, Ny rekke 5. Oslo: Universitetet Oldsaksamling, 1984.
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  299. Surveys amateur woodcarvings retrieved from two early Norwegian urban sites. Fuglesang finds that the date of the Late Viking-Age woodcarvings as established by independent archaeological excavation fits neatly with a more conventional stylistic dating.
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  301. Jansson, Ingmar. “År 970/971 och Vikingatidens Kronologi.” In Mammen: Grav, Kunst og Samfund i Vikingetid. Edited by Mette Iversen, 267–284. Højbjerg, Denmark: Jysk Arkeologisk Selskab, 1991.
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  303. Suggests that the Jellinge and Mammen styles be considered as one phase of Viking art, given that the burial mounds yielding artifacts in those styles have been shown by dendrochronology to be close in date (958/9 and 970/1). Also proposes that the Gokstad ship burial might be contemporaneous: something that subsequent dendrochronological dating has proved not to be the case (see Bonde and Christiansen 1993). In Swedish with an English summary.
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  305. Müller-Wille, Michael. “Tierstile des 8–12. Jahrhunderts im Norden Europas. Dendrochronologie und Kunsthistorische Einordnung.” In Tiere. Menschen. Götter. Wikingerzeitliche Kunststile und ihre neuzeitliche Rezeption. Edited by Michael Müller-Wille and Lars Olof Larsson, 215–250. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001.
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  307. One of the most recent publications to summarize dendrochronological dates relevant for the chronology of Viking animal art. Figures 22 and 23 are especially useful for comparing the dendro-dates against more conventional style-based chronologies. In German.
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  309. Roesdahl, Else. “Dendrochonology and Viking Studies in Denmark, with a Note on the Beginning of the Viking Age.” In Developments around the Baltic and the North Sea in the Viking Age. Edited by Bjorn Ambrosiani and Helen Clarke, 106–116. Stockholm: Birka Project for Riksantikvarieämbetet and Statens Historiska Museer, 1994.
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  311. Succinct summaries of relevant dendrochronological dates obtained over the last twenty years in Denmark, with a dedicated section on objects relating to Viking art.
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  313. Skibsted Klæsøe, Iben. “Vikingetidens Kronologi—en Nybearbejdning af det Arkæologiske Materiale.” Aarbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 1997 (1999): 89–142.
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  315. Offers a revised but flawed relative and absolute chronology of Viking-Age stylistic groups from c. 750–1050 CE, based on brooch typologies and ornament. The article proposes several new phases of plant ornament for the Early Viking Age (8th and early 9th centuries) based on the adoption of acanthus and vine scroll motifs from Western Europe. However, questions have been raised about the accuracy of these new dates. In Danish with detailed summary in English.
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  317. Symbolism
  318.  
  319. Traditionally an approach eschewed by scholars of Viking art, this subject is attracting increasing attention, as reflected in the inclusion of a chapter on content and legacy in Graham-Campbell 2013 (cited under General Overviews). Domeij Lundborg 2006 and Neiss 2009 stress connections between Viking animal art and skaldic poetry, while Christensen 2010 and Gräslund 2006 explore links between art and Norse mythology, specifically in reference to representations of the pagan god Odin. Hedenstierna-Jonson 2006 deals with Borre-style knot motifs. Hedeager 2003 is slim on detail for the Viking period but outlines a useful approach to the subject. Both Gräslund 2005 and Pedersen 2001 address symbolism in Viking art in the context of the spread of Christianity. Also see the entries under Narrative and Figural Art.
  320.  
  321. Christensen, Tom. “En Sølvfigurin fra Lejre i Danmark.” Viking 73 (2010): 143–156.
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  323. Describes a small silver figure (height: 1.8 cm) in female dress found during excavations at the central-place of Lejre, Denmark, in 2009. The figure is seated on a throne between a pair of birds and is here interpreted as Odin, flanked by his ravens.
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  325. Domeij Lundborg, Maria. “Bound Animal Bodies: Ornamentation and Skaldic Poetry in the Process of Christianization.” In Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives. Origins, Changes and Interaction. Edited by Anders Andrén, 39–44. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic Press, 2006.
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  327. Thought-provoking article, which suggests that stylized, cut, and bound animal motifs were visual expressions of poetic metaphors for death, battle, and gift-giving.
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  329. Gräslund, Anne-Sofie. “The Watchful Dragon: Aspects of the Conversion of Scandinavia.” In Viking and Norse in the North Atlantic. Selected Papers from the Proceedings of the Fourteenth Viking Congress, Tórshavn, 19–30 July 2001. Edited by Andreas Mortensen and Símon V. Arge, 412–421. Tórshavn, Faroe Islands: Føroya Fróðskaparfelag, 2005.
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  331. Questions the symbolic meaning of the animal (dragons or serpents) depicted on Swedish runestones. Suggests that the rune animal was a symbol of good/Christ and appears on Christian runestones in a protective role.
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  333. Gräslund, Anne-Sofie. “Wolves, Serpents and Birds: Their Symbolic Meaning in Old Norse Belief.” In Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives. Origins, Changes and Interaction. Edited by Anders Andrén, 124–129. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic Press, 2006.
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  335. Speculates on the ideological/ religious meaning of these commonly depicted animals with reference to Old Norse mythology. Finds connections between all three animals and the god Odin.
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  337. Hedeager, Lotte. “Beyond Mortality: Scandinavian Animal Style AD 400–1200.” In Sea Change. Orkney and Northern Europe in the Later Iron Age AD 300–800. Edited by Jane Downes and Anna Ritchie, 127–136. Angus, Scotland: Pinkfoot, 2003.
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  339. Argues that animal representation in pre-Christian Scandinavian art was connected to shamanistic practice. Addresses art up to the end of the Viking Age, but most examples are drawn from earlier, Migration Period contexts.
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  341. Hedenstierna-Jonson, Charlotte. “Borre Style Metalwork in the Material Culture of the Birka Warriors.” Fornvännen 101 (2006): 312–322.
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  343. Highlights the absence of the Borre style on offensive weapons but notes its presence on dress and defensive weapons. Suggests that the style was employed for protection and had apotropaic significance.
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  345. Neiss, Michael. “Fixeringsbilder inom en vikingatida praktspänneserie.” Aarbøger for nordisk oldkyndighedog historie 2006 (2009): 91–132.
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  347. Highlights analogies between the animal motifs carried on large silver disc-brooches (crisply illustrated with excellent graphics) and skaldic poetry, with a detailed catalogue of six such brooches. In Swedish with an English summary.
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  349. Pedersen, Anne. “Rovfugle eller Duer. Fugleformede Fibler fra den tidlige Middelalder.” Aarbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 1999 (2001): 19–66.
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  351. Discusses the symbolism of bird motifs in the Viking Age from the starting point of bird-shaped brooches. Birds appear to have functioned as symbols of power and status as well as religious icons. Suggests bird motifs achieved a heightened importance in conversion-period Denmark as symbols of the new Christian faith. In Danish with a detailed English summary.
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  353. Media and Production
  354.  
  355. For metalworking, Lønborg 1998 is a valuable survey and the best starting point (although in Danish, it has an extensive English summary). Armbruster 2004 is an accessible article relevant for high-status, precious-metal ornaments, and Brinch Madsen 1984 deals with the mass manufacture of base-metal brooches (on which, also see Jansson 1985, cited under the Principles of Stylistic Groupings). Blacksmithing and carpentry are considered in the context of a Viking-Age tool chest from Gotland in Arwidsson and Berg 1983, while Andersson 2011 is concerned with textiles. Both Fuglesang 1987 and Lang 1984 search for the “hand” of the craftsman in Viking art, albeit from different perspectives.
  356.  
  357. Andersson Strand, Eva. “Tools and Textiles: Production and Organisation in Birka and Hedeby.” In Viking Settlements and Viking Society. Papers from the Proceedings of the Sixteenth Viking Congress. Edited by Savar Sigmundsson, 1–17. Reykjavík, Iceland: University of Iceland Press, 2011.
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  359. Presents a new analysis of textile tools (spindle whorls, loom weights, and bone needles) and suggests that, in these two Viking towns, textile production was organized predominantly at household level.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Armbruster, Barbara. “Goldsmiths’ Tools at Hedeby.” In Land, Sea and Home. Proceedings of a Conference on Viking-Period Settlement, at Cardiff, July 2001. Edited by John Hines, Alan Lane, and Mark Redknap, 109–123. Leeds, UK: Maney, 2004.
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  363. Reviews evidence for metalworking tools from Hedeby to suggest the presence of a goldsmithing workshop. Special consideration is given to forty-five dies used to create pressed sheet appliqués for filigree and granulation jewelry in the Hiddensee and Terslev styles. Also see Armbruster and Eilbracht 2006 (cited under Gold and Silver).
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Arwidsson, Greta, and Gösta Berg. The Mästermyr Find: A Viking Age Tool Chest from Gotland. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1983.
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  367. Full account, including catalogue and illustrations, of a Late Viking-Age chest containing tools, raw materials, and finished products thought to belong to an itinerant blacksmith and carpenter. Also contains a useful discussion of blacksmithing techniques illuminated by the find.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Brinch Madsen, Helge. “Metal-Casting, Techniques, Production and Workshops.” In Ribe Excavations 1970–1976. Vol. 2. Edited by Mogens Bencard, 15–93. Esbjerg, Denmark: Sydjysk Universitets Forlag, 1984.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Presents the crucibles, molds, tuyeres, and other casting-related materials recovered during the 1970–1976 excavations at Ribe, Denmark, in particular highlighting the molds for oval brooches (cf. Jansson 1985, cited under Principles of Stylistic Grouping). On the basis of the material, reconstructs the different manufacturing stages of cast jewelry (pp. 91–95).
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “‘The Personal Touch,’ on the Identification of Workshops.” In Proceedings of the 10th Viking Congress, Larkollen, Norway, 1985. Edited by James E. Knirk, 219–230. Universitetets Oldsaksamling Skrifter 9. Oslo: Universitetet Oldsaksamling, 1987.
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  375. Seeks to identify different groups of brooch makers on the basis of the size and quality of extant oval brooches. Suggests that the hand of the local craftsman can be seen in idiosyncratic design features. Also contains an appendix detailing the different stages for the manufacture of cast ornaments, based on Brinch Madsen 1984.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Lang, James T. “Fine Measurement Analysis of Viking Age Ornament.” In Beretning fra Tvaerfaglige Vikingesymposium. Edited by Gillian Fellows Jensen and Nils Lund, 37–57. Højbjerg, Denmark: Forlaget hikuin og Afdeling for middelalder-arkaeologi, 1984.
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  379. Interesting analysis that identifies the use of a grid template to execute designs on Anglo-Scandinavian stone carvings and metalwork. Suggests that the use of templates affected the finished design and calls for the practicalities of manufacture to be taken into account when identifying Viking art styles.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Lønborg, Bjarne. Vikingatidens Metalbearbejdning. Fynske Studier 17. Odense, Denmark: Odense Bys Museer and Odense Universitetsforlag, 1998.
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  383. The most detailed account of Viking-Age non-ferrous metalworking, covering a wide range of techniques, from refining and casting to soldering and decorative applications such as gilding and niello. A separate chapter discusses the manufacturing methods of several select artifacts, focusing on jewelry. In Danish, with detailed chapter synopses in English (glossary in Danish only).
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Wood, Ivory, and Antler Carving
  386.  
  387. The well-preserved woodcarvings from the Oseberg ship burial and Urnes stave church demonstrate the high level of artistry achieved by Viking-Age woodcarvers and provide glimpses of Viking art in a medium that rarely survives. For these, see, respectively, Shetelig 1920 (cited under the Principles of Stylistic Groupings) and Anker 1970 (cited under General Overviews). Fridstrøm 1984 is a good starting point for understanding woodcarving techniques. Urban excavations have yielded examples of decorated wooden fragments and utilitarian items: see Fuglesang 1981 (also see Fuglesang 1984, cited under Dating, and Lang 1988, cited under Late Styles). High-quality carvings from a probable church in Iceland are discussed in Eldjárn 1953. Surviving ivory and antler objects from the Viking Age demonstrate the intricacy achieved in small-scale carvings. Roesdahl 2005 is a good introduction to this subject and should be read alongside Muhl 1990 (cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]) and Roesdahl 1998.
  388.  
  389. Eldjárn, Kristján. “Carved Panels from Flatatunga, Iceland.” Acta Archaeologica 24 (1953): 81–101.
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  391. Analysis of the four carved panel fragments from house or, more probably, church timbers at Flatatunga, in northern Iceland. The foliate and knot motifs are shown to belong to the 11th-century Ringerike style, while the human figures are interpreted as Christ and the apostles. The panels, also more recently discussed in Fuglesang 1980 (cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]), give a sense of the vibrancy of Viking art in a medium that too rarely survives.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Fridstrøm, Erik. “The Viking Age Wood Carvers. Their Tools and Techniques.” In Festskrift til Thorleif Sjøvold på 70-årsdagen. Edited by Mari Høgestöl, Jan Henning Larsen, Eldrid Straume, and Birthe Weber, 87–92. Universitetets Oldsaksamlings Skrifter, Ny rekke 5. Oslo: Universitetet Oldsaksamling, 1984.
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  395. Short and straightforward description of woodworking tools and techniques, using evidence from the Oseberg carvings.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Fuglesang, Signe Horn. “Woodcarvers—Professionals and Amateurs—in Eleventh-Century Trondheim.” In Economic Aspects of the Viking Age. Edited by David M. Wilson and Marjorie L. Caygill, 21–31. British Museum Occasional Papers 30. London: British Museum, 1981.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Surveys Late Viking-Age carved wooden objects excavated in the trading town of Trondheim. Professional woodcarvings are distinguished by relief carving, using carving irons, while amateur carvings are incised with a knife and appear on everyday items such as spoons and bowls.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Roesdahl, Else. “Cammin–Bamberg–Prague–Leon: Four Scandinavian Objects d’Art in Europe.” In Studien zur Archäologie des Osteeraumes. Edited by Anke Wesse, 547–554. Neumünster, Germany: Wachholtz, 1998.
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  403. Surveys four late 10th-century ivory and antler objects: two caskets; a small box, and a sword guard, all of which are decorated in the Mammen style. The items were all preserved in the treasuries of European churches located outside of the areas of Scandinavian settlement and are thus interpreted as diplomatic gifts.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Roesdahl, Else. “Walrus Ivory: Demand, Supply, Workshops, and Greenland.” In Viking and Norse in the North Atlantic. Selected Papers from the Proceedings of the Fourteenth Viking Congress, Tórshavn, 19–30 July 2001. Edited by Andreas Mortensen and Símon V. Arge, 182–191. Tórshavn, Faroe Islands: Føroya Fróðskaparfelag, 2005.
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  407. Useful introduction to the archaeological study of walrus ivory that gives equal weight to skeletal finds, workshop waste, and finished carvings. Stresses the prominent role played by Greenland in supplying walrus ivory to Scandinavian and European markets between c. 1000–1200.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Stone Sculpture
  410.  
  411. Stone carving was rare within Scandinavia until the spread of Christianity, a notable exception being on the Baltic island of Gotland, where decorated limestone picture-stones were erected as memorials to the dead from the 5th to 11th centuries. The Viking-Age examples display various scenes separated into horizontal bands and are a tremendous resource for students of Viking art. Lindqvist 1941–1942 is the classic account, in German, but also see Nylén and Lamm 1988 (cited under Narrative and Figural Art). Gräslund 1990–1991 and Gräslund 1992 detail the Ringerike- and Urnes-style ornament on Swedish runestones (also see Fuglesang 1998, cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]), while Roesdahl 2013 reviews the most famous sculpture from the period: Harald Bluetooth’s memorial stone at Jelling, Denmark. For Scandinavian-influenced sculpture outside of Scandinavia, see Bailey 1980, Lang 1984, and Wilson 1983.
  412.  
  413. Bailey, Richard N. Viking Age Sculpture in Northern England. London: Collins, 1980.
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  415. Accessible account of stone sculpture, dated from the Viking settlement of Yorkshire (876) to the Norman Conquest, found in the areas of northern England colonized by Scandinavians (rather than “Viking sculpture”). Of particular interest are stones carrying identifiable Scandinavian-style ornament and scenes related to pagan and Christian beliefs; for a more recent account of some of the same subject matter, see Kopár 2012 (cited under Narrative and Figural Art).
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Gräslund, Anne-Sofie. “Runstenar: Om Ornamentik och Datering.” Tor 23 (1990–1991): 113–140.
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  419. Analysis of the line ornament carved on two groups of Late Viking-Age runestones from Uppland, Sweden. The author uses the ornament to date the groups to the 11th and first half of the 12th century, respectively. In Swedish with an English summary.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Gräslund, Anne-Sofie. “Runstenar: Om Ornamentik och Datering II.” Tor 24 (1992): 177–201.
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  423. A follow-on article from Gräslund 1990–1991. Establishes a relative chronology for runestones from Uppland, Sweden, with animal decoration in the Ringerike and Urnes styles. In Swedish with an English summary.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Lang, James. “The Hogback: A Viking Colonial Monument.” Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 3 (1984): 83–176.
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  427. The standard account of a distinct form of 10th-century Anglo-Scandinavian sculpture known as the hogback: a house-shaped stone grave cover, found mainly in northern England and Scotland.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Lindqvist, Sune. Bildsteine. 2 vols. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1941–1942.
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  431. Classic and influential publication of the picture-stones from Gotland, Sweden (5th to 11th centuries). In Volume 1 the author discusses the form, ornament, and date of the stones; pp. 62–107 are devoted to the stones’ various iconographic scenes. This volume also contains excellent black-and-white plates. Volume 2 is an illustrated catalogue, naturally only up-to-date as of 1942 (and thus excluding over sixty stones found since then, for which, see Nylén and Lamm 1988 (cited under Narrative and Figural Art). In German, but the plates are a valuable resource in their own right.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Roesdahl, Else. “King Harald’s Rune-Stone in Jelling: Methods and Messages.” In Early Medieval Art and Archaeology in the Northern World. Studies in Honour of James Graham-Campbell. Edited by Andrew Reynolds and Leslie Webster, 859–875. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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  435. Describes the text, script, and images displayed on the three-sided “great rune-stone” erected at Jelling by Harald Bluetooth to commemorate Denmark’s conversion to Christianity (in c. 965). The second face, depicting a “great beast” entwined by a snake, is important for understanding the Mammen style. Recently published, but in fact revised from a Danish-language article written in 1999. See also Fuglesang 2001 and Fuglesang in Iversen 1991 (both cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]).
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Wilson, David. “The Art of the Manx Crosses of the Viking Age.” In The Viking Age in the Isle of Man. Edited by Christine Fell, Peter Foote, James Graham-Campbell, and Robert Thomson, 175–187. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 1983.
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  439. Summarizes Scandinavian stylistic influence on 10th-century carved memorial stones in the Isle of Man, highlighting particular links to the Borre, Jellinge, and Mammen styles as well as Scandinavian figural art. Also see Wilson 2008 (pp. 57–86; cited under General Overviews).
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Metalwork (including Coins)
  442.  
  443. Viking-Age ornamental metalwork, mainly in the form of personal dress items, provides the most important source material for the study of Viking art. Although none of the works cited here address this metalwork from an explicitly art-historical perspective, Kershaw 2013 is concerned to assign Scandinavian-style metalwork from England to specific art styles. The other works provide examples and illustrations of contemporary metalwork. Petersen 1928 is a classic and frequently cited account of ornamental metalwork current in Viking-Age Norway. Capelle 1968 is the standard source for metalwork from Hedeby, and Jansson 1984 discusses a common brooch type on the basis of finds from Birka. Kershaw 2013, Leahy and Paterson 2001, and Paterson 2002 survey Viking-Age ornamental metalwork (predominantly female jewelry) from England uncovered by recent metal-detecting. Designs on Viking-Age coinage are discussed by Blackburn 2004, with reference to the York coinage, and by Malmer 2007, with reference to coinage from southern Scandinavia.
  444.  
  445. Blackburn, Mark. “The Coinage of Scandinavian York.” In Aspects of Anglo-Scandinavian York: The Archaeology of York, Anglo-Scandinavian York. Vol. 8.4. Edited by Richard A. Hall, 325–349. York, UK: Council for British Archaeology, 2004.
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  447. Authoritative general survey, which includes discussion of the iconography of York coins struck from c. 895 to 954. Particularly notable are the designs of the St. Peter coins, which combine swords, Thor’s hammers, and crosses to communicate both pagan Norse and Christian messages.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Capelle, Torsten. Der Metallschmuck von Haithabu. Neumünster, Germany: Wachholtz, 1968.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. A presentation and illustrated catalogue of Viking-Age ornamental metalwork from Hedeby/Haithabu, which includes discussion of the different art styles represented by the finds (pp. 31–65). A series of maps reveal the distribution of various artifact types known at the time. In German. The Hiddensee- and Terslev-style dies from Hedeby harbor (recovered in 1979) are presented in Armbruster 2004 (cited under Media and Production).
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Jansson, Ingmar. “Kleine Rundspangen.” In Systematische Analysen der Gräberfunde, Birka II:1. Edited by Greta Arwidsson, 58–74. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1984.
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  455. An illustrated typology of small, base-metal disc brooches of the 9th and 10th centuries (Borre and Jellinge styles) based on those found at Birka, Sweden. In German.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Kershaw, Jane. Viking Identities: Scandinavian Jewellery in England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  458. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199639526.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A new and richly illustrated book and online database providing detailed description and analysis of Viking-Age Scandinavian and Anglo-Scandinavian female jewelry (mainly brooches) found in England. Considers the art styles, metal content, manufacture, and cultural contexts of the artifacts while highlighting the diversity of Scandinavian styles found.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Leahy, Kevin, and Caroline Paterson. “New Light on the Viking Presence in Lincolnshire: The Artefactual Evidence.” In Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress. Edited by James Graham-Campbell, Richard Hall, Judith Jesch, and David N. Parsons, 181–202. Oxford: Oxbow, 2001.
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  463. Pioneering article highlighting the Scandinavian background of recent finds of decorated metalwork from Lincolnshire (part of the Danelaw); argues on the basis of the finds for substantial Scandinavian settlement.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Malmer, Birgitta. “South Scandinavian Coinage in the Ninth Century.” In Silver Economy in the Viking Age. Edited by James Graham-Campbell and Gareth Williams, 13–27. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2007.
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  467. This fairly technical article contains a discussion of the design of coins struck in southern Scandinavia (probably at Hedeby) in the 820s. Among the motifs are naturalistic depictions of ships, fish, houses, and animals, some of which, the author argues, may have carried Christian associations.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Paterson, Caroline. “From Pendants to Brooches. The Exchange of Borre- and Jellinge-Style Motifs across the North Sea.” Hikuin 29 (2002): 267–276.
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  471. Introduces recent metal-detected finds of ornamental metalwork from England that display Borre- and Jellinge-style motifs of the 9th and 10th centuries. Paterson identifies Anglo-Scandinavian variants of Scandinavian artefact types, including flat disc brooches of Anglo-Saxon type, decorated with motifs transferred from Scandinavian pendants and convex disc brooches.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Petersen, Jan. Vikingetidens Smykker. Stavanger, Norway: Dreyers grafiske anstalt, 1928.
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  475. Illustrated and descriptive account of Viking-Age jewelry from Norway, grouped typologically. Includes multiple brooch types, beads, pendants, and arm- and finger-rings, among others. Scholars frequently reference the numbered illustrations in the form “P number” (e.g., P 51) to refer to a specific jewelry type (P 51 being the most common type of 10th-century oval brooch). In Norwegian.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Gold and Silver
  478.  
  479. Scholarship on ornamental Viking-Age gold and silver is dominated by artifacts in the so-called Terslev and Hiddensee styles, and the filigree and granulation techniques that characterize that art. Armbruster and Eilbracht 2006 is a good starting point for the method of constructing this elite jewelry. It can be supplemented with Armbruster 2004 (cited under Media and Production) and, for German-speakers, Eilbracht 1999. Duzcko 1985 places filigree and granulation jewelry from Birka, Sweden, in its wider, European context. Despite its title, Svanberg 1998 offers a general overview of the Hiddensee style. Fuglesang and Wilson 2006 is a recent scholarly and detailed account of the spectacular gold hoard from Hoen, Norway. Graham-Campbell 1995 surveys gold and silver finds from Scotland and includes specific discussion of the Mammen style of art present on the Skaill brooches.
  480.  
  481. Armbruster, Barbara, and Heidemarie Eilbracht. “Technological Aspects of the Viking-Age Gold Treasure from Hiddensee, Germany.” Historical Metallurgy 40 part 1 (2006): 27–41.
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  483. Illustrated and accessible review of the techniques and tools used to create the elite gold jewelry contained in the 10th-century Hiddensee hoard.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Duzcko, Wladyslaw. The Filigree and Granulation Work of the Viking Period: An Analysis of the Material from Björkö. Birka V. Stockholm: Kungl, Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, 1985.
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  487. An analysis of eighty-six items of jewelry and other objects decorated in filigree and granulation from Birka, Sweden, including a useful discussion of manufacturing techniques. The author distinguishes local products from imported artifacts from Western and Eastern Europe and traces the spiral ornament seen in filigree art to Western sources.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Eilbracht, Heidemarie. Filigran- und Granulationskunst im wikingischen Norden. Untersuchungen zum Transfer frühmittelalterlicher Gold- und Silberschmiedetechniken zwischen dem Kontinent und Nordeuropa. Bonn, Germany: R. Habelt, 1999.
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  491. This thesis explores the sources and development of Nordic filigree and granulation art, specifically its links to filigree art on the Continent. Contains separate chapters on the development of spiral and Terslev ornament in the medium as well as a catalogue, compiled in 1993, of 326 Nordic filigree and granulation jewelry items (pendants, brooches, and pins) dated from the 9th to 11th centuries. In German, with fine plates and maps.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Fuglesang, Signe Horn, and David M. Wilson, eds. The Hoen Hoard: A Viking Gold Treasure of the Ninth Century. Rome: Bardi Editore, 2006.
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  495. Full and scholarly publication (including catalogue) of the most important Viking-Age gold hoard from Scandinavia, found in 1834 in Hoen, Norway (previously Hon). The book offers a thorough consideration of the appearance, technical construction, and cultural origins of the Hoen artifacts, each discussed separately, with its own bibliography. The relevance of the hoard for the development and dating of Viking art is addressed by Fuglesang (pp. 83–92), although see Wilson 1995 (cited under General Overviews) for a different opinion. (Also published as Norske Oldfunn XX. Oslo: Kulturhistorisk Museum, Universitetet i Oslo, 2006).
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Graham-Campbell, James. The Viking Age Gold and Silver of Scotland (AD 850–1100). Edinburgh, UK: National Museums of Scotland, 1995.
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  499. Scholarly catalogue of the gold and silver hoards, and single finds of Scandinavian character found in Scotland. Analysis of the Mammen-style ornament incised on four brooches from the large silver hoard found at Skaill, Orkney (in 1858) leads the author to conclude that they were produced in the Irish Sea region.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Svanberg, Fredrik. “Exclusive Jewellery, Borgeby and Western Scania c. AD 950–1050.” Fornvännen 93 (1998): 113–123.
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  503. The article highlights the discovery at Borgeby, Sweden, of a clay mold used to make a patrix for silver or gold disc brooches in the Hiddensee style but is arguably more valuable for its overview of the dating, geographic spread, and manufacturing context of Hiddensee filigree art.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Decorated Textiles
  506.  
  507. There is no general overview of decorated textiles from the Viking period. Christensen and Nockert 2006 present the important Early Viking-Age textile hangings from the Oseberg ship burial in what is the final tome in a five-volume series on finds from the Oseberg ship burial (Volumes 1–3 and 5 of Osebergfundet were published between 1917 and 1928). Another important survival is the Late Viking-Age wall hanging from Överhogdal, Sweden, treated by Franzén and Nockert 1992. The hangings are notable for their narrative scenes, discussed in Norrman 2005 and briefly in Graham-Campbell 2013 (pp. 58–59 and pp. 158–160, cited under General Overviews) and Wilson 1995 (pp. 81–85, cited under General Overviews). Munksgaard 1984 describes the preserved costume pieces from a high-status 10th-century male burial from Mammen, Denmark, giving a sense of the ornate nature of elite male dress. A reconstruction of the Mammen costume can also be found in Iversen 1991 (cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]).
  508.  
  509. Christensen, Arne Emil, and Margareta Nockert, eds. Osebergfunnet IV. Tekstilene. Oslo: Kulturhistorisk Museum, Universitetet i Oslo, 2006.
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  511. Presents the textiles from the Oseberg ship burial in full. Separate chapters, penned by different authors in different decades, cover the tapestries (the most famous of the textiles), undecorated textiles, silks, and tablet weaves. The chapter on tapestries discusses motif, composition, and interpretations of the narrative scenes as visual poetry. In Norwegian with an extensive English summary, including full descriptions and technical detail (pp. 353–401).
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Franzén, Anne Marie, and Margareta Nockert. Bonaderna från Skog och Överhogdal och Andra Medeltida Väggbeklädnader. Stockholm: Kungl, Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, 1992.
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  515. The fullest account of the five wall hangings from Överhogdal, northern Sweden, four of which (Ia, Ib, II, and III) have been radiocarbon-dated to the 10th or early 11th century. The book includes a discussion of the “pictorial world” of the weaves, the narrative scenes of which display both pagan and Christian imagery. In Swedish, with an extensive English summary (pp. 113–125).
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Munksgaard, Elizabeth. “The embroideries from Bjerringhøy, Mammen.” In Festskrift til Thorleif Sjøvold på 70-årsdagen. Edited by Mari Høgestöl, Jan Henning Larsen, Eldrid Straume, and Birthe Weber, 159–171. Universitetets Oldsaksamlings Skrifter, Ny rekke 5. Oslo: Universitetet Oldsaksamling, 1984.
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  519. An account of the various textiles preserved in the elite, 10th-century male burial at Mammen, Denmark, including a cloak likely lined or edged with fur, silk cuffs from a shirt, and gold, bee-shaped sequins. Also see Iversen 1991 (cited under Late Art [Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes Styles]).
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Norrman, Lena. “Visual Poetry: Weaving Meaning in Old Norse Poetry.” Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 1 (2005): 137–152.
  522. DOI: 10.1484/J.VMS.2.3017468Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Suggests a reordering of the Överhogdal weavings 1a and 1b, dated to the 10th or early 11th century and interprets their scenes as a female telling of the Sigurd legend. For the Överhogdal tapestries see Franzén and Nockert 1992.
  524. Find this resource:
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