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Oceanic History (Atlantic History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Oceanic history—specified here as the maritime history of the Atlantic—provides an overall frame of reference for European overseas commercial expansion between Columbus’s discovery of America and the Napoleonic Wars. Statesmen, bureaucrats, scientists, shipowners, and merchants from Britain, the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Portugal were the main players in the navigation, charting, and exploration of oceanic routes. Their endeavors underpinned the migration of thousands of Europeans to the New World in the early modern era and the establishment of settler colonies in the Americas. Many historians have contributed to the study of oceanic history in relation to these themes in the history of the Atlantic world. Some historians have been genuinely interdisciplinary in their investigations, drawing upon a range of methodologies to illuminate the history of chart making, navigation, and exploration and the ideas that promoted colonization. Other scholars, however, have plowed narrower furrows with the unfortunate result that important aspects of oceanic history—notably navigation and cartography—are sometimes examined without contextual reference to mainstream historical investigations. With the early 21st-century emphasis on transnational history and on Atlantic history as important fields of historical enquiry, more sophisticated, holistic considerations of oceanic maritime history have been published, as evidenced by recent books mentioned in this entry.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Oceanic history is a vast historical field, even when confined just to the Atlantic. Only a few authoritative studies deal with the full range of European interaction with the Atlantic maritime world. Some of these are fairly old books. More recent publications (like much work in Atlantic history) have been written by multiple authors with diverse specialties and language proficiencies. Butel 1999 covers this subject in its entirety, but it is very much a first, brave attempt by an experienced historian to analyze the varied history of the Atlantic. Parry 1974 is readable and reliable on the purely maritime aspects of Atlantic colonization. Davis 1973 is still the first port of call for an introduction to the economic history of the white Atlantic—he largely omits Africa—in the early modern period. Parry 1966, Boxer 1965, and Disney 2009 are good overviews of particular European nations and their voyaging and colonies. Quinn 1974 examines English voyages of exploration to North America in the 16th century. Kearney 2004 provides some relevant comparisons of the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans. Kupperman 2012 offers a more recent overview of the societies created by European colonizers across the Atlantic in the early modern period.
  8.  
  9. Boxer, C. R. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800. London: Hutchinson, 1965.
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  11. Traces Dutch sea power over a period when the Netherlands became a leading naval and colonial power and then declined. Covers maritime expansion during war and peace in both the Caribbean and the Indonesian archipelago.
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  13. Butel, Paul. The Atlantic. New York: Routledge, 1999.
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  15. The only modern scholarly book to discuss the entire history of the Atlantic Ocean. Several chapters cover markets for goods, naval power, trading companies, and international commercial networks in the early modern period. The author is a specialist on French maritime and port history.
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  17. Davis, Ralph. The Rise of the Atlantic Economies. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.
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  19. Discusses European economic expansion in the Atlantic world between the Iberian voyages of exploration in the 16th century and the eve of British industrialization. Covers Britain, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Americas but has only limited reference to Africa.
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  21. Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From Beginnings to 1807. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  23. Reinterprets the history of Portugal and its empire up to the beginning of the 19th century. Written by an expert on Portuguese trade with India, these volumes trace the growth of the first global empire in world history. Vol. 2 includes detailed material on the Portuguese in Africa, the Atlantic islands, Brazil, and maritime Asia.
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  25. Kearney, Milo. The Indian Ocean in World History. New York: Routledge, 2004.
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  27. One example among many of the historical analysis of oceans other than the Atlantic. Chapter 6 examines European control of Indian Ocean maritime trade in the early modern period. This can be compared and contrasted with the European maritime penetration of the Atlantic Ocean discussed in other books in this section.
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  29. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. The Atlantic in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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  31. A concise overview dealing with first contacts between European, African, and Native American people; migrations across the Atlantic; commodity trade; the impact of disease; and warfare in the Atlantic world in the early modern period. Though an attempt is made to include the African dimension of Atlantic history and there is some coverage of Central and South America, the book largely concentrates on the thirteen British colonies that became the United States.
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  33. Parry, J. H. The Spanish Seaborne Empire. London: Hutchinson, 1966.
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  35. A comprehensive study of enduring significance that traces the growth and decline of the vast Spanish empire in the Americas. The author’s expertise in maritime history is evident throughout the text, but he covers many other features of Spanish settler societies.
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  37. Parry, J. H. The Discovery of the Sea: An Illustrated History of Men, Ships, and the Sea in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. New York: Dial, 1974.
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  39. A lucid account of the background and effects of the major voyages of discovery. Discusses the preparations needed in terms of maritime equipment, the technical problems associated with oceanic seafaring and their solutions, and the nature of the ocean crossings. A learned book despite its coffee-table appearance.
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  41. Quinn, David Beers. England and the Discovery of America, 1481–1620. New York: Knopf, 1974.
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  43. The largest of several volumes of collected papers by the outstanding authority on English voyaging across the Atlantic in the Tudor and early Stuart periods. All chapters are based on rigorous archival research.
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  45. Reference Works
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  47. Few reference works concentrate exclusively on Atlantic oceanic history, but several publications contain relevant information. Hattendorf 2007 is a good encyclopedia on maritime history, although its coverage is uneven; many topics that one would legitimately expect to find covered in depth are only treated sketchily. Exploration of the Atlantic maritime world is a prominent feature of Howgego 2003 and Buisseret 2007, which complement each other well. Goetzmann and Williams 1998 is a fine atlas of North American exploration. Hattendorf 2003 is a catalogue of a major exhibition on European maritime expansion with many illustrations of original documents and artifacts. Black 1970–1975 and Cappon, et al. 1976 are excellent cartographic reference works.
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  49. Black, Jeanette D., ed. The Blathwayt Atlas. 2 vols. By William Blathwayt. Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1970–1975.
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  51. Vol. 1 comprises forty-eight facsimile 17th-century maps of the English colonies in North America and the West Indies. They were originally drawn up for the Lords of Trade and Plantations during Charles II’s reign. Vol. 2 provides a commentary on the maps.
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  53. Buisseret, David, ed. The Oxford Companion to World Exploration. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  55. Covers all aspects of world exploration from ancient times to the early 21st century and from underwater exploration to outer space. Includes over 750 articles and eighty captioned full-color plates. Many illustrations are taken from the collections of the Newberry Library in Chicago. Has a topical outline with entries listed under sixteen subject categories.
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  57. Cappon, Lester J., Barbara Bartz Petchenik, and John Hamilton Long, eds. Atlas of Early American History: The Revolutionary Era, 1760–1790. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.
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  59. A detailed, lavish atlas with many maps and graphs on North America during the revolutionary era. Based on high-quality scholarly teamwork.
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  61. Goetzmann, William H., and Glyndwr Williams. The Atlas of North American Exploration: From the Norse Voyages to the Race to the Pole. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
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  63. Organized around time periods and North American geographic explorations. Combines historic drawings and explorers’ maps with modern color maps and includes helpful annotations and introductions. An attractive and authoritative introduction to coastal voyages and settlement in North America.
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  65. Hattendorf, John B. “The Boundless Deep”: The European Conquest of the Oceans, 1450–1840. Providence, RI: John Carter Brown Library, 2003.
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  67. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Newport Art Museum, Rhode Island. Reproductions of maps, charts, rare books, prints, and manuscripts on European oceanic history are included from the collections of a leading research library dealing with maritime exploration. Contains 115 illustrations, many in full color.
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  69. Hattendorf, John B., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History. 4 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  71. This encyclopedia of maritime history is a curate’s egg: some entries are too short to do justice to the topic or person discussed, yet others are genuinely comprehensive. The coverage of navigational instruments, passenger trades, and navies, however, is full and helpful.
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  73. Howgego, Raymond John. Encyclopedia of Exploration to 1800. Potts Points, New South Wales, Australia: Hordern House, 2003.
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  75. This attractively produced book of over a thousand pages is a thorough reference work on travel and colonization. It covers 7,500 travelers and includes a catalogue of all known expeditions. The publisher’s website has a section available for additions and corrections moderated by the author.
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  77. Electronic Reference Resources
  78.  
  79. Internet resources exist in profusion. Many texts, maps, exhibitions, catalogues, images, and artifacts are readily and freely available at the click of a mouse. The list in this section cannot claim representativeness, but it indicates the scope of material accessible on the Internet.
  80.  
  81. Atlantic Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Americas: A Visual Record.
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  83. Some 1,235 images are reproduced in this teaching and research resource created by Jerome S. Handler and Michael L. Tuite Jr.
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  85. H-Net, H-Atlantic.
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  87. An online discussion list for Atlantic world history between 1500 and 1800. Includes book reviews, bibliographies, syllabi, and discussion logs.
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  89. Index for CIRS.
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  91. An excellent website on Columbus and the Age of Discovery. Includes over eleven hundred text entries to search.
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  93. International Seminar on the History of the Atlantic World, 1500–1825.
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  95. An index of in-progress and completed dissertations in Atlantic history. Authors’ details and abstracts are included.
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  97. Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection.
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  99. Thousands of maps can be uploaded, covering all aspects of world history.
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  101. Journals
  102.  
  103. Although no academic journal is devoted entirely to oceanic history, numerous high-quality periodicals publish articles on the Atlantic maritime world and settler colonies in America. English-language journals are prevalent, but there are also periodicals available in French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Dutch.
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  105. English-Language Journals
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  107. Imago Mundi is the major journal on the history of cartography. The Journal of World History and the Journal of Global History both publish research articles and broad surveys on interconnections among ports, countries, regions, and territories separated by oceans. The William and Mary Quarterly is the leading journal dealing with British colonization of the Americas. It has expanded its remit to cover articles dealing with the impact of continental European countries on the Americas and the connections between West Africa and settler societies in the New World. Three prominent journals focus specifically on maritime affairs. The Mariner’s Mirror and the International Journal of Maritime History regularly publish articles on trade, navigation, shipping, piracy, privateering, and merchants. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History often includes articles on oceanic history within an imperialist framework.
  108.  
  109. American Neptune.
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  111. The main US-based scholarly journal on maritime history, with many articles on ships and shipping. Published quarterly from the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.
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  113. Imago Mundi.
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  115. Appears twice yearly. Published by Taylor and Francis. An English-language academic journal devoted entirely to the history of maps, mapping, and map-related ideas. Articles are multidisciplinary, drawing on the research of maritime historians, art historians, historians of science, and social scientists. An important journal for the cartography of oceanic history.
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  117. International Journal of Maritime History.
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  119. The official journal of the International Maritime Economic History Association. Published by SAGE. Four issues appear per year. Articles on shipping and the Atlantic maritime world appear in most issues.
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  121. Journal of Global History.
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  123. Issued three times a year by Cambridge University Press. Articles are concerned with global change over time, especially transnational connections. Regularly contains material pertaining to oceanic history.
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  125. Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History.
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  127. A quarterly journal published by Routledge. Each year there are articles relating to oceanic and maritime history within the context of European imperialism.
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  129. Journal of World History.
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  131. The official journal of the World History Association, specializing in historical analysis from a global point of view. Articles appear on aspects of oceanic history connected with large-scale population movements and economic relations among continents and cross-cultural transfers of technology.
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  133. Mariner’s Mirror.
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  135. The oldest continuously published academic journal on maritime history in the English-speaking world. The official journal of the Society for Nautical Research, based at Greenwich, London. Appears quarterly.
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  137. William and Mary Quarterly.
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  139. The leading international journal on early American history up to circa 1825. Published at the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia. Includes articles on the trade and shipping of the British American colonies.
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  141. European-Language Journals
  142.  
  143. Most western European countries have historical journals at least partially devoted to oceanic history. Outre-Mers: Revue d’Histoire, known for many years as Revue d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, is the leading French journal on maritime history. Revue d’Histoire de l’Amérique Française is a prominent Canadian Francophone journal on French activities in the Americas. Dutch and Flemish publications in this field can be followed in Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis and Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden. The Hispanic and Lusophone Atlantic worlds feature regularly in the Brazilian journal Revista de História, the Spanish journals Anuario de Estudios Americanos and Revista de Indias, and the Austro-German journal Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas.
  144.  
  145. Anuario de Estudios Americanos.
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  147. Published since 1944 by the School of Hispanic American Studies (CISC) in Seville. Articles written in Spanish, English, French, and Portuguese include contributions on the history of South America and its oceanic connections.
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  149. Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden.
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  151. Published by the Royal Dutch Historical Society at The Hague. Although it does not focus specifically on oceanic history, this journal notes all major publications on the history of the Low Countries. Articles appear in Dutch and English.
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  153. Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas.
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  155. The leading journal in the German-speaking world on the history of Latin America. Articles are published in German, Spanish, Portuguese, English, and French. This yearbook includes material on Ibero-Hispanic colonization of the New World.
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  157. Outre-Mers: Revue d’Histoire.
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  159. The major French journal associated with overseas history in the Francophone world. Published since 1913. Appears twice a year. The official journal of the Société Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer. Most articles are in French, although occasionally some appear in English.
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  161. Revista de História.
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  163. A leading Brazilian journal that includes essays on Portuguese overseas expansion in South America. Published since 1950 and based at the University of São Paulo. Articles are published in Portuguese and Spanish.
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  165. Revista de Indias.
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  167. Published since 1940 by the Spanish National Research Council, this journal includes articles on the history of America in Spanish, English, and Portuguese.
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  169. Revue d’Histoire de l’Amérique Française.
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  171. Founded in 1947 at the University of Montreal as a Francophone journal devoted to the history of French colonization in the Americas. It has become the leading academic historical journal on the history of Quebec.
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  173. Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis.
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  175. A leading Dutch and Flemish historical journal published since 1886. Articles on Dutch maritime trade and colonization across the Atlantic have appeared in this publication.
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  177. Primary Sources
  178.  
  179. Oceanic history can be studied through numerous primary texts on navigation, exploration, and American colonization. The selections listed in this section comprise the tip of an iceberg. Hakluyt 1599–1600 is a gold mine of contemporary texts, charts, and other primary documents, many of them unavailable in print elsewhere. This essential source still needs to be consulted in reprinted format, but Oxford University Press is preparing a modern annotated scholarly edition for the 21st century (in fourteen volumes). Quinn 1979 includes a large corpus of documents on European colonization of America—an extremely useful research tool. Vigneras 1960 and Pigafetta 1969 present journals kept by leading maritime explorers. Cabañas 1939 prints important correspondence on the Spanish conquest of Mexico. For British oceanic history the most prestigious series of printed original documents are editions published by the Hakluyt Society, the leading institution worldwide for the transcription, annotation, and explanation of such texts. Among the society’s hundreds of published volumes, Quinn 1940 and Williamson 1962 cover leading English voyages of exploration. The Champlain Society, represented here by Biggar 1922–1936, is the leading scholarly organization to publish annotated editions of French explorers’ works on Canada.
  180.  
  181. Biggar, H. P., ed. The Works of Samuel de Champlain. 6 vols. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1922–1936.
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  183. The collected works of the French explorer, cartographer, and diplomat who founded Quebec City in 1608. Texts are presented in French and in English translation.
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  185. Cabañas, Joaquín Ramírez. Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. 3 vols. Edited by Bernal Díaz del Castillo. Mexico City: Editorial Pedro Robredo, 1939.
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  187. A firsthand account of the conquest of New Spain by a conquistador who accompanied Hernán Cortés on his expedition to Mexico. An important and vivid source on the Aztec Empire.
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  189. Exploring the Early Americas.
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  191. An exhibition at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, featuring selections from over three thousand rare documents, maps, paintings, prints, and other artifacts. Good on New World encounters between Europeans and Native Americans.
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  193. Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Nauigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoueries of the English Nation. 3 vols. London: George Bishop, Ralph Newberie, and Robert Barker, 1599–1600.
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  195. A large compilation that includes numerous reproductions of contemporary travel narratives by diplomats, soldiers, and traders along with portraits, charts, and illustrations of maritime exploration. The most important primary printed source on English voyages of discovery in the 16th century. Reprint, 12 vols., Glasgow: James Maclehose, 1903–1905.
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  197. Pigafetta, Antonio. Magellan’s Voyage: A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation. 2 vols. Translated by R. A. Skelton. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969.
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  199. A translation of an important journal written by an Italian gentleman and volunteer on the ships that Magellan commanded in the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519. The text includes commentary on the manners, customs, languages, and geography of lands and seas that were then terrae incognitae to Europeans.
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  201. Quinn, David Beers. The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 2 vols. Hakluyt Society Publications 2d ser., 83–84. London: Hakluyt Society, 1940.
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  203. Edited texts of all known primary documents dealing with Gilbert’s voyages in search of the Northwest Passage in 1578–1579 and to Newfoundland in 1583. One of several high-quality editions by this author on English maritime exploration of North America.
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  205. Quinn, David Beers, ed. New American World: A Documentary History of North America to 1612. 5 vols. New York: Arno, 1979.
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  207. Includes major original documents relating to European maritime expansion and colonization of North America. English sources are combined with material translated from works in Spanish, French, and Portuguese. Includes reproductions of 147 maps, placed at the end of each volume.
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  209. Vigneras, L. A., ed. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. Translated by Cecil Jane. London: Anthony Blond, 1960.
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  211. This version of Columbus’s journal is based on the text of the Dominican historian Bartolomé de las Casas. The annotation is helpful but not as thorough as it should be. The volume has an expert appendix on the cartography of Columbus’s first voyage to America.
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  213. Williamson, James Alexander. The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII. Hakluyt Society Publications 2d ser., 120. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1962.
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  215. Edits texts of various Bristol voyages across the Atlantic in the period from 1480 to 1509, including John Cabot’s expeditions of 1496–1498 and Sebastian Cabot’s voyage of 1509 to find the Northwest Passage. Includes a section by R. A. Skelton on the cartography of the voyages.
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  217. Cartography
  218.  
  219. Developments in mapmaking and the dissemination of maps were fundamental components of early modern oceanic exploration and trade. Maps were produced regularly, in both printed and manuscript form, to take account of expanding geographical knowledge. Buisseret 2003 offers a fresh approach to the reasons for increased map production in early modern Europe. This can be usefully supplemented by the older Skelton 1958. Shirley 2001 is the essential reference source on printed world maps in the 16th and 17th centuries. Pieper 2002 highlights the prominence of the Iberian powers in mapmaking. The sophistication and range of the maps they produced is amply illustrated for Portugal in the magnificent volumes of Cortesão and Mota 1960–1962. Relaño 2002 is the first port of call for early modern maps and charts on Africa. Lestringant 1994 looks at mapmaking in relation to cosmography. The essays in Thrower 1978 examine specialist aspects of English cartography. Pedley 2005 is a sophisticated study of the commercial production and reception of maps produced in France and England.
  220.  
  221. Buisseret, David. The Mapmakers’ Quest: Depicting New Worlds in Renaissance Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  223. Charts the growth of mapmaking in Europe from 1400, when very few maps were produced, to 1600, by which time maps proliferated. Links the growth of cartography to military technologies, the urban environment, and the new sciences.
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  225. Cortesão, Armando, and Avelino Teixeira da Mota. Portugaliae Monumenta Cartographica. 6 vols. Lisbon: Portugal Comissão Executiva das Comemoraões do V Centenario da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1960–1962.
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  227. An essential reference source illustrating the importance of Portuguese mapmaking for early modern oceanic exploration. Includes more than a thousand reproductions, including 427 in color. The first four volumes include the contents of about thirty atlases by Portuguese cartographers for the 16th and early 17th centuries. The fifth volume has charts mainly from the second half of the 17th century. Vol. 6 comprises addenda, errata, and the index. Scholarly essays in Portuguese and English accompany the illustrations.
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  229. Lestringant, Frank. Mapping the Renaissance World: The Geographical Imagination in the Age of Discovery. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
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  231. This is not, as the title might suggest, a general history of Renaissance cartography but a book on the work of André Thevet, a traveler and mapmaker who became cosmographer royal of France in the mid–16th century. It examines his maps and travel narratives in terms of a cosmographical whole, encompassing the disciplines of geography, history, cartography, and botany.
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  233. Pedley, Mary Sponberg. The Commerce of Cartography: Making and Marketing Maps in Eighteenth-Century France and England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
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  235. An important study of the economics of map production and the dissemination of maps. The book covers the entire cycle of cartography from compilation to construction, to marketing and consumption, focusing on the profits and costs of the mapmaking trade. One chapter offers a microcosm of the book’s overall themes by concentrating on the survey and printed charts of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island.
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  237. Pieper, Renate. “The Impact of the Atlantic on European Self-Perception: European World-Maps of the 16th Century.” In Atlantic History: History of the Atlantic System 1580–1830. Edited by Horst Pietschmann, 97–117. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
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  239. Shows that the formation of a European Atlantic world had a significant impact on European cartography. New geographic discoveries challenged Ptolemaic cosmographic concepts, and so world maps and images were adjusted regularly. Explains why Spain and Portugal took the lead in the creation and dissemination of world maps in the 16th century.
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  241. Relaño, Francesc. The Shaping of Africa: Cosmographic Discourse and Cartographic Science in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002.
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  243. Discusses the depiction of Africa in maps and charts during the early modern era. Helpful on the interplay between myth and reality in the representation of Africa.
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  245. Shirley, Rodney W. The Mapping of the World: Early Printed World Maps, 1472–1700. 4th ed. Riverside, CT: Early World, 2001.
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  247. The definitive work on this topic. Contains information on every world map printed before 1700. The fourth edition should be used because the material has been updated with additions and corrigenda since the book was first published in 1984.
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  249. Skelton, R. A. Explorers’ Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958.
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  251. An overview of the topic covering the world’s oceans, with over two hundred maps reproduced. The text originally appeared as articles in the Geographical Magazine. Chapters cover topics such as the Northwest Passage and the New World in the 16th century. A commentary at the end of each chapter discusses the maps included.
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  253. Thrower, Norman J. W., ed. The Compleat Plattmaker: Essays on Chart, Map, and Globe Making in England in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
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  255. A collection of essays that illuminates aspects of cartography in English overseas expansion in the early modern period. Contributions include a chapter on the production of manuscript and printed sea charts in 17th-century London and another on mapping the English North American colonies.
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  257. Traditions of Exploration
  258.  
  259. Atlantic voyages of exploration occurred long before the age of Columbus, and a considerable literature is devoted to their impact. Jones 1984 provides the best overview of the achievements of Norsemen who explored the Northwest Atlantic. Scammell 1981 sets early modern European overseas expansion within the context of prior developments in the medieval centuries. Fernández-Armesto 1987 and Winius 1995 complement each other on medieval Iberian exploration of the Atlantic.
  260.  
  261. Fernández-Armesto, Felipe. Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229–1492. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987.
  262. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-18856-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Links medieval Spanish colonial development to the broader world of European overseas expansion. Analyzes connections between Spanish maritime activity in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Atlantic Ocean. A good demonstration of traditions of European exploration in the centuries before Columbus discovered America.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Jones, Gwyn. A History of the Vikings. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.
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  267. A classic overview of the Viking migrations, including the Viking voyaging across the Atlantic five centuries before Columbus. Shows how the Vikings sailed to Iceland, discovered and explored part of America’s North Atlantic coast, and became lodged in Greenland.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Scammell, G. V. The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires c. 800–1650. London: Methuen, 1981.
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  271. Explains the emergence of early modern European maritime expansion in relation to its medieval roots. Chapters 5 through 9 deal respectively with Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and England. No footnotes are provided, but each chapter is followed by a bibliographical note.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Winius, George D., ed. Portugal the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval toward the Modern World, 1300–1600. Madison, WI: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1995.
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  275. A useful compendium of eighteen essays on Portuguese oceanic expansion, including five chapters by the editor. Covers scientific, imperial, and maritime themes.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Voyages of Exploration
  278.  
  279. Historians are spoiled for choice with good books on European voyages of discovery in the early modern era, although there is no recommendable, up-to-date overview of the whole sweep of maritime exploration in the Atlantic. The best single-volume treatment down to the early 17th century is Quinn 1977. Morison 1971 and Morison 1974 cover much of the same ground but also extend coverage to voyages to South America and the Pacific. Among the detailed appraisals of voyages by individual explorers are Andrews 1967, Wroth 1970, and Fischer 2008. The quest for the Northwest Passage through the Arctic ice north of Canada is treated synoptically in Williams 2003 and in terms of specific voyages in Davies 2003 and Mancall 2009.
  280.  
  281. Andrews, Kenneth R. Drake’s Voyages: A Reassessment of Their Place in Elizabethan Maritime Expansion. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967.
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  283. An important discussion of Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580 and his later voyages, including his famous raid on the Spanish Caribbean in 1585. Emphasizes the predatory and aggressive nature of Elizabethan seafaring.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Davies, Wayne K. D. Writing Geographical Exploration: James and the Northwest Passage, 1631–33. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary Press, 2003.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Deploys modern literary theory to analyze Thomas James’s printed narrative of his voyage in 1631 to search Hudson’s Bay for the elusive Northwest Passage. Discusses the representation of the environment in James’s account and argues that James was a good geographical observer.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Fischer, David Hackett. Champlain’s Dream. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008.
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  291. A detailed study of a French soldier, mariner, cartographer, artist, and naturalist who made twenty-seven crossings of the Atlantic in thirty-seven years without losing a major ship. By setting the French explorer within his religious, political, and intellectual milieu, this study focuses on Samuel de Champlain’s dream of living in a peaceful America and how he tried to achieve that goal in New France.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Mancall, Peter C. Fatal Journey: The Final Expedition of Henry Hudson; A Tale of Mutiny and Murder in the Arctic. New York: Basic Books, 2009.
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  295. A readable study of Hudson’s last voyage, in which he tried to find the Northwest Passage but became trapped in winter ice in Labrador, experienced a mutiny by his crew, and then disappeared. Mancall argues that Hudson was killed in the mutiny.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America. Vol. 1, The Northern Voyages, A.D. 500–1600. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
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  299. Grand narratives by a Harvard historian and rear admiral in the US Navy. This volume deals with coastal discovery north of Cape Fear. The breadth and depth of the coverage is impressive, with attention given to minor expeditions as well as major voyages of discovery by Columbus, Magellan, and Drake.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America. Vol. 2, The Southern Voyages, A.D. 1492–1616. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
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  303. Follows Morison 1971. This volume covers the American coast from Florida around the southern tip of South America and up to California.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Quinn, David Beers. North America from Earliest Discovery to First Settlements: The Norse Voyages to 1612. New York: HarperCollins, 1977.
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  307. A solid, clear overview of the earliest European contacts with eastern Canada, Newfoundland, and Florida. Covers English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese attempts to colonize these American regions and the search for a Northwest Passage around America to Asia.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Williams, Glyn. Voyages of Delusion: The Quest for the Northwest Passage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
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  311. An expansion of the author’s earlier book The British Search for the Northwest Passage in the Eighteenth Century (1962). Argues that the tensions within the Hudson’s Bay Company lay at the heart of the quest for suitable passages through the Arctic Ocean to the rich spices of Asia.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Wroth, L. C. The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. A well-documented study of the Florentine navigator and explorer who undertook a voyage to North America in 1524–1525, while in the service of France, during which he explored and charted the Atlantic coast of North America. Discusses whether he made a second and possibly a third trip back to America.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Navigation
  318.  
  319. Advances in navigation accompanied the European advance into the Atlantic world in the early modern period. Longer voyages were made more frequently than ever before in world history. Improvements in navigational instruments and scientific understanding of sailing were essential for successful voyages. Overviews of long-term developments in navigation are provided by Taylor 1956 and Hewson 1983. Waters 1958 is an exemplary monograph on navigational improvements in Tudor and Stuart England. Sandman 2002 is a specialist essay on connections between the production of sea charts and commercial overseas expansion in 16th-century Spain. Sobel 1995 is a popular book about navigation. Dava Sobel’s account of the design and impact of the chronometer in determining longitude is not only brief, scholarly, and readable but compelling enough to have spawned a television program and a feature film. Dunn and Higgitt 2014 is now the first port of call for finding out about the technical challenges posed by calculating longitude at sea.
  320.  
  321. Dunn, Richard, and Rebekah Higgitt. Ships, Clocks & Stars: The Quest for Longitude. Glasgow: Collins, 2014.
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  323. Illustrated with pictures of navigational instruments from the National Maritime Museum, this has the appearance of a coffee-table book; but in fact it includes a serious, clearly written academic introduction to the methods deployed in the 17th and 18th centuries to calculate longitude accurately. The development of chronometers is covered thoroughly.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Hewson, J. B. A History of the Practice of Navigation. 2d ed. Glasgow: Brown, Son, and Ferguson, 1983.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Originally published in 1951 but best consulted in this second edition. Provides essential information on the beginning of scientific navigation that coincided with the birth of British maritime enterprise in the Atlantic world. Part 1 covers charts, sailing directions, and navigational instruments. Part 2 deals with finding longitude, variations of the compass, log line and logbook, navigation by latitude and dead reckoning, and navigation by longitude.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Sandman, Alison. “Mirroring the World: Sea Charts, Navigation, and Territorial Claims in Sixteenth-Century Spain.” In Merchants and Marvels: Commerce, Science, and Art in Early Modern Europe. Edited by Pamela H. Smith and Paula Findlen, 83–108. New York: Routledge, 2002.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Discusses the official agency that circulated information about navigation in 16th-century Spain and shows that sea charts were an object of much dispute.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. New York: Walker, 1995.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A well-researched, best-selling book about John Harrison, who spent his career trying to convince the British admiralty of the accuracy of his timepieces for determining longitude at sea. Sobel deftly explains the mechanical complexities of Harrison’s chronometer.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Taylor, E. G. R. The Haven-Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odysseus to Captain Cook. London: Hollis and Carter, 1956.
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  339. A good, clear introductory account. Covers much of the same ground as Hewson 1983 but is the stronger work on the geographical context of navigation. The long time span highlights the notable advances in navigational science connected with Atlantic oceanic history in the 16th and 17th centuries.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Waters, David W. The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times. London: Hollis and Carter, 1958.
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  343. A comprehensive investigation of the subject in three parts. Part 1 deals with the development of the art of navigation in 15th- and 16th-century Europe. Part 2 considers the English contribution to navigation under Elizabeth I and the early Stuarts. Part 3 comprises appendices of original documents. Excellent descriptions of navigational instruments and navigational training are included.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Communications
  346.  
  347. The sheer distance between European maritime powers and their colonies and trading posts across the Atlantic meant that efficient, prompt communications through the written word were essential for bringing together metropolitan and settler ideas and actions. Although this is an underdeveloped subfield of Atlantic oceanic history, interesting ideas about maritime communications and the flow of information from Europe to America are found in the contrasting studies Steele 1986, Cressy 1987, and Banks 2002. McCusker 1997 is one of the few modern studies of the postal history of the Atlantic Ocean.
  348.  
  349. Banks, Kenneth J. Chasing Empire across the Sea: Communications and the State in the French Atlantic, 1713–1763. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002.
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  351. Charts the dissemination of information from France to scattered colonial possessions in Canada, Louisiana, and the Lesser Antilles (notably Martinique). Argues that metropolitan control over these territories was constrained more by considerations of time and travel than by distance and that those problems militated against the formation of a coherent French Atlantic empire.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Cressy, David. Coming Over: Migration and Communication between England and New England in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  355. Investigates migrant motives and decisions, the costs and control of emigration, shipboard socialization, the transatlantic flow of information, and the dissemination of English news in Puritan New England.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. McCusker, John J. “New York City and the Bristol Packet: A Chapter in Eighteenth-Century Postal History.” In Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic World. By John J. McCusker, 177–189. London: Routledge, 1997.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A case study of the early transatlantic packet mail service linking England via Falmouth (Cornwall, England) with the Western Hemisphere.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Steele, Ian K. The English Atlantic, 1675–1740: An Exploration of Communication and Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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  363. An influential study that considers shipping, trade routes, and mercantile and postal communications as important ways the Atlantic maritime world was integrated. It points to improvements in speed, frequency, and safety on diverse Atlantic shipping routes. Use of the book is somewhat impeded by the lack of a bibliography.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Maritime Enterprise
  366.  
  367. Maritime enterprise in the early modern Atlantic involved shipping organized by chartered trading companies and private merchants, the flow of free and unfree passengers, and the exchange of European exports for New World products that, under the tenets of mercantilism, were intended to increase the wealth of mother countries. For the 16th and early 17th centuries Andrews 1978 and Andrews 1984 offer complementary studies of trade and settlement in the Spanish Caribbean and in English settlements in the Americas. Fisher 1997 extends the coverage of Spanish American trade to the early 19th century. Barrett 1990 is a convenient entrée into the commerce in precious metals. Eltis 1991 provides a succinct introduction to the significance of Africa to European maritime enterprise in the Atlantic world. Israel 1989 and Phillips 1990, respectively, consider the important Dutch and Iberian contributions to Atlantic maritime trade and shipping. Schnurmann 2002 illustrates the significance of trade across imperial boundaries in the Americas. Lamikiz 2013 illuminates an important component of the Spanish Atlantic economy in the 18th century. Haggerty 2012 is the best most-recent overview of 18th-century mercantile business practices.
  368.  
  369. Andrews, Kenneth R. The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1530–1630. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978.
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  371. Reassesses the exploits of northern European mariners in the 16th- and early 17th-century West Indies. Thematic chapters emphasize the survival capacity of the Spanish colonies in this era despite the depredations of their enemies. Shows how trade and plunder were intertwined in the early modern Caribbean.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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  375. A good overview of the subject that discusses the motives behind English maritime expansion as part of a wider European imperative. Discusses the religious and nationalist sentiments of the Tudor and Stuart monarchs and officials toward this form of enterprise. Consideration of transatlantic developments lies at the core of the book.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Barrett, Ward. “World Bullion Flows, 1450–1800.” In The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750. Edited by James D. Tracy, 224–254. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  378. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563089.010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A helpful study of estimates of the flow of gold and silver from Spanish and Portuguese America to Europe in the early modern era. Includes a careful discussion of the problems arising from making reliable statistical estimates on the production and export of precious metals.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Eltis, David. “Precolonial Western Africa and the Atlantic Economy.” In Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Edited by Barbara L. Solow, 97–119. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  382. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511523892.007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Estimates the value of total trade between western Africa (Senegambia to Angola) and the Atlantic world for five widely separated decades between the 1680s and the 1860s. The data show that the slave trade was mainly responsible for the growth in Africa’s Atlantic trade before the end of the 18th century.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Fisher, John R. The Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492–1810. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1997.
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  387. Investigates the changing performance of Spanish economic relations with Central and South America and identifies the growth of an internal American economy that overlapped with the transatlantic structure. A clear overview of the Spanish maritime system in the Atlantic world throughout the early modern period.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Merely for Money”? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2012.
  390. DOI: 10.5949/UPO9781846317729Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. A sophisticated, thematic study of merchant business culture, mainly using evidence from Liverpool. The book draws upon modern sociological studies by way of contextualization of the business behavior exemplified in mercantile sources. The following themes are covered in individual chapters: space, place, and people; risk; trust; reputation; obligation; networks; and crises.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Israel, Jonathan I. Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
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  395. Surveys the rise and decline of Dutch leadership in oceanic trade from its origins to the mid-18th century. Stresses the interaction among the different components of Dutch trade and settlement in various parts of the globe. Arranged in chronological chapters, which is not as helpful as a thematic organization would have been.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Lamikiz, Xabier. Trade and Trust in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World: Spanish Merchants and Their Overseas Networks. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell & Brewer, 2013.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The second part of the book provides a well-informed analysis of the merchants involved in the trade between Cadiz and Lima, Peru in the 18th century. The amount of commercial information relating to voyages on this shipping route proliferated after 1740. Credit, risk, and rust are examined in relation to the Cadiz-Lima trade as well as the institutional framework of free trade implemented after 1783.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Phillips, Carla Rahn. “The Growth and Composition of Trade in the Iberian Empires, 1450–1750.” In The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750. Edited by James D. Tracy, 34–101. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  402. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563089.005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Detailed discussion of the shipping and trade of the early modern Iberian empires, with tabulation of the volumes of sugar, tobacco, hides, cochineal, and cacao sent from the Americas to Portugal and Spain.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Schnurmann, Claudia. “Atlantic Trade and Regional Identities: The Creation of Supranational Atlantic Systems in the 17th Century.” In Atlantic History: History of the Atlantic System, 1580–1830. Edited by Horst Pietschmann, 179–197. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Considers interconnections between English and Dutch trade and settlement in North America and the West Indies as an example of supranational Atlantic systems. A good example of the importance of such complementary relationships beyond imperial relations between mother countries and colonies.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Migration
  410.  
  411. The Atlantic Ocean was a highway for the large-scale emigration of European free migrants and servants in the early modern era. The best modern synthetic studies on this subject are in Canny 1994. Bailyn 1986, Games 1999, and Wokeck 1999 consider different aspects of the British migration to North America in the 17th and 18th centuries. Altman and Horn 1991 covers many places of origin and end points. Debien 1952 is a detailed study of French servant emigration to the Caribbean, while Choquette 1997 investigates French migration to form peasant societies in Canada. O’Reilly 2002 considers the European legal response to migration patterns.
  412.  
  413. Altman, Ida, and James Horn, eds. “To Make America”: European Migration in the Early Modern Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Six case studies of emigration across the Atlantic from Spain, England, France, and the German states enable comparisons among emigrants of different nationalities. The essays cover the migrants’ backgrounds, motivations, and choice of destinations and the means by which they traveled.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Bailyn, Bernard. Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the American Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1986.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A large-scale study of emigration from the British Isles to colonial North America between the Seven Years’ War and the American War of Independence. Discusses free migrants, convicts, and indentured servants and their regional and socioeconomic backgrounds and integration into different North American colonies.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Canny, Nicholas, ed. Europeans on the Move: Studies on European Migration, 1500–1800. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Chapters by various scholars consider the medieval background to European migration across the Atlantic and the patterns of English, Scottish, Irish, Dutch, German, and French emigration. The editor’s introductory essay places these discrete studies into a comparative framework that emphasizes changes in information and transport that made large-scale migrations possible.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Choquette, Leslie. Frenchmen into Peasants: Modernity and Tradition in the Peopling of French Canada. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A study of about sixteen thousand emigrants from France to Quebec and French Acadia during the ancien régime. Includes analyses of religious diversity (Jews, Protestants, Roman Catholics) and of the migrants’ regional origins and mobility patterns.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Debien, Gabriel. La société coloniale aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Les engagés pour les Antilles (1634–1715). Paris: Société de l’Histoire des Colonies Françaises, 1952.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Classic study of the migration of contracted servants from France to its Caribbean colonies. Discusses their contractual terms and the relationship between La Rochelle and other French ports dealing with the emigration of engagés (indentured servants).
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Games, Alison. Migration and the Origins of the English Atlantic World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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  435. Based on a database of five thousand travelers to the Americas taken from the London port register of 1635, this monograph examines the background, prospects, and experience of migrants in relation to work, religion, and material standards. Differences in sex, age, and family composition among the migrants are explained.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. O’Reilly, William. “Migration, Recruitment, and the Law: Europe Responds to the Atlantic World.” In Atlantic History: History of the Atlantic System, 1580–1830. Edited by Horst Pietschmann, 119–137. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A brief investigation of systems of legal and intellectual interchange in relation to migration in the early modern world. Considers passport controls, restrictions on migration, and reasons for immigration, especially in relation to Britain and the German states through the end of the 18th century.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Wokeck, Marianne Sophia. Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. The “strangers” in the title are the Scotch Irish and German emigrants to colonial North America from the late 17th century to the American Revolution. This carefully researched study offers comparisons and contrasts between these two significant groups of migrants, especially in connection with Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley, the main regional destination for these migrants.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Colonization
  446.  
  447. Studies of European colonization of the Americas are legion. Those cited here are merely a varied collection of interesting approaches to this topic that can be followed up with other books. Mancall 1995 looks at English projects for the colonization of North America. Shammas 1979 covers the more commercial aspects of these plans. Cañizares-Esguerra 2006 is an attempt to connect the establishment of English and Spanish colonies in the Americas, while Elliott 2006 is the first detailed comparative study of those colonies. Pritchard 2004 is a good exploration of the French Atlantic empire of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Metcalf 2005 is a fine study of the intermediaries between settlers and indigenous people in Portuguese Brazil.
  448.  
  449. Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge. Puritan Conquistadors: Iberianizing the Atlantic, 1550–1700. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Argues that England and Spain were motivated by the same cultural concerns in setting up their New World colonies. Thus New England colonization should be regarded as an extension of the Spanish model of conquest.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Elliott, J. H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. A comparative study of the demography, religion, social structure, governmental structure, and identity of these two prominent colonizing powers in the Americas. Material dealing with both the British and Spanish colonies is interwoven in each chapter.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Mancall, Peter C., ed. Envisioning America: English Plans for the Colonization of North America, 1580–1640. Boston: Bedford, 1995.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. After an introductory essay on the origins of English America in relation to European colonization of the New World, the book presents ten contemporary documents that provide an understanding of English plans for settlement in North America.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Metcalf, Alida C. Go-betweens and the Colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Examines interactions among sailors, traders, slaves, interpreters, negotiators, writers, and cartographers in connection with relations between indigenous people and Europeans in the Portuguese colonization of Brazil.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Pritchard, James. In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670–1730. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  466. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511808555Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. A learned synthesis of the history of French colonial expansion in the Atlantic world. Shows that French colonial societies were largely formed by settlers rather than by imperatives from the home government.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Shammas, Carole. “English Commercial Development and American Colonization.” In The Westward Enterprise: English Activities in Ireland, the Atlantic, and America, 1480–1650. Edited by K. R. Andrews, Nicholas P. Canny, and P. E. H. Hair. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1979.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Examines English projects for the colonization of America. Shows that English commercial plans for American settlement in the 16th century were mainly drawn up by servants or minor associates of major figures who encouraged settlements in Central and North America to counteract Spanish domination.
  472. Find this resource:
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