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Buddho-Daoism (Buddhism)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Buddhism reached China in the early centuries of the Common Era, but it did not have a major impact on Chinese religion and society until the early 5th century, when terminology was standardized because of the translation efforts of Kumārajīva (b. 344–d. 413) and his team. The resulting vast corpus of Buddhist literature inspired the expansion of the religion in all dimensions, creating a vivid Buddhist culture in philosophy, ritual, meditation, and religious organization. This culture had a massive impact on Daoism, beginning with the school of Numinous Treasure (Lingbao), that completely transformed the religion and has pervaded it ever since. The entire institution of monasticism, all Daoist religious sculpture, concepts of hell and reincarnation, and ethical rules and precepts, as well as forms of insight meditation, sacred hand gestures, repentance rituals, and philosophical concepts—including cosmology and psychology—go back to Buddhist influence. At the same time, certain Buddhist notions also received a strong impact from Daoism. Best known among them are the understanding of the ruler as prophesied savior and the practice of oblivion and some of its concomitant concepts.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. There are no presentations of Daoism that specifically focus on its relationship to Buddhism. However, every introduction, history, and overview by necessity refers to the Buddhist impact, notably when discussing the middle ages (200–900) in Robinet 1997, Kohn 2001, Kohn 2009, and Kirkland 2004, and specific topics, such as ritual in Komjathy 2013, mind-focused philosophy in Littlejohn 2009, and monasticism in Miller 2003.
  6.  
  7. Kirkland, J. Russell. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2004.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. A chronological discussion, focusing on key themes and issues in Daoist history. More analytical and argument-oriented; less of an introductory presentation.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15. Kohn, Livia. Daoism and Chinese Culture. Cambridge, MA: Three Pines, 2001.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. A chronological survey of the development of Daoism, from the early philosophers to the 20th century. Connection to social and historical events.
  20.  
  21. Find this resource:
  22.  
  23. Kohn, Livia. Introducing Daoism. London: Routledge, 2009.
  24.  
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  26.  
  27. A chronological survey, beginning with pre-Daoist traces in the Shang and expanding into the late 20th century. Also available as CD-ROM, with links to numerous websites that show gods, rituals, mountains, and more.
  28.  
  29. Find this resource:
  30.  
  31. Komjathy, Louis. The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. New York: Bloomsbury, 2013.
  32.  
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  34.  
  35. A thematic survey of Daoism, with special attention to key organizations and practices.
  36.  
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. Littlejohn, Ronnie. Daoism: An Introduction. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. A thematic survey of the tradition, focusing mainly on key philosophical concepts.
  44.  
  45. Find this resource:
  46.  
  47. Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: One World, 2003.
  48.  
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  50.  
  51. A thematic survey of the tradition, centering on major features and notions of the religion.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Translated by Phyllis Brooks. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. A chronological account from the pre-Qin (221–206 BCE) thinkers through the Song dynasty. Emphasis on major schools and cosmology.
  60.  
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  62.  
  63. Reference Works
  64. There are several websites that provide important resources for those interested in Daoism, most importantly the all-inclusive Daoist Studies. Two major reference works provide comprehensive discussions of most topics, one providing articles on specific topics in largely chronological arrangement, such as can be seen in Kohn 2000, and the other giving individual entries in alphabetical order, as documented in Pregadio 2008.
  65.  
  66. Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  67.  
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  69.  
  70. A major reference, consisting of twenty-four articles on schools and major developments in chronological order as well as covering specific themes (e.g., women, divination, music, Korea, Japan). Over 1000 pages. Various detailed indexes.
  71.  
  72. Find this resource:
  73.  
  74. Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. The Encyclopedia of Taoism. 2 vols. London: Routledge, 2008.
  75.  
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  77.  
  78. A dictionary, arranged partly by themes but predominantly in alphabetical order, that presents substantial articles on numerous different topics and issues. Very well cross-referenced. Lots of detail.
  79.  
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  81.  
  82. Art
  83. The earliest, most vivid, and best documented Buddhist impact on Daoism occurred in the realm of art, notably sculpture, as seen in Karetzky 2014. True to the doctrine that the “constant Dao” cannot be described or depicted, even after the deification of the philosopher Laozi (5th century BCE) as personified Dao in the Former Han dynasty (206 BCE–6 CE), according to James 1986, early Daoists depicted their central deity as an empty space on a throne and under a canopy. With the increasing presence of Buddhist images, they began to fashion reliefs and sculptures in close imitation, often depicting Buddhist and Daoist figures in the same work, as depicted in Abe 1997, Bokenkamp 1997, and Kamitsuka 1998. The heyday of this form of Buddho-Daoist art occurred in the middle ages, under the Buddhist rulers of the Toba-We (386–535). By the Tang dynasty (618–907, Daoists had developed their own iconography, most particularly drawings, prints, and paintings, as seen in Huang 2012.
  84.  
  85. Abe, Stanley. “Northern Wei Daoist Sculpture from Shaanxi Province.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 9 (1997): 69–84.
  86.  
  87. DOI: 10.3406/asie.1996.1111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. A discussion of Northern Wei sculpture, with ample illustrations.
  90.  
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  92.  
  93. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “The Yao Boduo Stele as Evidence for the ‘Dao-Buddhism’ of the Early Lingbao Scriptures.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 9 (1997): 55–68.
  94.  
  95. DOI: 10.3406/asie.1996.1110Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  96.  
  97. A careful examination of one particular stele that shows Laozi and the Buddha.
  98.  
  99. Find this resource:
  100.  
  101. Huang, Shih-shan Susan. Daoist Visual Culture in Traditional China. Cambridge, MA: Center for Chinese Studies of the Harvard University, 2012.
  102.  
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  104.  
  105. A substantial presentation of traditional Daoist art, with ample references to matching Buddhist works.
  106.  
  107. Find this resource:
  108.  
  109. James, Jean M. “Some Iconographic Problems in Early Daoist-Buddhist Sculpture in China.” Archives of Asian Art 42 (1986): 71–76.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. A presentation of Buddhist-inspired Daoist art, with focus on key issues.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Kamitsuka, Yoshiko. “Lao-tzu in Six Dynasties Sculpture.” In Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Edited by Livia Kohn and Michael LaFargue, 63–85. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.
  118.  
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  120.  
  121. A discussion of figures of Laozi in medieval art.
  122.  
  123. Find this resource:
  124.  
  125. Karetzky, Patricia Eichenbaum. Chinese Religious Art. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014.
  126.  
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  128.  
  129. A comprehensive survey, introducing Daoist art in close connection to its Buddhist counterparts.
  130.  
  131. Find this resource:
  132.  
  133. Hagiography: Laozi
  134. According to Seidel 1969, after Laozi was deified as representative of Dao in the Han dynasty, his hagiography was expanded under the impact of the life of the Buddha. Laozi was said to have emerged from his mother’s side, received a bath by a group of dragons, taken several steps immediately after birth, pointed to heaven and earth, and so on, as seen in Kohn 1998. His looks, too, were redefined in the image of the Buddha and under the impact of Buddhist art and iconography, which is documented in Kohn 1996. In the course of his life, moreover, he interacted with Buddhists after emigrating to the West, in the story of the “conversion of the barbarians,” which emerged around 300 CE, according to Seidel 1984. In later centuries, Laozi’s hagiography grew considerably, adapting features of the life of the Buddha and expanding the interaction with the “barbarians.” A powerful illustrated version, as translated by Reiter 1990 and discussed by Ch’en 1945, appeared in the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), in eighty-one pictures with commentary.
  135.  
  136. Ch’en, Kenneth. “Buddhist-Taoist Mixtures in the Pa-shih-i-hua t’u.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9 (1945): 1–12.
  137.  
  138. DOI: 10.2307/2717989Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. The “Illustrated Explanations of the Eighty-One Transformations of Lord Lao” is a Laozi hagiography that mixes his major life events strongly with Buddhist motifs, showing him as superior to the Buddha. Compiled in 1232 under the leadership of Li Zhichang (b. 1193–d. 1256)—a disciple of Qiu Chuji (b. 1148–d. 1227) who accompanied his master to meet Genghis Khan and witnessed his appointment as chief of all religions in China—it reflects the political power struggle between the religions and has caused several massive debates.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144. Kohn, Livia. “The Looks of Laozi.” Asian Folklore Studies 55.2 (1996): 193–236.
  145.  
  146. DOI: 10.2307/1178820Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147.  
  148. An analysis of the physiognomy of Laozi, examining his thirty-two primary and eighty secondary marks in comparison to Buddhist iconography.
  149.  
  150. Find this resource:
  151.  
  152. Kohn, Livia. God of the Dao: Lord Lao in History and Myth. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies of the University of Michigan, 1998.
  153.  
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155.  
  156. A comprehensive study of Laozi in his divinized form, dividing into two parts: a chronological analysis of his different appearances and roles, examining numerous texts; and a thematic myth analysis, ranging from creation myths through the quest of the hero to miraculous manifestations. Buddhist impact is pervasive, notably in the story of Laozi’s birth and the conversion of the barbarians.
  157.  
  158. Find this resource:
  159.  
  160. Reiter, Florian C., ed. Leben und Wirken Lao-Tzu’s in Schrift und Bild: Lao-chün pa-shih-i-hua t’u-shuo. Würzburg, Germany: Königshausen & Neumann, 1990.
  161.  
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. A German translation of the major Yuan-dynasty hagiography of Laozi, with a reproduction of its eighty-one woodblock prints.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168. Seidel, Anna. La divinisation de Lao-tseu dans le taoïsme des Han. Paris: Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1969.
  169.  
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  171.  
  172. The classical study of the early divinization of Laozi, laying the foundation for all other, later developments. It focuses on the Han dynasty, so is largely pre-Buddhist, but mentions some possible impact on Later Han sources.
  173.  
  174. Find this resource:
  175.  
  176. Seidel, Anna. “Le sutra merveilleux du Ling-pao suprême, traitant de Lao tseu qui convertit les barbares.” In Contributions aux études du Touen-houang. Vol. 3. Edited by Michel Soymié, 305–352. Geneva, Switzerland: Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1984.
  177.  
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  179.  
  180. An in-depth study of the conversion of the barbarians as represented in a Tang scripture recovered from Dunhuang. Also connects to art-historical evidence.
  181.  
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  183.  
  184. Hagiography: Other Deities
  185. Buddhist hagiography and deities impacted Daoism variously. In the middle ages, as Zürcher 1982 points out, Daoist messianism impacted the Buddhist deity of Prince Moonlight. Under the Tang, Empress Wu (b. 624–d. 705) emulated the Queen Mother of the West, as documented in Rothschild 2010, and the spread of the Ullambana festival, connected closely to the feast of Middle Prime, enhanced the vision of hell and its deities, a thorough integration of Buddhist, Daoist, and popular figures, according to Teiser 1994. In the later Tang, a collection of miracle tales shows the adoption of particular Buddhist deities into the Daoist pantheon, as depicted in Verellen 1992. Kohn 2000 goes on to say that in the Yuan and Ming (1368–1644), moreover, with a rise of the cult of the Northern Dipper, Daoists adopted the goddess Marici as the Dipper Mother. Moving farther afield, Buddho-Daoist integration also impacted Japan, notably in the link of the Koshin cult with the Bluefaced Vajrapani, as seen in Kohn 2015, the adoption of Daoist household gods into popular Japanese religion, according to Como 2015, and the creation of a Japanese collection of immortals’ biographies, echoing the 4th-century work of Ge Hong, as documented in Kohn and Kleine 1999.
  186.  
  187. Como, Michael. “Daoist Deities in Ancient Japan: Household Deities, Jade Women, and Popular Religious Practice.” In Daoism in Japan: Chinese Traditions and Their Influence on Japanese Religious Culture. Edited by Jeffrey L. Richey, 24–36. New York: Routledge, 2015.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. An examination of Daoist-inspired cult activities among ordinary people outside the imperial court in Heian (794–1185) Japan, using both transmitted and excavated sources.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Kohn, Livia. “Doumu: The Mother of the Dipper.” Ming Qing Yanjiu 8 (2000): 149–195.
  196.  
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  198.  
  199. A study of the adaptation of the Indian goddess and Tantric bodhisattva Marīcī, an offspring of Brahma and personification of light into Daoism in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Maintaining much of her original hagiography, she here takes on the role of the mother of the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper, the central deity of cosmic order and manager of human fate.
  200.  
  201. Find this resource:
  202.  
  203. Kohn, Livia. “Kōshin: Expelling Taoist Demons with Buddhist Means.” In Daoism in Japan: Chinese Traditions and Their Influence on Japanese Religious Culture. Edited by Jeffrey L. Richey, 148–176. London: Routledge, 2015.
  204.  
  205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206.  
  207. An examination of the gengshen (J. koshin) cult—the practice of starving the so-called Three Worms or Corpses or Deathbringers, divinely monitored parasites in the body, with the help of medications, rituals, and prayers. A key deity aiding in this process the tantric Bluefaced Vajrapani, linking the cult to Buddhism, where it is still housed in Japan.
  208.  
  209. Find this resource:
  210.  
  211. Kohn, Livia, and Christoph Kleine. “Daoist Immortality and Buddhist Holiness: A Study and Translation of the Honcho shinsenden.” Japanese Religions 24.2 (1999): 119–196.
  212.  
  213. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214.  
  215. A translation of a Heian Japanese adaptation of the Daoist Shenxian zhuan (Biographies of spirit immortals), examining the links between Daoist and Buddhist saints as transmitted to medieval Japan.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Rothschild, Norman Harry. “Empress Wu and the Queen Mother of the West.” Journal of Daoist Studies 2 (2010): 29–56.
  220.  
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  222.  
  223. An examination of the religious policies of Empress Wu, a dedicated supporter of Buddhism, in relation to the Daoist deity Xiwangmu.
  224.  
  225. Find this resource:
  226.  
  227. Teiser, Stephen F. The Scripture of the Ten Kings: And the Making of Purgatory in Medieval Chinese Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994.
  228.  
  229. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  230.  
  231. An in-depth study of the emergence of the notion of ten kings of hell in medieval Buddhism under strong popular and Daoist influence.
  232.  
  233. Find this resource:
  234.  
  235. Verellen, Franciscus. “Evidential Miracles in Support of Taoism: The Inversion of a Buddhist Apologetic Tradition in Tang China.” T’oung Pao 78 (1992): 217–263.
  236.  
  237. DOI: 10.1163/156853292X00018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. A study of various miraculous occurrences reported in the late Tang, with an analysis in terms of Buddhist traditions at the time.
  240.  
  241. Find this resource:
  242.  
  243. Zürcher, Erik. “Prince Moonlight: Messianism and Eschatology in Early Medieval Buddhism.” T’oung Pao 68 (1982): 1–75.
  244.  
  245. DOI: 10.1163/156853282X00073Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246.  
  247. A study of a Buddhist deity depicted in a Daoist framework in medieval China.
  248.  
  249. Find this resource:
  250.  
  251. Meditation
  252. The earliest Buddhist texts translated dealt with the practice of meditation, notably anapana, concentration on the breath. Modern works, such as Kohn 2008 and Kohn 1992, focus on vipasyana, or insight meditation, the detached observation of bodily sensations and thoughts. The most pervasive interaction occurred with the development of Chan Buddhism in the Six Dynasties, when, according to Knaul 1986 and Fukunaga 1969, Buddhists adopted Zhuangzi ideas and terminology while Daoists began to use Buddhist practices. This interaction further inspired Daoist practitioners such as Sun Simiao (b. 581–d. 682), as seen in Sakade 2007, and led to the development of a particular form of Daoist insight meditation, known as “inner observation,” as documented in Kohn 1989. It culminated in a practice known as “sitting in oblivion,” a mode of quiet “just sitting” that is first mentioned in the Zhuangzi and, under the guidance of Sima Chengzhen (b. 647–d. 735), became a complex practice in multiple steps of attainment, as Kohn 2010 explains, the visualization of internal organs and later body gods, and something called “sitting in oblivion,” i.e., a letting go of all conceptions and goals and formal practice in just sitting. The interaction of the two religions in this area is strong, persistent, and mutual.
  253.  
  254. Fukunaga, Mitsuji. “‘No-Mind’ in Chuang-tzu and Ch’an Buddhism.” Zinbun 12 (1969): 9–45.
  255.  
  256. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  257.  
  258. A seminal study on Daoist concepts as manifest in medieval Chinese Zen.
  259.  
  260. Find this resource:
  261.  
  262. Knaul, Livia. “Chuang-tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch’an Buddhism.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 13.3 (1986): 411–428.
  263.  
  264. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.1986.tb00022.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. A historical overview of the philosophical adaptation of Daoist ideas into Chinese Buddhism. An updated version appears in chapter 13 of Livia Kohn’s Zhuangzi: Text and Context (St. Petersburg, FL: Three Pines, 2014).
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270. Kohn, Livia. “Taoist Insight Meditation: The Tang Practice of Neiguan.” In Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Edited by Livia Kohn, 193–224. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies of the University of Michigan, 1989.
  271.  
  272. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  273.  
  274. A translation and study of the Scripture of Inner Observation with particular reference to notions of insight meditation and their Daoist adaptation.
  275.  
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. Kohn, Livia. Early Chinese Mysticism: Philosophy and Soteriology in the Taoist Tradition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
  279.  
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  281.  
  282. A critical analysis and historical survey of mysticism as it can be understood in ancient and medieval China, reaching from the ancient philosophers (500 BCE) to the Tang dynasty. After presenting Laozi and Zhuangzi, it examines shamanism (ecstatic excursions), and addresses forms of Daoist practice under Buddhist impact.
  283.  
  284. Find this resource:
  285.  
  286. Kohn, Livia. Meditation Works: In the Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu Traditions. Magdalena, NM: Three Pines, 2008.
  287.  
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  289.  
  290. A comprehensive survey of six major forms of meditation in addition to fundamental concentration practice: mantra (chanting), visualization, insight, body awareness, energy transformation, and the Buddhist seated meditation practice of zazen. Each section presents both Daoist and Buddhist forms as well as their connections. The book also discusses Hindu forms, examines medical and neurological evidence, and offers information on contemporary groups and methods.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294. Kohn, Livia. Sitting in Oblivion: The Heart of Daoist Meditation. Dunedin, FL: Three Pines, 2010.
  295.  
  296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297.  
  298. An in-depth study of the practice, history, cosmology, and psychology of zuowang, the forerunner of zazen. It includes the full translation of eight Tang-dynasty texts on Daoist meditation that all receive significant impact from Buddhist sources.
  299.  
  300. Find this resource:
  301.  
  302. Sakade, Yoshinobu. “Sun Simiao et le Bouddhisme.” In Taoism, Medicine, and Qi in China and Japan. Edited by Yoshinobu Sakade, 9–28. Suita, Japan: Kansai University Press, 2007.
  303.  
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305.  
  306. An introductory study of the relationship to Buddhism of Sun Simiao, master physician, Daoist, and alchemist, as well as author of numerous medical treatises that are still central to Chinese medicine today.
  307.  
  308. Find this resource:
  309.  
  310. Doctrines and Society
  311. The most decisive interaction of Daoism and Buddhism occurred in early medieval China, especially in the 5th and 6th centuries, impacting scriptures of all major schools, according to Kohn 2014. These schools include the strongly communal Celestial Masters (Tianshi) or Orthodox Unity (Zhengyi), the more meditation and individually oriented school of Highest Clarity (Shangqing), and the widely popular ritual school of Numinous Treasure (Lingbao), as seen in Campany 1993 and Bokenkamp 1997. In terms of content, Buddhism most strongly influenced Daoist ideas of cosmology, karma, and ethics, as seen in Zürcher 1980; ritual and iconography, as described in Mollier 2008; charms, spells, and magic, as explained in Strickmann 1996; and monasticism, as seen in Bumbacher 1998. Other areas, according to Schipper 1994, include the relationship to foreigners and strangers, and notions of divine rulership, as explained in Orzech 1998.
  312.  
  313. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. Early Daoist Scriptures. With a contribution by Peter Nickerson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
  314.  
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  316.  
  317. A translation of six major Daoist scriptures, representing the core medieval schools, with ample footnotes relating to Buddhist impact.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321. Bumbacher, Stephan-Peter. “Abschied von Heim und Herd: Die Frau im mittelalterlichen Daoismus und Buddhismus.” Asiatische Studien/Etudes Asiatiques 52 (1998): 673–694.
  322.  
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  324.  
  325. Examination of the role of women in medieval religion, showing the impact of Buddhism on the notion of leaving the family in favor of spiritual fulfillment.
  326.  
  327. Find this resource:
  328.  
  329. Campany, Robert F. “Buddhist Revelation and Taoist Translation in Early Medieval China.” Taoist Resources 4.1 (1993): 1–30.
  330.  
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  332.  
  333. A critical discussion of notions of translation and revelation, and how both Daoists and Buddhists participated in both processes when procuring scriptures.
  334.  
  335. Find this resource:
  336.  
  337. Kohn, Livia. “Buddhist-Daoist Interactions in Medieval China.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism. Edited by Mario Pocesci, 340–358. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
  338.  
  339. DOI: 10.1002/9781118610398.ch17Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. A brief, comprehensive overview of the different modes of Buddhist-Daoist interaction in medieval China.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345. Mollier, Christine. Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008.
  346.  
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348.  
  349. An in-depth study of the various ways in which Buddhists and Daoists connected and exchanged ideas and practices.
  350.  
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Orzech, Charles D. Politics and Transcendent Wisdom: The Scripture for Humane Kings in the Creation of Chinese Buddhism. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998.
  354.  
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  356.  
  357. A study of the notion of holy kingship as it emerged in medieval China under Daoist impact. The role of Buddhism as a state-supporting institution and means toward imperial legitimization.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Schipper, Kristofer M. “Purity and Strangers: Shifting Boundaries in Medieval Taoism.” T’oung Pao 80 (1994): 61–81.
  362.  
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  364.  
  365. An examination of ideas and social behaviors in relation to strangers and foreigners and the importance of concepts of purity in the interaction among religions.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369. Strickmann, Michel. Mantras et mandarins: Le bouddhisme tantrique en Chine. Paris: Gallimard, 1996.
  370.  
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372.  
  373. A powerful study of tantric Buddhism in China, with a great deal of information on Daoist practices as they influenced and adapted the incoming religion. For example, practices such as “ensigellation,” the healing of ailments by sealing the body part with a sacred charm, are typical of Tantrism but go back to Daoist practice.
  374.  
  375. Find this resource:
  376.  
  377. Zürcher, Erik. “Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism.” T’oung Pao 66 (1980): 84–147.
  378.  
  379. DOI: 10.1163/156853280X00039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. The seminal study of how Buddhism impacted Daoism in medieval China, focusing on issues of cosmology, karma and retribution, ethics, and more.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Medieval Schools
  386. The three major medieval schools of Daoism are the Celestial Masters, Highest Clarity, and Numinous Treasure. The Celestial Masters, originally founded by Zhang Daoling (d. 156) in 142 CE, under the imperial sponsorship of the northern Toba-Wei rulers in the 5th century, was reorganized to furnish the so-called Daoist theocracy. Using Buddhist monastic rules as their model, according to Mather 1979, the Celestial Masters were the first Daoists to live in celibate institutions and perform Buddhist-style ordinations and repentance rituals. Highest Clarity emerged around the year 360 in a series of revelations from high celestial deities to a spirit-medium in south China (near Nanjing). Later scattered, the revealed materials were reassembled by the Daoist master Tao Hongjing (b. 456–d. 536) on Maoshan around the year 500. They soon became the basis of the leading school of medieval Daoism. Originally relatively free of Buddhist influence, the school yet adopted a variety of Buddhist notions and practices, as explained in Bokenkamp 2007 and Bokenkamp 2014. Numinous Treasure was founded by Ge Chaofu (4th century) in the 490s through a combination of Highest Clarity meditations and Han-dynasty cosmology. In the early 5th century, it expanded to include a strong emphasis on communal rituals and otherworld cosmology, including various savior figures—all through a wholesale adoption of Buddhist materials, according to Bokenkamp 1983, Bokenkamp 2001, and Bokenkamp 2004). Numinous Treasure laid the foundation of all Daoist rituals, including those still practiced today. It also raised Daoist cosmology and psychology to a new level, integrating heavens and hells, karma and retribution, bodhisattva-type figures, and more.
  387.  
  388. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “Sources of the Ling-pao Scriptures.” In Tantric and Taoist Studies. Vol. 2. Edited by Michel Strickmann, 434–486. Brussels: Institut Belge des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1983.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. The classic study of the importance of Buddhism in the creation and concepts of the texts of Numinous Treasure, looking critically at the historical connections and examining each text of the canon in detail.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “Buddhism, Lu Xiujing, and the First Daoist Canon.” In Culture and Power in the Reconstitution of the Chinese Realm, 200–600. Edited by Scott Pearce, Audrey Spiro, and Patricia Ebrey, 181–199. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2001.
  397.  
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399.  
  400. A study of Lu Xiujing (b. 406–d. 477), the main codifier of the Numinous Treasure scriptures and his efforts to create the first Daoist canon, whose structure follows the Tripitaka.
  401.  
  402. Find this resource:
  403.  
  404. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “The Silkworm and the Bodhi Tree: The Lingbao Attempt to Replace Buddhism in China and Our Attempt to Replace Lingbao Daoism.” In Religion and Chinese Society: Ancient and Medieval. Edited by John Lagerwey, 317–339. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press, 2004.
  405.  
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407.  
  408. An examination of the interaction of Buddhism and the Numinous Treasure school in medieval China.
  409.  
  410. Find this resource:
  411.  
  412. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. Ancestors and Anxiety: Daoism and the Birth of Rebirth in China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. An in-depth study of the emergence of the Highest Clarity school and incipient Daoist concepts of rebirth, showing that Buddhism played a subtle and early role in the shaping of the religion.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “Buddhism in the Writings of Tao Hongjing.” Daoism: Religion, History and Society 6 (2014): 247–268.
  421.  
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423.  
  424. A study of the role of Buddhism in the writings and thought of Tao Hongjing (b. 451–d. 536), the main codifier of the Highest Clarity scriptures and the first patriarch of the school.
  425.  
  426. Find this resource:
  427.  
  428. Mather, Richard. “K’ou Ch’ien-chih and the Taoist Theocracy at the Northern Wei Court 425–451.” In Facets of Taoism. Edited by Holmes Welch and Anna Seidel, 103–122. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979.
  429.  
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431.  
  432. The seminal study of the theocracy and its rules (adopted from Buddhism but revealed by Lord Lao, the divinized Laozi), rituals, organizational structure, and community impact.
  433.  
  434. Find this resource:
  435.  
  436. Ethics
  437. Daoism has fundamental ethics in its ancient philosophers, notably involving virtues such as tolerance, patience, detachment (nonaction), calmness, clarity, and the like. The Celestial Masters adopted these virtues in the early 3rd century and formulated them in a set of nine major and twenty-seven lesser rules, including virtues like “being nameless,” remaining “pure and tranquil,” and generally “doing good.” Only under Buddhist influence did they come to create major lists of precepts, beginning with the 180 Precepts of Lord Lao, as explained in Schmidt 1985 and Penny 1996, moving on to a set of five precepts that combines Buddhist sila with traditional Chinese cosmology, as seen in Kohn 1994, and to numerous sets of ten precepts and ten items of goodness, bodhisattva-like vows, guidelines toward selflessness and compassion, and rules for proper ritual preparation, as well as detailed monastic rules and regulations. According to Kohn 2004a, the entire complex of ethics is a prime example of the strong adaptation of Buddhism into Daoism, manifest not only in lists of precepts but also in cosmology and social interaction, still very much active in the present day. Numerous texts clearly show Buddhist structure, content, and terminology, as seen in Kohn 2004b. They also document the strong impact of the doctrines of karma and rebirth on Daoist ethics, according to Kohn 1998a and Kohn 1998b, as well as the mutual interaction of the religions in terms of family values, as documented in Kohn 2004c.
  438.  
  439. Kohn, Livia. “The Five Precepts of the Venerable Lord.” Monumenta Serica 42 (1994): 171–215.
  440.  
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442.  
  443. A translation and study of Lord Lao’s five precepts, the classic set of pancasila as interpreted in Chinese five-phases cosmology and related to the body. For example, the precept to abstain from killing is associated with the direction of the east and all the various geographical and social factors associated with it. Within the body, it connects to the liver—which will suffer as people engage in aggressive conduct.
  444.  
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447. Kohn, Livia. “Counting Good Deeds and Days of Life: The Quantification of Fate in Medieval China.” Asiatische Studien/Etudes Asiatiques 52 (1998a): 833–870.
  448.  
  449. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450.  
  451. An analysis of lists of deeds and their retribution as found in various medieval Daoist texts. A certain number of good deeds will lead not only to health and well-being, but also to social recognition and success, and eventually devolve on one’s descendants and future rebirth, and possibly guarantee residence in the heavens. Evil deeds, obviously, lead in the opposite direction.
  452.  
  453. Find this resource:
  454.  
  455. Kohn, Livia. “Steal Holy Food and Come Back as a Viper: Conceptions of Karma and Rebirth in Medieval Daoism.” Early Medieval China 4 (1998b): 1–48.
  456.  
  457. DOI: 10.1179/152991098788220432Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  458.  
  459. A study of Buddhist notions of karma and retribution in a Daoist context, focusing on specific rewards and punishments over several rounds of rebirth.
  460.  
  461. Find this resource:
  462.  
  463. Kohn, Livia. Cosmos and Community: The Ethical Dimension of Daoism. Cambridge, MA: Three Pines, 2004a.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. The seminal study of Daoist ethics, including a translation of eleven major precepts texts, ranging from the early Celestial Masters to the “Precepts of Initial Perfection,” at the core of Daoist ordination since the early Qing dynasty. The book distinguishes four major kinds of rules: prohibitions formulated as “do not”; admonitions including the term “should”; injunctions that deal with concrete daily behavior; and resolutions (or affirmations) that are geared to bring about a specific mindset. All have clear Buddhist sources.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471. Kohn, Livia. Supplement to Cosmos and Community. Cambridge, MA: Three Pines, 2004b.
  472.  
  473. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474.  
  475. A translation of nineteen additional texts of Daoist precepts (some in part); like those texts discussed in Kohn 2004a, from the early Celestial Masters to the late Qing. Footnotes specify Buddhist connections.
  476.  
  477. Find this resource:
  478.  
  479. Kohn, Livia. “Immortal Parents and Universal Kin: Family Values in Medieval Daoism.” In Filial Piety and Chinese Culture. Edited by Alan Chan, 91–109. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004c.
  480.  
  481. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  482.  
  483. The adaptation of Confucian concepts of filial piety in medieval Daoism in conjunction with Buddhism, which similarly adopts the value of filial piety into its value system.
  484.  
  485. Find this resource:
  486.  
  487. Penny, Benjamin. “Buddhism and Daoism in The 180 Precepts Spoken by Lord Lao.” Taoist Resources 6.2 (1996): 1–16.
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. The first English translation of the 180 Precepts of Lord Lao, with particular emphasis on their roots in the Pratimoksa.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495. Schmidt, Hans-Hermann. “Die hundertachtzig Vorschriften von Lao-chün.” In Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien: Festschrift für Hans Steininger. Edited by G. Naundorf, K. H. Pohl, and H. H. Schmidt, 151–159. Würzburg, Germany: Königshausen & Neumann, 1985.
  496.  
  497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  498.  
  499. The first Western rendition of the 180 Precepts of Lord Lao, with footnotes and historical introduction.
  500.  
  501. Find this resource:
  502.  
  503. Monasticism
  504. According to Bumbacher 2000, early Daoists lived in lay, family-based communities, gradually developing pre-monastic establishments for religious cultivation, notably in mountain centers. The first celibate institutions in cities arose under the theocracy in the early 5th century in close imitation of Buddhist models, as seen in Schipper 1984. By the early Tang, according to Kohn 2004, they had grown into large, state-sponsored facilities, with extensive grounds, statuary, rules, and precepts. Kohn 2000 explains that their architecture, organization, and layout, as well as their internal organization, schedule, and discipline, as seen in Kohn 2001, owe much to Buddhist models, while yet continuing traditional Chinese patterns and giving expression to unique Daoist tenets. A comprehensive study of the development and key features of medieval monasticism appears in Kohn 2003.
  505.  
  506. Bumbacher, Stephan-Peter. “On Pre-Tang Monastic Establishments at Mao Shan, According to Daoxue zhuan.” Journal of Chinese Religions 28 (2000): 145–160.
  507.  
  508. DOI: 10.1179/073776900805306612Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  509.  
  510. In southern China, the first semi-monastic institution was the center run by Tao Hongjing (b. 451–d. 536), the first patriarch of Highest Clarity, on Maoshan. Also a devotee of Buddhist deities, he designed a non-celibate, family-centered institution for religious transformation under the auspices of Emperor Wu of the Liang, a deeply devout Buddhist.
  511.  
  512. Find this resource:
  513.  
  514. Kohn, Livia. “A Home for the Immortals: The Layout and Development of Medieval Daoist Monasteries.” Acta Orientalia 53 (2000): 79–106.
  515.  
  516. DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.53.2000.1-2.5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. A detailed examination of the physical layout and building organization of Daoist monasteries, in close comparison to the Buddhist institutions that provided their model.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522. Kohn, Livia. “Daoist Monastic Discipline: Hygiene, Meals, and Etiquette.” T’oung Pao 87 (2001): 153–193.
  523.  
  524. DOI: 10.1163/15685320152565367Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525.  
  526. A study of the practical life of Daoist monasteries, regarding personal hygiene, including chanted affirmation for all sorts of daily activities; the food, timing, organization, and ritual structure of the meals, especially the highly ceremonial pre-noon meal; and rules of “dignified obeisances,” how, how deeply, and how often to bow at what junction, etc.
  527.  
  528. Find this resource:
  529.  
  530. Kohn, Livia. Monastic Life in Medieval Daoism: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003.
  531.  
  532. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  533.  
  534. A most comprehensive study of the development and structure of Daoist monasticism in close comparison to Christian and Buddhist forms. The book includes theoretical analysis, creating a categorical definition within religious studies and a historical survey in conjunction with Indian and Western developments, as well as in-depth presentations of the social role of monks, the physical buildings, the gods and immortals, the vestments and practical utensils, and the concrete rules and daily rituals.
  535.  
  536. Find this resource:
  537.  
  538. Kohn, Livia. The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao kejie. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  539.  
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. A complete annotated translation of the “Rules and precepts for worshiping the Dao,” an early-Tang monastic manual that describes all the different aspects of the institution in detail. The introduction covers the development of Daoist monastic institutions and the authorship and history of the text, as well as a discussion of related texts and relevant terminology.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546. Schipper, Kristofer M. “Le monachisme taoïste.” In Incontro di religioni in Asia tra il terzo e il decimo secolo d.C. Edited by Lionello Lanciotti, 199–215. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1984.
  547.  
  548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  549.  
  550. An introductory survey of what “monasticism” may mean in a Daoist context, with close reference to Buddhism.
  551.  
  552. Find this resource:
  553.  
  554. Ritual
  555. Daoist ritual follows traditional Chinese forms, which divide into sacrifice (si), purification (zhai), and thanksgiving or offering (jiao). Essentially a formal audience with the gods, the ritual relies heavily on written documents—petitions, mandates, tokens, and talismans. As Bumbacher 2012 shows, the ritual continues ancient patterns and also absorbs a heavy dose of Buddhism, especially in the conceptualization and compilation of medieval scriptures. Historically, Daoist ritual took shape in the 5th century, among the Celestial Masters both in north and south China, integrating Buddhist models, as documented in Yamada 1995. According to Yamada 1994, a popular expression was in the form of repentance rites, during which participants anticipated the punishments of hell—a concept introduced from Buddhism—in an effort to escape a miserable afterlife. Several other dimensions of Daoist ritual originate with Buddhism. One, as documented in Kamitsuka 1996, is the notion of internal evil in the form of Māra, a demonic force within the person that manifests in unbridled passions. Another is the practice of sacred hand gestures. As described by Mitamura 2002, these gestures are an adaptation of Buddhist mudras in conjunction with Chinese medicine and Daoist visions of the body. Bodily transformation, according to Mollier 2000, is also central to the ritual practice of internal “kitchens” (chu), ways of enhancing the five organs central to the Chinese body with various forms of Buddhist meditation and ritual. Feeding the dead and rescuing souls from hell, as studied in Orzech 2002, is another area where Buddhist and Daoist ritual influence each other. So is the popular festival of the dead, held in the seventh month, which combines the Buddhist Yulanpen with the Daoist Middle Prime, as seen in Teiser 1988. The entire complex of Daoist ordination, moreover, works from a foundation of Buddhist ritual, combining the transmission of precepts, robes, and scriptures (and rearranging of hair) with ancient covenant formalities and pledges, according to Kohn 2003.
  556.  
  557. Bumbacher, Stephan-Peter. Empowered Writing: Exorcistic and Apotropaic Rituals in Medieval China. St. Petersburg, FL: Three Pines, 2012.
  558.  
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560.  
  561. An in-depth study of three major dimensions of holy writs: talismans (stylized replicas of spells in celestial script), petitions (formal communications with the gods), and scriptures (revealed sacred documents) in early and medieval Daoism. The third section, on scriptures, especially connects heavily to Buddhist models.
  562.  
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. Kamitsuka, Yoshiko. “The Concept of Māra and the Idea of Expelling Demons.” Taoist Resources 6.2 (1996): 30–50.
  566.  
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. The ancient Chinese as well as Daoist universe was populated heavily by demons (gui), defined as ghosts of the dead, poltergeists, animal sprites, and the like. The notion of Māra (mo) as an internal demonic force, manifest in passions and leading to death, entered with Buddhism only in the late 5th century. This belief led to a new level of exorcism, “expelling demons” (xiaomo), in a synthesis of Daoist and Buddhist methods.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573. Kohn, Livia. “Medieval Daoist Ordination: Origins, Structure, and Practices.” Acta Orientalia 56 (2003): 379–398.
  574.  
  575. DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.56.2003.2-4.19Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576.  
  577. An analysis of the history and format of Daoist ordination, beginning with the theocracy under Kou Qianzhi (b. 365–d. 448) in the early 5th century. It shows how the system combines ancient blood covenant patterns, perpetuated among alchemists, with the ritualistic taking of precepts, robes, and hairstyle adopted from Buddhism.
  578.  
  579. Find this resource:
  580.  
  581. Mitamura, Keiko. “Daoist Hand Signs and Buddhist Mūdras.” In Daoist Identity: History, Lineage, and Ritual. Edited by Livia Kohn and Harold D. Roth, 235–255. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002.
  582.  
  583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  584.  
  585. The first and so far only academic study of sacred hand gestures in Daoism. Daoists adopted the idea of sacred gestures as part of ritual and chanting practice from Buddhism; however, their understanding of the gestures’ significance relates them to Chinese medicine, while their use matches particular Daoist concerns of longevity and immortality.
  586.  
  587. Find this resource:
  588.  
  589. Mollier, Christine. “Les cuisines de Laozi et du Buddha.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 11 (2000): 45–90.
  590.  
  591. DOI: 10.3406/asie.1999.1150Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. A study of the Wuchu jing (Scripture of the five kitchens), a Tang-dynasty mystical text that focuses on the transformation of the vital energy in the five inner organs (“kitchens”) through meditation and ritual. The text adopts various Buddhist notions and meditative techniques.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597. Orzech, Charles D. “Fang Yankou and Pudu: Translation, Metaphor, and Religious Identity.” In Daoist Identity: History, Lineage, and Ritual. Edited by Livia Kohn and Harold D. Roth, 213–234. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002.
  598.  
  599. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  600.  
  601. A study of medieval rituals of saving the dead in Buddhism and Daoism—feeding the fiery mouths of beings in hell compared to effecting universal salvation of all by transferring them to the halls of the immortals. The Daoist ritual makes use of Buddhist models, but transforms the methods toward its own ends.
  602.  
  603. Find this resource:
  604.  
  605. Teiser, Stephen F. The Yü-lan-p’en Festival in Medieval Chinese Religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
  606.  
  607. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  608.  
  609. The Chinese Yulanpen festival in the seventh lunar month is an adaptation of the Indian Ullmabana. It also matches the Daoist Middle Prime (zhongyuan) and actively connects with it. As the Buddhist practice entered the Chinese mainstream, it linked to its Daoist predecessor in terms of timing, structure, and some key practices besides its main purpose of hosting the dead.
  610.  
  611. Find this resource:
  612.  
  613. Yamada, Toshiaki. “Repentance Rituals in Taoism and Chinese Buddhism.” In Bouddhisme et cultures locales. Edited by Fukui Fumimasa and Gerard Fussman, 169–172. Paris: Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 1994.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. An examination of repentance rituals adapted into medieval Daoism from Buddhism in the middle ages, including all the major features—petitions, self-flagellations, savior deities, doctrines of hell and damnation, and more.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621. Yamada, Toshiaki. “The Evolution of Taoist Ritual: K’ou Ch’ien-chih and Lu Hsiu-ching.” Acta Asiatica 68 (1995): 69–83.
  622.  
  623. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  624.  
  625. A study of two major figures in medieval Daoist ritual, both working under Buddhist influence. Kou Qianzhi (b. 365–d. 448) was the founder and leader of the Daoist theocracy under the northern Toba-Wei rulers; Lu Xiujing (b. 406–d. 477) served as a senior master in both the Celestial Masters and Numinous Treasure schools in south China.
  626.  
  627. Find this resource:
  628.  
  629. Philosophy
  630. Daoist religious philosophy arose in the wake of the earliest Daoist philosophical text, known as the Daode jing (Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue), and at first appeared mainly in commentaries, then gradual developed into independent scriptures. It greatly flourished in the Tang dynasty under the massive impact of Buddhist thought, most importantly the Mādhyamika school, with its complex logic and extensive theory of mind. One result of this impact was the development of the Daoist school of Twofold Mystery, which, as Assandri 2009 shows, integrates Buddhist thinking into Daode jing exegesis. One major text of this school is the Benji jing, an outline of integrated Buddho-Daoist cosmology and logic, studied in Wu 1960. Under its impact, moreover, the image of Laozi undergoes a revision, as documented in Assandri 2008, the doctrine of the five skandhas enters Daoist thinking, as explained in Assandri 2013, and immortality is revised under the influence of the bhumi concept, according to Bokenkamp 1990.
  631.  
  632. Assandri, Friederike. “Laozi’s Eclipse and Comeback: The Narrative Frame of the Benji jing.” Journal of Daoist Studies 1 (2008): 1–27.
  633.  
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635.  
  636. A study of the figure of Laozi in the Benji jing, a major text of Twofold Mystery, relating the changing views of the deity to the evolution of Daoism as it competed with Buddhism while yet absorbing its concepts. The efforts of the religion at streamlining and integrating its different traditions and teachings is clearly reflected in the narrative plot of the text.
  637.  
  638. Find this resource:
  639.  
  640. Assandri, Friederike. Beyond the Daode Jing: Twofold Mystery in Tang Daoism. Magdalena, NM: Three Pines, 2009.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. A study of the philosophical school of Twofold Mystery (Chongxuan), an adaptation of Buddhist Mādhyamika complete with the tetralemma, two truths doctrine, theory of mind, and forms of insight meditation. The school flourished in the early Tang (7th century) and paved the way for more sophisticated levels of Daoist philosophy.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648. Assandri, Friederike. “Impermanence and Immortality: The Concept of Panca-skandha in Buddhism and in Twofold Mystery Daoism.” In Brahman and Dao: Comparative Studies in Indian and Chinese Philosophy and Religion. Edited by Ithamar Theodor and Zhihua Yao, 53–63. New York: Lexington Books, 2013.
  649.  
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651.  
  652. An examination of the concept of the five skandhas, or “heaps of desire,” aspects of the mind, as it was transmitted and understood in Chinese Buddhism and adopted into Daoist philosophy of the early Tang.
  653.  
  654. Find this resource:
  655.  
  656. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. “Stages of Transcendence: The Bhūmi Concept in Taoist Scripture.” In Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha. Edited by Robert E. Buswell, 119–146. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1990.
  657.  
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659.  
  660. A study of the notion of ten stages of enlightenment for bodhisattvas (bhūmi) as understood in medieval Chinese Buddhism and its adaptation into Daoism, where immortality replaced nirvāna as the core goal.
  661.  
  662. Find this resource:
  663.  
  664. Wu, Chi-yu. Pen-tsi king, Livre du terme originel: Ouvrage taoïste inedit du VII siecle. Paris: Centre National des Recherches Scientifiques, 1960.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. A translation of the Benji jing (Scripture of original juncture), a key text of Twofold Mystery recovered from Dunhuang and compiled, under heavy Buddhist influence, in the very early years of the Tang dynasty.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672. Debates
  673. By the 6th century, China had suffered division into multiple northern and southern dynasties for several hundred years. Overall culture began to shift toward unification—the northern Toba-Wei empire being torn apart by internal conflicts and the various southern states getting tired of ever-changing and increasingly corrupt dynasties. Part of the push for unification was the intellectual search for an integrating worldview, a doctrinal network that could hold the different factions and forces together. Various emperors accordingly staged major court debates among Buddhists and Daoists, hoping to find one of them superior. As shown in Kohn 1995, the first round of debates occurred in 520, with the main topic being the respective age of the religions as represented by their founders—Laozi and the Buddha. The second round was sponsored by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou, resulting in a major work written to discredit Daoism, ridiculing its cosmological, ritual, and ethical tenets, as documented in Kohn 1995. The third round happened in the early Tang dynasty, resulting in major summarizing works, such as the Fo Dao lunheng, discussed in detail by Assandri 2015 and Assandri 2009. One of the major contentions among the religion was the mutual borrowing of terms and concepts, resulting in accusations of plagiarism and theft, according to Assandri 2016. The criticism of Laozi, moreover, as outlined in the early Tang polemic Bianzheng lun, also made its way into Japan and influenced Shinran’s (b. 1173–d. 1263) understanding of Daoism, as seen in Conway 2015. A fourth and final round of debates was held at the Mongol court under the Yuan dynasty in 1280. As Kubo 1968 outlines, it arose in response to the Mongols’ appointment of the Daoist Complete Perfection school as central religious authority in China, resulting in the inappropriate takeover of Buddhist temples and denigration of Buddhist teachings. Complaining about this behavior, Buddhists claimed that Daoists were irresolute and incompetent, their teachings mere superstition, a contention that led to formal debates at court, which the Daoists lost—most of their scriptures were proscribed and burned. It also had an effect on art, the murals in the major sanctuary to the Daoist immortal Lü Dongbin showing anti-Buddhist themes, as described in Jing 1994.
  674.  
  675. Assandri, Friederike. “Interreligious Debate at the Court of the Early Tang: An Introduction to Daoxuan’s Ji gujin Fo Dao lunheng (T 2104).” In From Early Tang Court Debates to China’s Peaceful Rise. Edited by Friederike Assandri and Dora Martins. ICAS Proceedings Series. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009.
  676.  
  677. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  678.  
  679. A study of a major work on the early Tang record of the debates between Buddhists and Daoists, as compiled by the vinaya master Daoxuan (b. 596–d. 667).
  680.  
  681. Find this resource:
  682.  
  683. Assandri, Friederike. Dispute zwischen Daoisten und Buddhisten im Fo Dao lunheng des Daoxuan (596–667). Gossenberg, Austria: Ostasien Verlag, 2015.
  684.  
  685. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  686.  
  687. Detailed analysis and translation of relevant materials on the Buddho-Daoist debates in the early Tang as represented in the Fo Dao lunheng. The most authoritative work on this text published to date.
  688.  
  689. Find this resource:
  690.  
  691. Assandri, Friederike. “Stealing Words: Intellectual Property in Medieval China.” Journal of Daoist Studies 9 (2016): 49–72.
  692.  
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694.  
  695. A discussion of the medieval Chinese understanding of intellectual property, as defined by the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (b. 1762–d. 1814) and as activated in the debates between Buddhists and Daoists.
  696.  
  697. Find this resource:
  698.  
  699. Conway, Michael. “Demarcation from Daoism in Shinran’s Kyōgyōshinshō.” In Daoism in Japan: Chinese Traditions and Their Influence on Japanese Religious Culture. Edited by Jeffrey L. Richey, 126–147. New York: Routledge, 2015.
  700.  
  701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  702.  
  703. A discussion of the anti-Daoist polemics, and particularly the criticism of Laozi as a divine figure, in the work of Shinran. Conway makes ample use of the Bianzheng lun, a key Tang text on the debates.
  704.  
  705. Find this resource:
  706.  
  707. Jing, Anning. “Buddhist-Daoist Struggle and a Pair of ‘Daoist’ Murals.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 66 (1994): 117–181.
  708.  
  709. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  710.  
  711. An examination of the famous Yuan-dynasty murals at the Yongle gong (Palace of Eternal Joy) in Ruicheng (southern Shanxi), which were created in an atmosphere of strife between the religions.
  712.  
  713. Find this resource:
  714.  
  715. Kohn, Livia. Laughing at the Tao: Debates among Buddhists and Taoists in Medieval China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. A complete translation, with ample annotation, of the Xiaodao lun, a major anti-Daoist polemic by the Buddhist Zhen Luan (b. 535–d. 576), presented to Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou in 570. The text consists of thirty-six sections and covers all manner of Daoist teachings, cosmology, hagiography, ethics, ritual, and more, widely citing Daoist texts that often have not survived—or not survived unedited—in this format. The introduction discusses the changing relationship of Buddhist and Daoists in medieval China, including the conversion of the barbarians and the various court debates, from the 5th through the 7th centuries.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723. Kubo, Noritada. “Prolegomena on the Study of the Controversies between Buddhists and Taoists in the Yuan Period.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 26 (1968): 39–61.
  724.  
  725. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  726.  
  727. An introductory survey of the Yuan-dynasty debates, focusing on complaints by Buddhists that Daoists were taking over their temples and culminating in the burning of the Daoist canon all scriptures other than Laozi in 1281.
  728.  
  729. Find this resource:
  730.  
  731. Complete Perfection
  732. The school of Complete Perfection (Quanzhen), founded by Wang Chongyang (b. 1112–d. 1170), was a Daoist movement in north China in the late Song dynasty and in due course became the dominant Daoist monastic order. It focused on individual transformation and was characterized by monasticism, ascetic practices, and mystical experience, and from its inception was closely connected to Chan Buddhist models in terms of monastic organization, rules, and precepts, and personal discipline of cultivation, as documented in Yao 2000 and Reiter 1994. Moreover, some of its key scriptures, notably those presenting the Northern Dipper, made their way into Buddhist circles and were even transmitted to Japan, according to Franke 1990. Besides Buddhism, it also integrated a heavy dose of Confucianism, as seen in Tsui 1991, and created a particular brand of integrated religions worldview and practice, as explained in Goossaert and Katz 2001. Raised to dominant political status under the Mongols, it formed the central Daoist authority under succeeding dynasties; its rules and precepts were formally standardized in the early Qing to shape Daoist ordination and monastic living to the present day, as described in Kohn 2003.
  733.  
  734. Franke, Herbert. “The Taoist Elements in the Buddhist Great Bear Sutra (Pei-tou ching).” Asia Major 3.1 (1990): 75–112.
  735.  
  736. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  737.  
  738. A study of the Buddhist “Scripture of the Great Dipper,” which survives in Chinese, Uighur, Mongolian, and Tibetan. It was probably compiled under the Yuan when the 1281 proscription of Daoist materials encouraged the increased production of popular talismans and spells among Buddhists.
  739.  
  740. Find this resource:
  741.  
  742. Goossaert, Vincent, and Paul Katz. “New Perspectives on Quanzhen Taoism: The Formation of a Religious Identity.” Journal of Chinese Religions 29 (2001): 91–94.
  743.  
  744. DOI: 10.1179/073776901804774703Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. A critical examination, in response to the work of Bartholomew Tsui (for example, Tsui 1991), of how Buddhist or Confucian Quanzhen Daoism in fact was.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750. Kohn, Livia. “Monastic Rules in Quanzhen Daoism: As Collected by Heinrich Hackmann.” Monumenta Serica 51 (2003): 367–397.
  751.  
  752. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  753.  
  754. A study and critical examination of the major rules of Quanzhen, as they were developed in the 17th century and collected in the early 20th. Both the overall structure and the specific content of both rules and monastic regulations (including etiquette, time tables, and punishments) were directly taken over from Buddhist models.
  755.  
  756. Find this resource:
  757.  
  758. Reiter, Florian C. “Überlegungen zur Bedeutung des Buddhismus für den Ch’üan-chen Taoismus im China des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts.” Monumenta Serica 42 (1994): 295–308.
  759.  
  760. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  761.  
  762. A brief discussion of the role of Buddhism in the development of Quanzhen Daoism.
  763.  
  764. Find this resource:
  765.  
  766. Tsui, Bartholomew P. M. Taoist Tradition and Change: The Story of the Complete Perfection Sect in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion and Culture, 1991.
  767.  
  768. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. A study of this modern Daoist school, with particular regard to the question of syncretism, placing it in the middle between Confucian ethics and Chan Buddhist monasticism.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774. Yao, Ted. “Quanzhen—Complete Perfection.” In Daoism Handbook. Edited by Livia Kohn, 567–593. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  775.  
  776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  777.  
  778. A comprehensive survey of the history, major personages, doctrines, and practices of the dominant school of modern China, showing the great debt it owes to Chan Buddhism, especially in its emphasis on asceticism, monastic organization, and meditation practices.
  779.  
  780. Find this resource:
  781.  
  782. Modernity
  783. Daoism today is closely linked with politics. Suppressed from the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949 until the Four Modernizations in 1978, it has made a gradual comeback but remains under tight control. As Herrou 2013 documents in detail, all Daoist institutions—in close imitation of Buddhist ones—are state owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination, as seen in Miller 2006. Still, temple compounds are growing everywhere and people choose the Daoist life for a variety of reasons: to take refuge from civilian life, do community service, rise in the official hierarchy, become a hermit, or establish a Daoist-based business. In Taiwan, Daoism has survived without major interruptions and is mostly communal. The monastic groups, though, according to Ho 2009, function very much like Buddhist monasteries and are equally active socially.
  784.  
  785. Herrou, Adeline. A World of Their Own: Daoist Monks and Their Community in Contemporary China. St. Petersburg, FL: Three Pines, 2013.
  786.  
  787. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  788.  
  789. An exemplary and most detailed study of the lives, goals, institutions, and personalities of Daoist monastics in modern China, notably also in conjunction and cooperation with their Buddhist counterparts.
  790.  
  791. Find this resource:
  792.  
  793. Ho, Wan-li. “Daoist Nuns in Taiwan: A Case Study of the Daode Yuan.” Journal of Daoist Studies 2 (2009): 136–164.
  794.  
  795. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  796.  
  797. A study of the first and only community of celibate female Daoists in Taiwan, established in 1960, with particular focus on sectarian affiliations and syncretistic adaptations of rules and practices.
  798.  
  799. Find this resource:
  800.  
  801. Miller, James, ed. Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies. Santa Barbara, CA: ABG-CLIO, 2006.
  802.  
  803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  804.  
  805. Presenting various studies on Chinese religion in the modern era, the volume contains three articles that discuss the relationship of Daoism and Buddhism in current religious practice: Wai-lun Tam on “Local Religion” (53–78); Sung-hae Kim on “Daoist Monasticism” (93–116), and Jonathan Lee on “Chinese-American Religious Life” (227–246).
  806.  
  807. Find this resource:
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