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Greek Military (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. War was an overriding phenomenon in Greek civilization. It determined to a great extent the political, social, and economic institutions in ancient Greece, in a permanent interaction with society and politics. War also figured prominently in ancient Greek sources as a literary and historical topic, and monuments celebrating or commemorating military events invaded the public spaces in most Greek cities. “War,” says Heraclitus, “is the father of all and king of all” (fragment 53 D). This paramount relevance of warfare as a cultural factor was, however, counterbalanced by an early and permanent awareness of its catastrophic effects on individuals and communities. The Greeks frequently lamented its inevitable nature and feared its horrific consequences: “War,” says Pindar, “is sweet to those who have no experience of it, but the experienced man trembles exceedingly at heart on its approach” (fragment 110). The Greeks thus had an ambivalent approach to war, and this troubled relationship contributed decisively to shape both the material and the ideological aspects of Greek warfare. Academic research has traditionally paid a considerable attention to the subject, but this attention has rocketed since the late 20th century, leading to a real overflow of scholarship on Greek military issues. The current article, ranging roughly from Mycenaean times to the conquest of Corinth by the Romans (c. 1400–146 BCE), tries to do justice to a longstanding academic effort to understand and reconstruct one of the most genuinely human activities.
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  5. General Overviews of Ancient Warfare
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  7. In general studies on ancient warfare it is not uncommon to present the Greek way of war as an original phenomenon, even as the foundation of a distinctively “Western” (that is, non-Asiatic) way of war (Dawson 1996). Even critics of this “Western way of war” theory concede that Greek warfare represented a new era in the organization, materialization, and interpretation of combat (Lynn 2003, Lendon 2005). The approach shown in Gabriel and Metz 1991, Lloyd 1996, Bekker-Nielsen and Hannestad 2001, Chaniotis and Ducrey 2002, Montagu 2006, Chrissanthos 2008, and de Souza 2008 is useful to illuminate aspects of the Greek experience through their comparison with other cultures and historical periods. Sabin, et al. 2007 and Campbell and Tritle 2013 offer comprehensive, detailed, and up-to-date summaries.
  8.  
  9. Bekker-Nielsen, Tønnes, and Lise Hannestad, eds. 2001. War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
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  11. Interesting collection of papers approaching ancient warfare from a cultural perspective. Illuminating and compelling contributions on Greek warfare by Catherine Morgan (symbolism), Hans van Wees (military and social status), Vincent Gabrielsen (naval warfare), Michel Austin (Seleucid Empire), and Lise Hannestad (art).
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  13. Campbell, Brian, and Lawrence A. Tritle, eds. 2013. The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  14. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. Collection of essays describing the different aspects of war in Greece and Rome. Up-to-date analysis of the most-controversial questions.
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  17. Chaniotis, Angelos, and Pierre Ducrey. 2002. Army and power in the ancient world. Stuttgart: Steiner.
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  19. Interdisciplinary collection of papers on warfare in ancient cultures, arranged as academic discussions. On Greek warfare: chapters by Pierre Ducrey (army and power), Hans van Wees (tyrants and citizen militias), Vincent Gabrielsen (response to van Wees), Angelos Chaniotis (Hellenistic garrisons), and John Ma (response to Chaniotis).
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  21. Chrissanthos, Stefan G. 2008. Warfare in the ancient world: From the Bronze Age to the fall of Rome. London: Praeger.
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  23. General account of Greek and Roman warfare in the historical period (despite the title). Introductory and accessible for general audiences. Preference for description rather than for interpretation.
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  25. Dawson, Doyne. 1996. The origins of Western warfare: Militarism and morality in the ancient world. Boulder, CO: Westview.
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  27. A theoretical approach to the origins of the main features of modern Western warfare, starting with “primitive warfare” and following with Greece and Rome. Special emphasis on the “ritualistic” aspects of Greek combat.
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  29. de Souza, Philip, ed. 2008. The ancient world at war: A global history. London: Thames & Hudson.
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  31. Wide collection of papers on ancient warfare, from Neolithic Europe to ancient South America, arranged in chronological order. On Greek warfare, chapters by Alan Peatfield (Minoan and Mycenaean warfare), Hans van Wees (Archaic and classical Greece), and David Potter (Hellenistic warfare).
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  33. Gabriel, Richard A., and Karen S. Metz. 1991. From Sumer to Rome: The military capabilities of ancient armies. Contributions in Military Studies 108. New York: Greenwood.
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  35. General overview of warfare in the ancient world, focusing on the operational limitations of ancient armies. Nicely illustrated.
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  37. Lendon, John E. 2005. Soldiers and ghosts: A history of battle in classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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  39. Interesting approach to ancient Greek and Roman combat from the point of view of culture and ideology. Emphasis on the crucial influence of the mythological or historical past (the “ghosts” of the title) to shape classical attitudes toward combat, and actual performance in it.
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  41. Lloyd, Alan B., ed. 1996. Battle in Antiquity. London: Duckworth.
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  43. Collection of papers on ancient warfare. Interesting studies devoted to Greek military by Hans van Wees (Homeric warfare), Stephen Mitchell (hoplite warfare), Daniel Ogden (homosexuality and warfare), and Alan B. Lloyd (Macedonian warfare).
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  45. Lynn, John A. 2003. Battle: A history of combat and culture. Boulder, CO: Westview.
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  47. A wide-ranging survey of battle from ancient to modern times. The chapter on Greek warfare is specifically intended to refute Victor Hanson’s theory of the “Western way of war.”
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  49. Montagu, John Drogo. 2006. Greek and Roman warfare: Battle, tactics, and trickery. London: Greenhill.
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  51. General overview of warfare in the classical period, with special emphasis on the mechanics of combat.
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  53. Sabin, Philip, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, eds. 2007. The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  55. The most detailed and comprehensive collection of papers on Greek and Roman warfare. Thorough and updated studies by top-ranking specialists, representing all the relevant topics and periods.
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  57. General Overviews of Greek Warfare
  58.  
  59. Pritchett 1971–1991, Hanson 1989, Hanson 1991, Hanson 1999, and Everson 2004 offer an approach to ancient Greek warfare from a broader and comprehensive perspective. Even though emphasizing specific periods or aspects, Hanson 1991, Rich and Shipley 1995, and van Wees 2000 try to find answers to the main problems of the field and engage in theoretical discussions about fundamental concepts, such as the etiology of war. Van Wees 2004, Rawlings 2007, and, more concisely, Rawlings 2013 represent the necessary starting point in any research on Greek warfare, but also the best introduction for a nonspecialist but curious reader.
  60.  
  61. Everson, Tim. 2004. Warfare in ancient Greece: Arms and armour from the heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great. Stroud, UK: Sutton.
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  63. General overview of Greek warfare, with special emphasis on the Archaic and classical periods. Good introduction to the relevant questions and topics.
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  65. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  67. Seminal work on the mechanics of classical Greek battle, emphasizing the experience of the average Greek hoplite. Useful and illuminating, it presents Greek warfare as an agrarian phenomenon.
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  69. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1999. The wars of the ancient Greeks. Cassell History of Warfare. London: Cassell.
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  71. General account of the history and evolution of Greek warfare, accessible for the general public.
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  73. Hanson, Victor Davis, ed. 1991. Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. London: Routledge.
  74. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Collection of papers on different aspects of the Classical Greek pitched battle, from strategy and equipment to logistics and religion. Almost exclusively focused on the figure of the hoplite, the heavy-armed infantry warrior.
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  77. Pritchett, William K. 1971–1991. The Greek state at war. 5 vols. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  79. A motley collection of studies on Greek warfare, dealing in extraordinary detail with different topics. Extensive and comprehensive use of ancient sources.
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  81. Rawlings, Louis. 2007. The ancient Greeks at war. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.
  82. DOI: 10.7228/manchester/9780719056574.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. Study on general aspects of Greek warfare, offering new and interesting insights to the main controversies of the field.
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  85. Rawlings, Louis. 2013. War and warfare in ancient Greece. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 3–28. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  86. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. Summary, with updated analysis and bibliography, of the social, political, and military dynamics of Greek warfare in the classical period.
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  89. Rich, John, and Graham Shipley, eds. 1995. War and society in the Greek world. London: Routledge.
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  91. Collection of papers connecting the military with Greek society and institutions. Emphasis on the economic aspects of warfare and its relationship with agricultural production, slavery, and democracy.
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  93. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
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  95. Thorough and illuminating monograph on Greek warfare in Archaic and classical times. Source-based approach to all relevant topics (including navies and fleets), and emphasis on reconsidering and rethinking longstanding theories and commonplaces.
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  97. van Wees, Hans, ed. 2000. War and violence in ancient Greece. London: Duckworth.
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  99. Collection of papers on violence in Greek culture, dealing with the psychology and sociology of violent behavior and its influence on attitudes toward combat and performance in it.
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  101. Bibliographies
  102.  
  103. Several bibliographical studies have been published since the late 20th century. Lonis 1985, Ducrey 1997, Raaflaub 1997, and Bettalli 2011 try, more or less thoroughly, to summarize and classify the vast academic production on ancient Greek warfare since the mid-20th century. Although with different methodology and approach, they all are excellent and critical guides into the scholarly work on the subject. Hanson 1999, Hanson 2007, and Wheeler 2011, by contrast, explore the evolution of academic research on the Greek military, emphasizing its changing interests and outlooks.
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  105. Bettalli, Marco. 2011. Guerre tra polemologi: Dodici anni di studi sulla guerra nel mondo greco antico, 1998–2009. Quaderni di Storia 73:235–308.
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  107. Detailed collection of works from the period 1998–2009, with thorough comments and discussions on the relevant questions.
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  109. Ducrey, Pierre. 1997. Aspects de l’histoire de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, 1945–1996. In Esclavage, guerre, économie en Grèce ancienne: Hommages à Yvon Garlan. Edited by Pierre Brulé and Jacques Oulhen, 123–139. Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
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  111. In French, reduced collection of the most-fundamental academic works on the field. It focuses on the seminal works that have offered new insights or approaches to Greek warfare, providing a list of the indispensable titles.
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  113. Hanson, Victor Davis 1999. The status of ancient military history: Traditional work, recent research, and on-going controversies. Journal of Military History 63.2: 379–413.
  114. DOI: 10.2307/120649Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. Detailed bibliography intended to offer a comprehensive approach to the state of the discipline of ancient military history. It concedes considerable space to Greek warfare and engages in critical comments on the merits of late-20th-century scholarship.
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  117. Hanson, Victor Davis. 2007. The modern historiography of ancient warfare. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 3–21. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  119. A restatement and updating of Hanson 1999, emphasizing theoretical issues and focusing on the prospects of current research.
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  121. Lonis, Raoul. 1985. La guerre en Grèce: Quinze années de recherche, 1968–1983. Revue des Études Grecques 98:321–379.
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  123. In French, an exhaustive list of academic works on Greek warfare, duly classified and with long and critical comments.
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  125. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 1997. Greece. In Ancient history: Recent work and new directions. Directed by Carol G. Thomas, 1–35. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  127. A general survey on the most recent bibliography on Greece. It offers sporadic comments on military works. Good introductory value.
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  129. Wheeler, Everett L. 2011. Greece: Mad hatters and March hares. In Recent directions in the military history of the ancient world. Edited by Lee L. Brice and Jennifer T. Roberts, 53–104. Publications of the Association of Ancient Historians 10. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  131. General discussion on the evolution of Greek military studies, from a critical perspective. Controversial analysis of the bibliography, but with a long and useful list of works.
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  133. Sources
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  135. Academic research on ancient Greek warfare is based on the analysis of a wide and complex array of ancient sources. Literary works, especially narrative descriptions by classical or Hellenistic historians, are still the main source in historical research, crucially revealing of attitudes, ideologies, and concepts related to the military. Unable to provide accounts or narratives, archaeology and iconography are usually treated as secondary sources, but their contribution to specific questions (such as equipment) and periods (such as Mycenaean and Archaic Greece) is invaluable.
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  137. Literary Sources
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  139. In the field of sourcebooks, Sage 1996 and Buckley 1996 devote special attention to the most relevant and influential literary fragments in order to bring the study of ancient Greek warfare back to the original voices of their protagonists and witnesses. In these works, a variable selection of commented passages from multiple sources is offered. Whatley 1964 and Whitby 2007 present a necessary reflection on the validity of ancient literary sources to offer reliable information for the reconstruction of ancient Greek warfare. More-detailed references on literary sources can be found in Warfare and Literature.
  140.  
  141. Buckley, Terry. 1996. Aspects of Greek history 750–323 BC: A source-based approach. London: Routledge.
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  143. An introductory approach to the history of the Greek city-states in the Archaic and classical periods. References to military topics are put in the broader context of Greek society and politics. Sources thoroughly commented in a comprehensive discourse.
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  145. Sage, Michael M. 1996. Warfare in ancient Greece: A sourcebook. London: Routledge.
  146. DOI: 10.4324/9780203439449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. The most comprehensive and useful work on the field. Extraordinary selection of passages with critical comments.
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  149. Whatley, Norman. 1964. On the possibility of reconstructing Marathon and other ancient battles. Journal of Hellenic Studies 84:119–139.
  150. DOI: 10.2307/627699Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. A seminal work on the reliability of ancient sources to reconstruct ancient military events. A crucial contribution to understanding the flaws and problems of modern research.
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  153. Whitby, Michael. 2007. Reconstructing ancient warfare. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 54–81. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  154. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. Critical evaluation of the problems and deficiencies of literary sources, with methodological guidance for military historians. Cautious in the use of texts for the reconstruction of ancient military events.
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  157. Iconography
  158.  
  159. Usually employed as a secondary source, iconography is meant to involve not only artistic genres such as sculpture, but also nonartistic media such as coins or inscriptions. In the scholarship on Greek warfare, especially for the Archaic and classical periods, the main iconographic source is clearly vase painting. Hannestad 2001 is a general introduction to the issue, while Best 1969, Lissarrague 1990, Cohen 2000, and Muth 2008 use a particular topic to develop general presentations of military iconography. Van Wees 2000 and Viggiano and van Wees 2013 are specific treatments of iconographic sources to illustrate the origins of Greek infantry fighting.
  160.  
  161. Best, Jan G. P. 1969. Thracian peltasts and their influence on Greek warfare. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 1. Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters-Noordhoff.
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  163. Iconographic analysis on the figure of the peltast, with broader implications in the treatment of light infantry.
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  165. Cohen, Ada. 2000. The Alexander mosaic: Stories of victory and defeat. Cambridge Studies in Classical Art and Iconography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  167. Narrative analysis of the Alexander mosaic, with references to contemporaneous history and warfare. A fine example of iconographic study.
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  169. Hannestad, Lise. 2001. War and Greek art. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 110–119. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
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  171. Introductory study to the general problems and concerns of the artistic representation of warfare in ancient Greece.
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  173. Lissarrague, François. 1990. L’autre guerrier: Archers, peltastes, cavaliers dans l’imagerie attique. Images à l’Appui 3. Paris: La Découverte.
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  175. Iconographic analysis in Archaic vase painting of “secondary” figures in Greek warfare (archers, light infantry, cavalry). General interpretation through the glass of the hoplite and the “hoplite” ideology.
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  177. Muth, Susanne. 2008. Gewalt im Bild: Das Phänomen der medialen Gewalt im Athen des 6. und 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. Image & Context 1. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  178. DOI: 10.1515/9783110211597Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Narrative analysis of violence in Late Archaic Attic vase painting, with special emphasis on violence in military contexts.
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  181. Viggiano, Gregory F., and Hans van Wees. 2013. The arms, armor, and iconography of early Greek hoplite warfare. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 57–73. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  183. Thorough reflection on the evolution of early Greek heavy infantry, on the basis of the iconographic analysis of painted scenes on Archaic vases.
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  185. van Wees, Hans. 2000. The development of the hoplite phalanx: Iconography and reality in the seventh century. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 125–166. London: Duckworth.
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  187. Iconographic study of the representation of early Greek warfare in vase paintings, contrasted with other archaeological sources.
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  189. Archaeological Evidence
  190.  
  191. The development of the discipline of “archaeology of conflict” since the late 20th century has produced a stream of publications on the topography, transformation, and use and abuse of battlefields that is being transferred to the classical studies, as summarized in James 2013. Pritchett 1965 is a pioneering work on the topography of ancient Greek battlefields that finds a modern development in Carman 1999 and Carman and Carman 2005. Foxhall 2013 presents an archaeological approach to Archaic Greek military and political developments, while Lee 2001 analyzes a specific setting in context. In this section, only scholarship on the physical environment of warfare will be presented. Further references on the archaeological analysis of Greek arms and armor can be found in Weapons.
  192.  
  193. Carman, John. 1999. Beyond the Western way of war: Ancient battlefields in comparative perspective. In Ancient warfare: Archaeological perspectives. Edited by John Carman and Anthony Harding, 39–55. Stroud, UK: Sutton.
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  195. An approach to ancient battles from the point of view of human experience. It offers interesting reflections on the configuration and use of the terrain and its impact on the outcome of the battle.
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  197. Carman, John, and Patricia Carman. 2005. Ancient bloody meadows: Classical battlefields in Greece. Journal of Conflict Archaeology 1.1: 19–44.
  198. DOI: 10.1163/157407705774928917Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Interesting application of the principles of “military geography” to classical Greek battlefields, with emphasis on the connection between human experience and geographical setting.
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  201. Foxhall, Lin. 2013. Can we see the “hoplite revolution” on the ground? Archaeological landscapes, material culture, and social status in early Greece. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 194–221. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  203. Analysis of the social and political transformation of Greece in the Archaic period, from an archaeological perspective.
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  205. James, Simon. 2013. The archaeology of war. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 91–127. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  206. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. General treatment of archaeology as a source for the reconstruction of classical warfare. Emphasis on the methodological problems and challenges.
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  209. Lee, John W. I. 2001. Urban combat at Olynthos, 348 BC. In Fields of conflict: Progress and prospect in battlefield archaeology; Proceedings of a conference held in the Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, April 2000. Edited by Philip W. Freeman and Anthony J. Pollard, 11–22. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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  211. Application of the principles of the “archaeology of conflict” to a specific case, the Macedonian capture of Olynthos. Interesting archaeological reconstruction of the military operations, in combination with literary sources.
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  213. Pritchett, W. Kendrick. 1965. Studies in ancient Greek topography: Battlefields. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  215. Topographical and geographical analysis of a selection of ancient battlefields.
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  217. Warfare and Literature
  218.  
  219. War and fighting are very prominent in the literature of classical Antiquity. This is true not only of Greek historiography, which is almost exclusively focused on describing and explaining military events, but also of other literary genres such as tragedy, comedy, and oratory that indulge from time to time in military topics. There is a common mentality underlying these literary manifestations: warfare as a male activity providing status, honor, and privileges figures prominently the Greek culture of the city-state. Each literary genre, however, had its own approach to the subject, according to its particular characteristics and interests. As a result, the Greeks had many different approaches to war, expressed in different but complementary ways. Modern research has attempted to differentiate and explore those various approaches in order to assess the role of war in Greek culture.
  220.  
  221. Homeric Warfare
  222.  
  223. Few fields in the classical studies have been so deeply transformed and reconsidered since the late 20th century as warfare in the epic poems. Any reconstruction of the military world of Homer entails first taking a stance on the historicity of the epics. Many scholars have opted for a compromise between historical information and purely literary fiction. Next, the immense amount of military details contained in the Homeric poems must be examined and assessed, trying to decide as well whether all that information is internally consistent or not. Finally, a balance must be kept between individual details and the overall picture, between the focus of narrative on individuals and the contextual presence of an anonymous mass. These are just a few of the many troubles scholarly research on Homeric warfare must face. Latacz 1977 represents the opening of a new era in the study of the subject, relying primarily on literary sources. Snodgrass 2013 offers a reappraisal of the historical context of Homeric warfare. The best descriptions and interpretations of Homeric combat are van Wees 1986, van Wees 1988, van Wees 1992, van Wees 1994, and van Wees 1996. Singor 1995 offers an elaboration of the “Homeric phalanx” theory, expanded and revised in Raaflaub 2005.
  224.  
  225. Latacz, Joachim. 1977. Kampfparänese, Kampfdarstellung und Kampfwirkichkeit in der Ilias, bei Kallinos und Tyrtaios. Zetemata 66. Munich: Beck.
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  227. Fundamental study on military exhortation in the epics and in lyric poetry, emphasizing the active role of an anonymous mass of fighters. A starting point for modern research on the subject.
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  229. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 2005. Homerische Krieger, Protohopliten und die Polis: Schritte zur Lösung alter Probleme. In Krieg, Gesellschaft, Institutionen: Beiträge zur einer vergleichenden Kriegsgeschichte. Edited by Burkhard Meissner, Oliver Schmitt, and Michael Sommer, 229–266. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
  230. DOI: 10.1524/9783050084213Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Reassessment of the mechanics of Homeric combat, recovering the idea of the proto-phalanx. Well-documented and thorough analysis of the evidence.
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  233. Singor, Henk W. 1995. Eni prôtoisi machesthai: Some remarks on the Iliadic image of the battlefield. In Homeric questions: Essays in philology, ancient history, and archaeology, including the papers of a conference organized by the Netherlands Institute at Athens (15 May 1993). Edited by Jan P. Crielaard, 183–199. Publications of the Netherlands Institute at Athens 2. Amsterdam: Gieben.
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  235. Controversial study on the mechanics of Homeric combat as a dense mass resembling the lines of the phalanx.
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  237. Snodgrass, Anthony. 2013. Setting the frame chronologically. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 85–94. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  239. A new approach to the chronological setting of Homeric warfare, in contrast to the later development of the phalanx. Interesting summary of the evidence and the main theories.
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  241. van Wees, Hans. 1986. Leaders of men? Military organisation in the Iliad. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 36.2: 285–303.
  242. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800012052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Illuminating paper on the structure of Homeric armies according to the principle of leadership and the figure of the military leaders.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. van Wees, Hans. 1988. Kings in combat: Battles and heroes in the Iliad. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 38.1: 1–24.
  246. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800031219Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Reassessment of the role and features of the Homeric heroes as military leaders commanding small and highly mobile groups of followers.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. van Wees, Hans. 1992. Status warriors: War, violence and society in Homer and history. Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 9. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Detailed survey of the figure of the hero or “aristocratic warrior” in the Homeric epics, describing his ideology, behavior, values, and motivations. Illuminating and extremely well documented.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. van Wees, Hans. 1994. The Homeric way of war: The Iliad and the hoplite phalanx (I). Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 41.1: 1–18.
  254. DOI: 10.1017/S0017383500023123Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Continued in “The Homeric Way of War: The Iliad and the Hoplite Phalanx (II),” in Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 41.2 (1994): 131–155. Sequence of two papers analyzing the mechanics of Homeric warfare (leadership, small groups, high mobility). Remarkable synthesis of van Wees’s research in the field.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. van Wees, Hans. 1996. Heroes, knights and nutters: Warrior mentality in Homer. In Battle in Antiquity. Edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 1–86. London: Duckworth.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Interesting analysis of the ideology of the Homeric hero, emphasizing social and cultural motivations to keep a balance between the ideal of bravery and the reality of the pragmatic warrior.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Archaic Lyric Poetry
  262.  
  263. The role of Archaic lyric poetry as a historical source for Early Archaic military practices has raised longstanding controversies. The fragments of soldier-poets such as Archilochus and Tyrtaeus have been said to represent a different world from that of the epics, a world where community becomes more relevant than the individual, where mobile fighting gives way to the closed ranks of the phalanx, and where the features of the city-state begin to emerge (Podlecki 1969, Arnould 1981). This picture has been questioned more recently, and another approach, emphasizing the continuities between Homer and the lyric poets in the military (individualism, open spaces, high mobility) and literary fields (Homeric traditions and topics, formulas), has been put forward, especially in Latacz 1977 and Luginbill 2002. The controversy is still open. Schwertfeger 1982 and Colesanti 1995 offer insight into the use and meaning of weapons in Archaic lyric poetry, while Donlan 1970 explores the usefulness of Archilochus as a source for Early Archaic wars.
  264.  
  265. Arnould, Dominique. 1981. Guerre et paix dans le poésie grecque: De Callinos à Pindare. Monographs in Classical Studies. New York: Arno.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Detailed survey of the role of warfare and military culture in the lyric poetry of the Archaic period, emphasizing attitudes toward war and peace.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Colesanti, Giulio. 1995. La disposizione delle armi in Alc. 140 V. Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 123:385–408.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Interesting analysis of Alcaeus fragment 140V, describing the weapons displayed on the walls of a room that Colesanti identifies as a dining room in a private house.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Donlan, Walter. 1970. Archilochus, Strabo and the Lelantine war. Transactions of the American Philological Association 101:131–142.
  274. DOI: 10.2307/2936044Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Illuminating analysis of the controversial “anti-missiles” pact of the Lelantine war in Archilochus’s fragments. Thought-provoking and compelling conclusions.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Latacz, Joachim. 1977. Kampfparänese, Kampfdarstellung und Kampfwirkichkeit in der Ilias, bei Kallinos und Tyrtaios. Zetemata 66. Munich: Beck.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Literary assessment of the military information contained in the poems of Early Archaic lyric poets such as Callinus and Tyrtaeus. Emphasis on the similarities to Homer in describing the phalanx as the main fighting system.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Luginbill, Robert D. 2002. Tyrtaeus 12 West: Come join the Spartan army. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 52.2: 405–414.
  282. DOI: 10.1093/cq/52.2.405Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Exhaustive approach to Tyrtaeus’s treatment of the military in his fragments, especially in fragment 12 West. Emphasis on the discussion of the civic dimension of Tyrtaeus’s exhortation to combat.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Podlecki, Anthony J. 1969. Three Greek soldier-poets: Archilochus, Alcaeus, Solon. Classical World 63.3: 73–80.
  286. DOI: 10.2307/4347018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Introduction to the literary and historical figures of Archilochus, Alcaeus, and Solon, emphasizing their use of military motifs in their poems.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Schwertfeger, Thomas. 1982. Der Schild des Archilochos. Chiron 12:253–280.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. A study of rhipsaspia (“throwing the shield away”) in Greek lyric poetry and Archaic culture, in the work of Archilochus and other poets. Very detailed and well-documented summary of the discussion.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Dramatic Genres
  294.  
  295. Greek tragedy dealt mainly with mythological topics, frequently involving wars and military conflicts. As a result, classical playwrights displayed a remarkable grasp of, and a special sensitivity to, the personal and collective dramas involved in the experience of warfare. In Borthwick 1970, Goldhill 1988, and Segal 1990, war is commonly the framework in which human beings must make difficult decisions and display brave (and often violent) behavior, which usually triggers the dramatic action. In contrast, war was just a secondary issue in comedy, more focused on caricaturing the daily life of the city. The special circumstances of the Peloponnesian War help explain Aristophanes’ daring incursions in the question of war and peace in some of his plays, but specific details of the military remain a subsidiary factor. As modern scholarship has tried to emphasize (Pelling 1997, Debnar 2005), both approaches reveal a growing concern about the experience of war and try to make sense of it from different perspectives.
  296.  
  297. Borthwick, E. K. 1970. Two scenes of combat in Euripides. Journal of Hellenic Studies 90:15–21.
  298. DOI: 10.2307/629750Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Philological analysis of two combat scenes in Euripides. Revealing of the research techniques employed in the study of tragedy.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Debnar, Paula. 2005. Fifth-century Athenian history and tragedy. In A companion to Greek tragedy. Edited by Justina Gregory, 3–22. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  302. DOI: 10.1002/9780470996676Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Introductory survey of the literary interaction between the genres of history and tragedy. The paper explores the similarities and differences in narrative techniques, with some references to warfare.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Goldhill, Simon. 1988. Battle narrative and politics in Aeschylus’ Persae. Journal of Hellenic Studies 108:189–193.
  306. DOI: 10.2307/632642Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Short approach to Aeschylus’s narrative techniques in the Persae, emphasizing the difficulties in reflecting a historical episode in a literary genre intended for myth and legend.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Pelling, Christopher. 1997. Aeschylus’ Persae and history. In Greek tragedy and the historian. Edited by Christopher Pelling, 1–19. Oxford: Clarendon.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Detailed analysis of Aeschylus’s Persae, describing the peculiar dramatic way to fit a historical event in the structure of tragedy. Revealing and well documented.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Segal, Charles. 1990. Violence and the other: Greek, female, and barbarian in Euripides’ Hecuba. Transactions of the American Philological Association 120:109–131.
  314. DOI: 10.2307/283981Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Only superficially connected to warfare, the paper explores the interconnections among war, barbarian violence, and gender in Euripides.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Historiography
  318.  
  319. Historiography is the Greek literary genre properly focused on, and specifically intended for, the description of military events. Wars are the leitmotiv in the extensive narratives of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Polybius (just to mention the four main representatives of the genre) and make up the context in which all other issues (political, social, economic, religious) are presented and discussed. Ancient historians tried to construct an account of events that they considered remarkable and memorable, events they often witnessed and regarded as crucial, in order to preserve them for future generations. This is how the discipline of history is inextricably linked to war since its very beginning, as discussed in Anderson 1974; Sacks 1981; Cawkwell 1997; Bakker, et al. 2002; Tritle 2006; and Rengakos and Tsakmakis 2006. Modern research (Meister 1975, Dewald 2005, Pelling 2007) has frequently attempted an exercise of metahistory to understand the way those ancient writers approached and assessed the connection between war and their own literary discipline.
  320.  
  321. Anderson, John K. 1974. Xenophon. Classical Life and Letters. London: Duckworth.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Seminal work on the figure of Xenophon as a historian and a military commander with experience in warfare.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Bakker, Egbert J., Irene J. F. de Jong, and Hans van Wees, eds. 2002. Brill’s companion to Herodotus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Collection of papers on the figure of Herodotus from different perspectives, including his literary style, his vision of the world, and his descriptions of cultures other than the Greek. Influential and fundamental for any reader.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Cawkwell, George. 1997. Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War. London: Routledge.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. General survey of Thucydides and his approach to the Peloponnesian War, his treatment of the subject, and his narrative techniques.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Dewald, Carolyn J. 2005. Thucydides’ war narrative: A structural study. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Technical analysis on the structure of Thucydides’ narrative of military events. Emphasis on literary techniques and narrative strategies.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Meister, Klaus. 1975. Historische Kritik bei Polybios. Palingenesia 9. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. General study on the work of Polybius, emphasizing his narrative technique, his methodology, and his theoretical approach to history and war.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Pelling, Christopher. 2007. De malignitate Plutarchi: Plutarch, Herodotus, and the Persian Wars. In Cultural responses to the Persian Wars: Antiquity to the third millennium. Edited by Emma Bridges, Edith Hall, and Peter J. Rhodes, 145–164. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  342. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279678.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Reassessment of the Greek literary tradition of the Persian Wars, from Herodotus to Plutarch, and the evolution and transformation of historical writing in the process.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Rengakos, Antonios, and Antonis Tsakmakis, eds. 2006. Brill’s companion to Thucydides. Brill’s Companions in Classical Studies. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Collection of papers on the figure of Thucydides, with multiple approaches to his work, style, and understanding of the world of the late 5th century BCE. Fundamental for any reader.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Sacks, Kenneth S. 1981. Polybius on the writing of history. University of California Publications, Classical Studies 24. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. An introduction to Polybius’s historical methodology, with special reference to vocabulary, narrative, and description.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Tritle, Lawrence A. 2006. Warfare in Herodotus. In The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, 209–223. Cambridge Companions to Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  354. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL052183001X.XMLSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Analysis of Herodotus’s patterns and methods for military description. An evaluation of his skills as a historian and the role of personal experience in his work.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. The Context of Greek Warfare
  358.  
  359. For a better understanding of the changing and complex nature of Greek warfare, it is necessary to analyze the political, institutional, material, and ideological contexts in which military events took place. Modern scholarship has increasingly undertaken the task of illuminating the multiple and varied aspects that constitute the framework for military operations: politics, international relations, beliefs, and mentality become crucial fields to explain how the Greeks fought and why they fought the way they did. The headings in this section summarize some of the most active and interesting fields of modern research.
  360.  
  361. Causes of War
  362.  
  363. The discussion on the etiology of Greek warfare transcended long ago the simplicity of plain pragmatism and has entered a new and promising period in which cultural and ideological considerations play a considerable role. Without undermining the value of economic explanations (e.g., war as a source of material acquisition), other arguments have been tested: Lendon 2000 presents war as a way to restore honor, to claim status, or to protect certain interests and policies. Exploring the conceptualization of the causes of war in ancient Greek literature is another paramount concern, as shown in Sealey 1957, Andrewes 1959, Momigliano 1966, and Garlan 1999. In these approaches, including van Wees 2004, war is more a cultural than a pragmatic phenomenon, a mixture of rational and irrational factors that make perfect sense in the competitive world of the Greek polis.
  364.  
  365. Andrewes, Antony. 1959. Thucydides on the causes of the war. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 9.3–4: 223–239.
  366. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800041537Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Traditional survey of Thucydides’ approach to the etiology of war. Fundamental work, with abundant literary references.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Garlan, Yvon. 1999. Les causes de la guerre chez Platon et Aristote. In La guerre en Grèce à l’époque classique. Edited by Pierre Brulé and Jacques Oulhen, 69–84. Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Interesting approach that changes historiography for philosophy as the main source for research on the etiology of war. Dense and documented.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Lendon, John E. 2000. Homeric vengeance and the outbreak of Greek wars. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 1–30. London: Duckworth.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Study connecting the patterns of personal dispute in Homer with the general mechanics of interstate conflict. Touchiness, status, and vengeance figure as key concepts in this process.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1966. Studies in historiography. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. See chapter 2 (“Some Observations on Causes of War in Ancient Historiography,” pp. 112–126), for a personal analysis on the subject.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Sealey, Raphael. 1957. Thucydides, Herodotos, and the causes of war. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 7.1–2: 1–12.
  382. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800016530Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Influential analysis of the etiology of war in the works of Thucydides and Herodotus. Similarities and differences between the two are emphasized.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. General study dealing with the causes of war on pp. 19–43, emphasizing cultural and ideological factors such as honor, status, and prestige.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Political Organization and Warfare
  390.  
  391. Warfare and political organization were closely connected to each other in ancient Greece. Both fields interacted in a long and complex process, so military institutions reflected political choices, and vice versa. Cultural approaches to warfare, however, reveal that, even allowing substantial differences in military organization and practices, all Greeks conceptualized warfare in a similar way. As a result, basic aspects such as equipment, etiology, or mentality rarely (if ever) changed from one city to another. Andrewes 1974, Singor 2000, van Wees 2002, and Anderson 2005 explore the military side of Archaic Greek tyrannies from different perspectives. Siewert 1982, on the other hand, focuses on the expansion of the military as a result of the Athenian “revolution” of the late 6th century BCE. Chaniotis 2005 and Roy 1998 develop the political and ideological conditions of the way of war of Hellenistic kingships.
  392.  
  393. Anderson, Greg. 2005. Before tyrannoi were tyrants: Rethinking a chapter of early Greek history. Classical Antiquity 24.2: 173–222.
  394. DOI: 10.1525/ca.2005.24.2.173Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. New assessment of the nature and origins of Archaic Greek tyranny, reconsidering such aspects as its aristocratic roots and the role of military force in its preservation. Illuminating and compelling.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Andrewes, Antony. 1974. The Greek tyrants. London: Hutchinson.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Exhaustive survey of the nature and history of Archaic Greek tyrannies, with reference to their origins, transformations, and characteristics. A bit outdated but still influential.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Ancient World at War. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  402. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Includes a detailed analysis of the role of Hellenistic kingship (resources, political organization, ideology) in the shaping of warfare in the period.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Roy, Jim. 1998. The masculinity of the Hellenistic king. In When men were men: Masculinity, power, and identity in classical Antiquity. Edited by Lin Foxhall and John Salmon, 111–135. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 8. London: Routledge.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Emphasis on the male values of the ideology of Hellenistic kingship and on warfare as its most representative activity.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Siewert, Peter. 1982. Die Trittyen Attikas und die Heeresreform des Kleisthenes. Vestigia 33. Munich: Beck.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Thorough analysis of the Kleisthenic reforms, with special focus on the connection between territorial and military organization. Siewert postulates that the origin and aim of the reform was to improve the structure of the Athenian army and its effectiveness.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Singor, Henk W. 2000. The military side of the Pisistratean tyranny. In Peisistratos and the tyranny: A reappraisal of the evidence. Edited by Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg, 107–129. Publications of the Netherlands Institute at Athens 3. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A study on the connection between Archaic tyrannies and military forces, focusing on the case of Peisitratos.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. van Wees, Hans. 2002. Tyrants, oligarchs and citizen militias. In Army and power in the ancient world. Edited by Angelos Chaniotis and Pierre Ducrey, 61–82. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Discussion on the connection between military force and political power in ancient Greece. Van Wees suggests that the amateurism of Greek military organization made citizen armies “rarely capable of acting as a political force” (p. 61).
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Democracy and Warfare
  422.  
  423. Democratic Athens was a leading military power during the 5th century, able to mobilize massive resources in complex and expensive campaigns. Since that level of military might was unprecedented and exceptional at that time, modern scholars have tried to investigate its relationship with the democratic regime as a potential explanation. Pritchard 2010 and Rhodes 2007 are theoretical and general approaches to the issue, while McCann and Strauss 2001 offers several contributions in comparative perspective. Studies focused on specific sections of the Athenian army and their connection to democratic values are provided in Spence 2010 (cavalry) and Ceccarelli 1993 and Strauss 1996 (the fleet).
  424.  
  425. Ceccarelli, Paola. 1993. Sans thalassocratie, pas de démocratie? Le rapport entre thalassocratie et démocratie à Athènes dans la discussion du Ve et IVe siècle av. J.-C. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 42.4: 444–470.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A detailed approach to the question of the Athenian fleet as a determining factor in the development of democracy in Athens.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. McCann, David R., and Barry S. Strauss, eds. 2001. War and democracy: A comparative study of the Korean War and the Peloponnesian War. London: Sharpe.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Collection of papers on the way democracies wage war, emphasizing the cultural and political impact on society. On Greek democracy and war, see chapters by Victor Hanson (democratic warfare), Bruce Cumings (Sparta), Gregory Crane (Plataea), Josiah Ober (Thucydides), and Kurt Raaflaub (Athenian ideology on war).
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Pritchard, David M. 2010. The symbiosis between democracy and war: The case of ancient Athens. In War, democracy and culture in classical Athens. Edited by David M. Pritchard, 1–62. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A new assessment of the relationship between democracy and fleet, with updated bibliography and discussion.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Rhodes, Peter J. 2007. Democracy and empire. In The Cambridge companion to the age of Pericles. Edited by Loren J. Samons, 24–45. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  438. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521807937Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Interesting study of the expansion of the Athenian Empire (the fleet as the main military weapon) in connection with the development of “radical” democracy.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Spence, Iain G. 2010. Cavalry, democracy and military thinking in classical Athens. In War, democracy and culture in classical Athens. Edited by David M. Pritchard, 111–138. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. An interesting analysis of the impact of democracy on Athenian citizen ideology and on the military participation of the elites, represented in the cavalry.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Strauss, Barry S. 1996. The Athenian trireme, school of democracy. In Dēmokratia: A conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Edited by Josiah Ober and Charles Hedrick, 313–326. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A study on the critical influence of the Athenian ship crews to trigger the democratic revolution of the 5th century. Emphasis on the potential of popular will and action at that time.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Imperialism
  450.  
  451. The endless competition of the Greek cities for hegemony led some communities to undertake measures and policies to dominate and rule over their neighbors. Not every hegemonic city constituted an empire of its own, but the policy of domination certainly eased the path to it. Although the dynamics of imperialism are rather evident in the classical period (Baslez 1999), only Athens is unanimously recognized as an imperial power at that time, its empire originally a defensive alliance of independent cities and not the result of military conquest (Perlman 1968, Meiggs 1972, Cargill 1981, and Raaflaub 1994). Bosworth 1988 and Billows 1995 explore Macedonian imperialism, and Finley 1999 emphasizes the connection of imperialistic tendencies with warfare and political organizations in broad terms. Garnsey and Whittaker 1978 presents different contributions to the different aspects and controversies of the issue.
  452.  
  453. Baslez, M. F. 1999. L’impérialisme grec aux Ve et IVe siècles. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.C. Edited by Francis Prost, 5–15. Paris: Errance.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. General approach to imperialistic tendencies in Greece during the classical period. Special emphasis on the cases of Sparta and Athens.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Billows, Richard A. 1995. Kings and colonists: Aspects of Macedonian imperialism. Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 22. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A presentation of imperialism in the Hellenistic period, with a particular focus on the international dynamics of the Macedonian Kingdom.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Bosworth, Albert B. 1988. Conquest and empire: The reign of Alexander the Great. Canto. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Detailed analysis of Alexander’s reign from the point of view of Greek and Macedonian imperialism in the 4th century BCE.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Cargill, Jack R. 1981. The Second Athenian League: Empire or free alliance? Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Heavily documented survey on the Second Athenian League, intended to contrast it with the first league of the 5th century. Critical analysis of its origins and causes, and of the role of imperialistic tendencies in its establishment.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Finley, Moses I. 1999. La guerre et l’empire. In La guerre en Grèce à l’époque classique. Edited by Pierre Brulé and Jacques Oulhen, 85–105. Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Translated from the original in German published in Historische Zeitschrift 239 (1984): 265–308. Study of the establishment and preservation of imperial structures in Greece and Rome, with special attention to the role of military forces and frequent warfare.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Garnsey, Peter D. A., and Charles R. Whittaker, eds. 1978. Imperialism in the ancient world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Collection of papers on imperialism in ancient cultures. For contributions on the Greek world, see chapters by Antony Andrewes (Sparta), Moses Finley (5th-century Athens), G. T. Griffith (4th-century Athens), and Jack Briscoe (the Antigonids).
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Meiggs, Russell. 1972. The Athenian Empire. Oxford: Clarendon.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Fundamental study on the nature, institutions, and historical evolution of the Athenian Empire, with reference to the etiology of Athenian imperialistic tendencies. The book reassesses the literary evidence on the subject.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Perlman, Shalom. 1968. Athenian democracy and the revival of imperialistic expansion at the beginning of the fourth century BC. Classical Philology 63.4: 257–267.
  482. DOI: 10.1086/365410Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Critical evaluation of the power of Athenian democratic institutions to trigger and preserve territorial aspirations. Analysis of the situation during the second Athenian imperial experience.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 1994. Democracy, power and imperialism in fifth-century Athens. In Athenian political thought and the reconstruction of American democracy. Edited by J. P. Euben, John R. Wallach, and Josiah Ober, 103–146. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. New reassessment of the connection between Athenian democracy and military activity. The structure of Athenian decision making, with the mass of the demos playing a crucial role, is presented as a relevant factor in Athenian imperialistic drive.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Diplomacy and Interstate Relations
  490.  
  491. Even in the powder keg of touchy city-states that was Greece, war was not always an automatic and primary resort in interstate relations. The tradition of aristocratic bonds between communities offered a first opportunity for mediation and negotiation, which was expanded with the introduction of official diplomats in the classical period (Raaflaub 1997). The historical accounts of Herodotus and Thucydides are completely riddled with embassies and delegates that visit foreign cities, deliver official messages, or inquire about certain issues. Diplomacy was thus a common activity in ancient Greece, as shown in Adcock and Mosley 1975 and Karavites 1982. The problem is that it usually served to spread and defend the interests and policies of a given community, and not to negotiate moderate attitudes to avoid conflict. The complexities of classical and Hellenistic interstate relations have been studied in detail by modern scholars, paying special attention to diplomacy as a sophisticated attempt to regulate the impact of war through the establishment of leagues and alliances of different kinds (Snodgrass 1986, Baltrusch 1994, Ager 1997, Giovannini 2007).
  492.  
  493. Adcock, Frank E., and D. J. Mosley. 1975. Diplomacy in ancient Greece. London: Thames & Hudson.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. General survey of the subject. Fundamental literary references and broad approach to historical periods.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Ager, Sheila L. 1997. Interstate arbitrations in the Greek world, 337–90 B.C. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Thorough analysis of the phenomenon of arbitration, with exhaustive ancient support. Updated bibliography and commentary.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Baltrusch, Ernst. 1994. Symmachie und Spondai: Untersuchungen zum griechischen Völkerrecht der archaischen und klassischen Zeit (8.–5. Jahrhundert v. Chr.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
  502. DOI: 10.1515/9783110901740Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Extremely full and detailed evaluation of alliances and leagues of Greek cities during the classical period, with an appendix of particular cases.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Giovannini, Adalberto. 2007. Les Relations entre états dans la Grèce antique: Du temps d’Homère à l’intervention romaine (ca. 700–200 av. J.C.). Stuttgart: Steiner.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Review of the principles and practices governing international relations in ancient Greece.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Karavites, Panayiotis. 1982. Capitulations and Greek interstate relations: The reflection of humanistic ideals in political events. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
  510. DOI: 10.13109/9783666251689Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Analysis of the dynamics of interstate diplomacy, focusing on the idea of domination. Capitulation becomes a way to assert an international hierarchy of cities.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 1997. Politics and interstate relations in the world of early Greek poleis: Homer and beyond. Antichthon 31:1–27.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Survey of interstate interaction in early Greece, from literary models in Homer to historical examples in the Archaic period.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Snodgrass, Anthony. 1986. Interaction by design: The Greek city-state. In Peer polity interaction and socio-political change. Edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, 47–58. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Theoretical approach to Greek interstate relations from the point of view of cultural politics. Emphasis on the dynamics of interaction between peer communities with similar status.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Truces and Peace
  522.  
  523. Overexposed to war in our sources, modern scholarship has tended to neglect the question of peace and peacemaking in ancient Greece. Several early works (e.g., Romilly 1968, Fernández Nieto 1975) offer a general approach to the issue, while Brodersen 1991 and Lämmer 1982–1983 focus on the notion of the “sacred truce.” Raaflaub 2007 and Raaflaub 2009 present the most recent and comprehensive analysis of the concept and practice of peace, particularly in the classical period.
  524.  
  525. Brodersen, Kai. 1991. Heiliger Krieg und Heiliger Friede in der frühen griechischen Geschichte. Gymnasium 98:1–16.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. A general discussion on the question of sacred truces (and sacred wars) from the point of view of the interaction between religion and politics.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Fernández Nieto, Francisco Javier. 1975. Los acuerdos bélicos en la antigua Grecia. Monografías de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela 30. Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Introductory treatment of peace agreements in the classical period, with special focus on the elaboration and content of the treaties themselves.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Lämmer, Manfred. 1982–1983. Der sogennante Olympische Friede in der griechischen Antike. Stadion 8–9:47–83.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. A survey on the role and development of the Olympic truce from its origins and across the different periods of Greek history.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 2009. Conceptualizing and theorizing peace in ancient Greece. Transactions of the American Philological Association 139.2: 225–250.
  538. DOI: 10.1353/apa.0.0034Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A theoretical and conceptual approach to peace in Greek literary sources, emphasizing the different meanings and uses of the concept according to the different contexts and periods.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Romilly, Jacqueline de. 1968. Guerre et paix entre cités. In Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne. Edited by Jean-Pierre Vernant, 207–220. Civilisations et Sociétés 11. Paris: Mouton.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. General overview o the issue, with references from the classical period.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. 2007. War and peace in the ancient world. Ancient World—Comparative Histories. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  546. DOI: 10.1002/9780470774083Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Collection of papers on the issue. On Greece, see the contributions by Lawrence Tritle (political discourse and comedy in the Peloponnesian War), David Konstan (elaborations of peace in Euripides), and Victor Alonso (international relations in the classical period).
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Religion
  550.  
  551. Religion and beliefs played a major role in the daily life of Greek communities. Warfare, a crucial activity for the stability of the political and social system, also included religious practices intending to approve, support, and sanction the many decisions and actions of combat, as shown in Pritchett 1971–1979, Lonis 1979, Jost 1999, Jacquemin 2000, and Chaniotis 2005. Modern studies have focused on the public and communal aspect of those practices, much easier to reconstruct in our sources, and have emphasized the role of religion in keeping an army as a united and motivated body (Jackson 1991, Parker 2000). Relevant as well are the academic discussions about the “religious scruples” of the Greeks, revealing a permanent tension between reason and superstition in ancient Greek military practices (Goodman and Holladay 1986).
  552.  
  553. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Oxford: Blackwell.
  554. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Provides constant references to the impact of religion in Hellenistic warfare throughout the book, but especially on pp. 143–165. Fundamental and with valuable suggestions for further reading.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Goodman, Martin D., and Alfred J. Holladay. 1986. Religious scruples in ancient warfare. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 36.1: 151–171.
  558. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800010612Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Short study with literary references and comments. A reaffirmation of the impact of religious practices in combat, as a response to Moses Finley’s criticism on the subject.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Jackson, Alistar. 1991. Hoplites and gods. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 227–252. London: Routledge.
  562. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Detailed survey of the attributions of the Greek gods associated with war and fighting. Good and exhaustive literary references.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Jacquemin, Anne. 2000. Guerre et religion dans le monde grec (490–322 av. J.-C.). Paris: Sedes.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Broad analysis of the interaction between warfare and religion in classical Greece. It intends to recover the daily experience of the common citizen in a Greek state, emphasizing the diversity of cults, rituals, and practices at hand.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Jost, Madeleine. 1999. Guerre et religion. In Guerres et sociétés dans les mondes grecs à l’époque classique: Colloque de la SOPHAU, Dijon, 26, 27 et 28 mars 1999. By Société des Professeurs d’Histoire Ancienne des Universités, 129–139. Pallas 51. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. An approach to the phenomenon of religion in military context, trying to connect it with the general religious experience. Good introductory value.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Lonis, Raoul. 1979. Guerre et religion en Grèce à l’époque classique: Recherches sur les rites, les dieux, l’idéologie de la victoire. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Fundamental survey on the subject. General approach with good literary references and adequate treatment of the role of religion in campaign.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Parker, Robert. 2000. Sacrifice and battle. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 299–314. London: Duckworth.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Analysis of the contexts, practices, and role of sacrifice in Greek land combat, by a specialist in Greek religion. A new affirmation of the crucial role of religious practices in Greek warfare.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Pritchett, William K. 1971–1979. The Greek state at war. 3 vols. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Pritchett’s Vol. 3 (1979) addresses the diverse aspects of Greek religion connected to warfare in considerable depth and with abundant references to ancient sources. Vol. 1 (1971) deals with some elements, such as sacrifice and festivals, on pp. 105–126.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Ideology
  586.  
  587. The Greeks did not fight in a vacuum. They fought according to certain practices, following certain protocols, to protect certain interests and policies. Powerful ideological motivations underlay all those fields (Hanson 1991). Ideology entails the active participation of social conventions, political and economic interests, morality, and prejudices in the different activities of war. It specifically means that war was not guided by logic and reason, as shown in Connor 1988 and Morgan 2001. Van Wees 1992 emphasizes the ideology of the aristocratic warrior and the heavy-armed infantryman of classical times, but efforts to connect these cases with the general mentality of a given community as a whole have also been attempted (van Wees 1995, Hanson 1996, Raaflaub 2001, Cartledge 2013). Roy 1998 deals with the ideological background of the Hellenistic kings.
  588.  
  589. Cartledge, Paul. 2013. Hoplitai/politai: Refighting ancient battles. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 74–84. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. A reassessment of the coincidence of military and political considerations in Greek warfare, and the impact of citizen ideology on the military practices of Archaic and classical Greek armies.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Connor, Walter R. 1988. Early Greek land warfare as symbolic expression. Past & Present 119:3–29.
  594. DOI: 10.1093/past/119.1.3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Theoretical study intending to emphasize the symbolic aspect of combat in Greece, and asserting the ritualistic nature of Greek combat.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1991. Ideology of hoplite battle. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 3–12. London: Routledge.
  598. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Influential analysis of Greek combat as the result of an agricultural “agenda” by the middle-class farmers who fought in the phalanx.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1996. Hoplites into democrats: The changing ideology of Athenian infantry. In Dēmokratia: A conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Edited by Josiah Ober and Charles Hedrick, 289–312. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Analysis of the nature of Athenian hoplite infantry as middle-class soldiers and its disintegration in the process of radical democratization in Athens.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Morgan, Catherine. 2001. Symbolic and pragmatic aspects of warfare in the Greek world of the 8th to 6th centuries BC. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 20–44. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Theoretical approach to the symbolism of Greek military practices in their origins of the Early Archaic period.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 2001. Father of all, destroyer of all: War in late fifth-century Athenian discourse and ideology. In War and democracy: A comparative study of the Korean War and the Peloponnesian War. Edited by David McCann and Barry S. Strauss, 307–356. London: Sharpe.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Interesting survey of the ideological role of warfare in the Greek city, as the expression of the values and interests of its ruling class.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Roy, Jim. 1998. The masculinity of the Hellenistic king. In When men were men: Masculinity, power, and identity in classical Antiquity. Edited by Lin Foxhall and John Salmon, 111–135. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 8. London: Routledge.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. An analysis of Hellenistic military ideology from the point of view of the figure of the king and his reliance on a set of male values.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. van Wees, Hans. 1992. Status warriors: War, violence and society in Homer and history. Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology 9. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Fundamental analysis of the aristocratic ideology of the Homeric heroes as “status warriors.” Thorough and heavily documented.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. van Wees, Hans. 1995. Politics and the battlefield: Ideology in Greek warfare. In The Greek world. Edited by Anton Powell, 153–178. London: Routledge.
  622. DOI: 10.4324/9780203269206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. New approach to the ideological framework of Greek warfare, expressing the interests, aims, and attitudes of a narrow elite of citizen-soldiers. Influential and compelling.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Greek Warfare
  626.  
  627. The complexities of the material practice of combat (that is, how did the Greeks fight) have traditionally received paramount attention by specialists. This interest is duly justified, because a better understanding of the mechanics of combat can be of great value to appreciate its ideological and symbolic relevance. Despite longstanding attempts to present Greek combat as a simple and straightforward clash of infantry forces, modern scholarship is permanently revealing new aspects of battle that underline its complex and changing nature. Early-21st-century academic work in the field has led to the conclusion that there was not one “Greek way of fighting” but multiple responses, traditions, and practices operating in a long period over varying territories.
  628.  
  629. The Dynamics of Greek Combat
  630.  
  631. John Keegan’s The Face of Battle inaugurated a new interest in the analysis of the dynamics of ancient hand-to-hand combat and the experience of the average ancient Greek warrior. Hanson 1989 transferred Keegan’s style and methodology to ancient Greece with considerable success. Before that, scholarship had engaged with broad descriptions of combat (Cartledge 1977). Detailed and complementary accounts of the different stages and situations of Greek fighting, particularly focused on pitched battles of the classical period, can be found in Lazenby 1991, Mitchell 1996, van Wees 2004, Krentz 2013, Tritle 2013, and Raaflaub 2014. Rawlings 2000 explores the experiences and dynamics outside the pitched battle.
  632.  
  633. Cartledge, Paul. 1977. Hoplites and heroes: Sparta’s contribution to the technique of ancient warfare. Journal of Hellenic Studies 97:11–27.
  634. DOI: 10.2307/631018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. An introductory study on the dynamics of Greek warfare, with special reference to the evolution and transformation of the Spartan army.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Thorough analysis of the different aspects of Greek warfare, emphasizing its amateurism and agrarian nature. Interesting both for students and specialists.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Krentz, Peter. 2013. Hoplite hell: How hoplites fought. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 134–156. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Summary of the issue by a specialist in the field. Interesting approach, updated discussion, and good analysis of the many controversial aspects of Greek combat.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Lazenby, John F. 1991. The killing zone. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 87–109. London: Routledge.
  646. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Detailed analysis of the dynamics of Greek infantry combat, focusing on the “killing zone,” the narrow area where the fronts of both armies collide.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Mitchell, Stephen. 1996. Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. In Battle in Antiquity. Edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 87–107. London: Duckworth.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. A military and political description of “hoplite” warfare, with special reference to its ideological implications for the development of the Greek polis.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 2014. War and the city: The brutality of war and its impact on the community. In Combat trauma and the ancient Greeks. Edited by Peter Meineck and David Konstan, 15–46. New Antiquity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. An analysis of Greek combat from the point of view of the sufferings and sacrifices of Greek communities.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Rawlings, Louis. 2000. Alternate agonies: Hoplite martial and combat experiences beyond the phalanx. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 233–260. London: Duckworth.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Interesting study of the experience of Greek heavy infantry in theaters and contexts other than the pitched battle.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Tritle, Lawrence A. 2013. Men at war. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 279–293. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  662. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. Summary of the dynamics and development of Greek infantry fighting in the Archaic and classical periods.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. The most complete and detailed monograph on the subject, with thorough analysis of primary sources.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. The Othismos
  670.  
  671. Few aspects of Greek combat have raised greater attention than the othismos the alleged pushing or shoving of the ranks of the phalanx. Since this action was compared to the scrimmage in a rugby game at the beginning of the 20th century, scholars have tried with conflicting arguments to establish its real nature, whether a proper pushing contest between the opposing phalanxes or a metaphorical expression in the sources to describe the fray. The debate, which compromises fundamental questions such as the density of the ranks or the duration of battles, was reopened in Holladay 1982 and Cawkwell 1989 and found a response in Krentz 1985, Krentz 1994, and Luginbill 1994. Hanson 1989 incorporates the issue in the author’s general presentation of Greek infantry fighting and ideology. Goldsworthy 1997, van Wees 2004, and Matthew 2009 offer comprehensive approaches to the question.
  672.  
  673. Cawkwell, George L. 1989. Orthodoxy and hoplites. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 39.2: 375–389.
  674. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800037447Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. A discussion on the “orthodoxy” of Greek othismos as a real pushing between closed ranks of heavy infantry.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Goldsworthy, Adrian K. 1997. The othismos, myths and heresies: The nature of hoplite battle. War in History 4.1: 1–26.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Balanced presentation of the academic discussion on the othismos, with a detailed analysis of the different arguments on both sides.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Hanson, Victor D. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. General study on the dynamics of Greek combat, incorporating the othismos to the author’s view of agrarian ideology and practices (on pp. 28, 154–159, and 174–175).
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Holladay, Alfred J. 1982. Hoplites and heresies. Journal of Hellenic Studies 102:94–103.
  686. DOI: 10.2307/631128Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. A summary of the main arguments in defense of the “orthodoxy” (the othismos as a real pushing between phalanxes). A discussion is on pp. 94–97.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Krentz, Peter. 1985. The nature of hoplite battle. Classical Antiquity 4.1: 50–61.
  690. DOI: 10.2307/25010823Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Brief but influential study on some controversial aspects of Greek infantry fighting (duration of battles, density of the phalanx, interaction between weapons and formation), a response to Holladay 1982.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Krentz, Peter. 1994. Continuing the othismos on othismos. Ancient History Bulletin 8.2: 45–49.
  694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. A summary of the “heretic” approach to the othismos, with detailed arguments.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Luginbill, Robert D. 1994. Othismos: The importance of the mass-shove in hoplite warfare. Phoenix 48.1: 51–61.
  698. DOI: 10.2307/1192506Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. A restatement of the “orthodoxy,” with further arguments and a revision of the controversial aspects of the discussion.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Matthew, Christopher A. 2009. When push comes to shove: What was the othismos of hoplite combat? Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 58.4: 395–415.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Early-21st-century treatment of the issue, with updated bibliography and discussion.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. Detailed monograph on Greek warfare, with a balanced and critical approach to the othismos on pp. 188–191.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Rules and Rituals
  710.  
  711. The extent to which Greek combat was affected by formal rules and protocols limiting military actions is the subject of lively academic discussion. It seems out of the question that Greek combat materialized in a specific set of practices, and that Greek commanders and soldiers had a certain idea of what was legitimate to do or not (Connor 1988, Shipley 1993). It has been suggested that these practices, working as a framework for military action, turned into unbreakable norms governing war. This last view has led to a sort of “ritualistic” approach, considering military practices as “protocols” and “rituals” and presenting warfare as a chivalrous activity following a strict “etiquette.” Paramount examples are Hanson 1989, Hanson 2000, Ober 1991, and Ober 1994. As a response, Krentz 2000, Krentz 2002, Hesk 2000, Dayton 2006, and Sheldon 2012 emphasize the fact that Greek warfare always remained a violent and grim business, governed by treachery and deceit. Tompkins 2013 presents a balanced summary of the question.
  712.  
  713. Connor, Walter R. 1988. Early Greek land warfare as symbolic expression. Past & Present 119:3–29.
  714. DOI: 10.1093/past/119.1.3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. A defense of the “ritualism” of Greek warfare, on the basis of the notion of its symbolic nature. Good introductory value to the topic.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Dayton, John C. 2006. The athletes of war: An evaluation of the agonistic elements in Greek warfare. Toronto: Edgar Kent.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. Comprehensive discussion on the “agonistic” nature of Greek warfare within the context of the culture of the city-state. A fundamental work on the subject.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. An influential affirmation of the “ritualistic” theory, extensively argued and documented. Hanson connects “ritualism” with the agrarian nature of the city-state.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Hanson, Victor Davis. 2000. Hoplite battle as ancient Greek warfare: When, where and why? In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 201–232. London: Duckworth.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Comprehensive synthesis of Hanson’s approach to Greek warfare as a set of longstanding protocols. A good introduction to the “ritualistic” theory.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Hesk, Jon. 2000. Deception and democracy in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  730. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511483028Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. A general evaluation of deception in democratic Athens, with a cursory treatment of military deceit on pp. 85–142.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Krentz, Peter. 2000. Deception in archaic and classical Greek warfare. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 167–200. London: Duckworth.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. A fundamental study on military deceit in Greek warfare. The most comprehensive response (together with Krentz 2002) to the “ritualistic” view.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Krentz, Peter. 2002. Fighting by the rules: The invention of the hoplite agôn. Hesperia 71.1: 23–39.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Thorough and well-documented refutation of the “ritualistic” view. Emphasis on deception, trickery, and stratagems in Greek warfare.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Ober, Josiah. 1991. Hoplites and obstacles. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 173–196. London: Routledge.
  742. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Discussion on the geographical “paradox” of Greek warfare (emphasis on battles on flat terrain in a mountainous country). Emphasis on the use of light troops and the effectiveness of fortresses.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Ober, Josiah. 1994. The rules of war in classical Greece. In The laws of war: Constraints of warfare in the Western world. Edited by Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos and Mark R. Shulman, 12–26. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. A new synthesis of the “ritualistic” approach, defining a set of “rules” in Greek warfare.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Sheldon, Rose Mary. 2012. Ambush: Surprise attack in ancient Greek warfare. London: Frontline.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Evaluation of the role of surprise in Greek warfare, by a military professional.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Shipley, Graham. 1993. Introduction: The limits of war. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 1–24. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. Introductory discussion on the extent of “ritualism” in Greek warfare. Affirmation of the existence of protocols, but trying to contextualize them in the culture of the polis.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Tompkins, Daniel P. 2013. Greek rituals of war. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 527–541. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  758. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. Balanced presentation of the discussion on protocols in Greek warfare, with an analysis of the different arguments and perspectives.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Psychology of Greek Combat
  762.  
  763. Another field inaugurated by John Keegan’s The Face of Battle is the study of the experience of combat and its psychological impact on common soldiers. Again, this was successfully transferred to classical Greek warfare in Hanson 1989, which graphically describes the horrific experience of Greek hoplites packed in the ranks of the phalanx. An active academic line of research has developed from that. Shay 1995 and Tritle 2000 present a comparative perspective between ancient and modern experience in combat, while Crowley 2012 explores the Athenian model. Meineck and Konstan 2014 represents the current state of the debate.
  764.  
  765. Crowley, Jason. 2012. The psychology of the Athenian hoplite: The culture of combat in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  766. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139105767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Interesting study on the motivations of Greek (Athenian) citizens to fight. Emphasis on social and ideological factors.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Influential presentation of the experience of Greek infantry fighters in battle, focusing on the relationship between emotional responses and military performance.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Meineck, Peter, and David Konstan, eds. 2014. Combat trauma and the ancient Greeks. New Antiquity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Collection of papers on the emotional response to combat, covering different approaches, case studies, and methodologies.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Shay, Jonathan. 1995. Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. Influential study of the psychology of combat from a comparative perspective, contrasting modern (Vietnam) and ancient (classical Greek) warfare.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Tritle, Lawrence A. 2000. From Melos to My Lai: War and survival. London: Routledge.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. An expansion of the comparative approach presented in Shay 1995, surveying how ancient Greeks coped with the experience of violence.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Generalship
  786.  
  787. The proverbial amateurism of Greek armies has traditionally obscured the role of military commanders, who were high-class citizens appointed as generals for short periods or even for specific campaigns (Lengauer 1979). Equally amateurs, Greek commanders for a long time have been thought to have lacked proper military training or tactical skills, an approach that makes full sense only in addition to a “ritualized” notion of fighting. The evolution and transformation of the academic approach to Greek warfare since the late 20th century have restored the figure of the military commander and its centrality in combat; generalship is connected with the martial and ethical values of the city, and it is sometimes depicted as an activity in a permanent process of professionalization, from the “leaders of men” of the Homeric poems (van Wees 1986, van Wees 1988), to Alexander and the condottieri of the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE (Roisman 1993, Boëldieu-Trevet 1997, Étienne 1999, Beston 2000, Moore 2013). Now it is accepted that Greek generalship entailed much more than deploying the troops on the field, as claimed in Wheeler 1991 and Hutchinson 2000, and that it had a crucial political side (aristocrats struggling for prestige and power in the city), as emphasized in Hamel 1998.
  788.  
  789. Beston, Paul. 2000. Hellenistic military leadership. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 315–335. London: Duckworth.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. Study on the transformation of generalship and command in the Hellenistic period, emphasizing the role of charismatic leadership.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Boëldieu-Trevet, Jeannine. 1997. Brasidas: La naissance de l’art du commandement. In Esclavage, guerre, économie en Grèce ancienne: Hommages á Yvon Garlan. Edited by Pierre Brulé and Jacques Oulhen, 147–158. Rennes, France: Presses Univ. de Rennes.
  794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. New affirmation of the late professionalization of Greek generalship, evaluating the figure of Brasidas. Well documented, it downplays the need of commanding skills in previous periods.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Étienne, Roland. 1999. Jason de Phères et Philippe II: Stratégies de deux condottieri. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.–C. Edited by Francis Prost, 276–286. Paris: Errance.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. Evaluation of 4th-century generalship through the figures of Philip of Macedon and Jason of Pherae. New affirmation of the late professionalization of Greek generalship.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Hamel, Debra. 1998. Athenian generals: Military authority in the classical period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. A seminal work on Athenian generalship (origins, duties, powers), with special attention to the nature of the Athenian commanders as citizens with political interests.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Hutchinson, Godfrey. 2000. Xenophon and the art of command. London: Greenhill.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. A survey on classical Greek generalship through the eyes of Xenophon. Interesting emphasis on the role of literary sources in building stereotypes of the commander.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Lengauer, Włodzimierz. 1979. Greek commanders in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.: Politics and ideology; A study of militarism. Studia Antiqua 2. Warsaw, Poland: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811. Good introductory work to the sociology and ideology of Greek generalship.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Moore, Rosemary. 2013. Generalship: Leadership and command. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 457–473. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  814. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. Early-21st-century assessment of the issue, with updated bibliography and discussions.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Roisman, Joseph. 1993. The general Demosthenes and his use of military surprise. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  818. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  819. Interesting work on the figure of Demosthenes, evaluating his command skills and emphasizing his use of “unorthodox” tactics to achieve victory. Revealing and compelling.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. van Wees, Hans. 1986. Leaders of men? Military organisation in the Iliad. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 36.2: 285–303.
  822. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800012052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. Illuminating paper on the structure of Homeric armies according to the principle of leadership and the figure of the military leaders.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. van Wees, Hans. 1988. Kings in combat: Battles and heroes in the Iliad. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 38.1: 1–24.
  826. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800031219Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. Reassessment of the role and features of the Homeric heroes as military leaders commanding small and highly mobile groups of followers.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Wheeler, Everett L. 1991. The general as hoplite. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 121–172. London: Routledge.
  830. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  831. A general survey of the obscure and controversial aspects of Greek military command, with special reference to its origins and historical evolution during the Archaic period. Good assessment of the duties and responsibilities of commanders on the field.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Intelligence
  834.  
  835. The amateurism of Greek warfare has again played against an interesting line of research. Literary sources assume from time to time that commanders and communities had or collected information about the plans and movements of the enemy, but they rarely care to explain in detail how. More-technical literature indulges in descriptions of scouts and guards accompanying the armies, but the overall picture is still a matter of careful and complex reconstruction. Russell 1999 provides the most comprehensive account on the subject (a more succinct and updated version in Russell 2013), while Richmond 1998, Sheldon 1988, and Petrocelli 2011 present general overviews. Losada 1972, Starr 1974, Gerolymatos 1986, and Lewis 1996 connect military intelligence and the political circumstances of the Greek poleis. Particular cases are provided in Engels 1980 (Alexander) and Fichtner 1994 (Peloponnesian War). Sheldon 2003 is a useful tool for further research on the subject.
  836.  
  837. Engels, Donald. 1980. Alexander’s intelligence system. Classical Quarterly, n.s. 30.2: 327–340.
  838. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800042270Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  839. Introductory study on military intelligence in the army of Alexander, presenting the main aspects of the question.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Fichtner, David P. 1994. Intelligence assessment in the Peloponnesian War. Studies in Intelligence 38.3: 59–64.
  842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  843. Brief survey on the gathering and evaluation of information in the classical period. Good introductory value.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Gerolymatos, André. 1986. Espionage and treason: A study of the proxenia in political and military intelligence gathering in classical Greece. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847. A study of intelligence in the context of political conflict in the city-states, emphasizing the role of elite activities and agendas in the transmission of information.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Lewis, Sian. 1996. News and society in the Greek polis. London: Duckworth.
  850. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851. General approach to information gathering and transmission in the world of the classical polis, and their impact on society.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Losada, Luis A. 1972. The fifth column in the Peloponnesian War. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. Interesting study on political rivalries and conflicts in the Greek polis, emphasizing the emergence of factions willing to negotiate with and pass information on to a potential enemy in the context of internal political turmoil.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Petrocelli, Corrado. 2011. Parole e armi: Esempi di comunicazione e di “intelligence” nel mondo antico. In Scritti di storia per Mario Pani. Edited by Silvana Cagnazzi, Marcella Chelotti, and Andrea Favuzzi, 385–394. Documenti e Studi 48. Bari, Italy: Edipuglia.
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Succinct presentation of information gathering in the ancient world, from a general perspective.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Richmond, John A. 1998. Spies in ancient Greece. Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 45.1: 1–18.
  862. DOI: 10.1093/gr/45.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863. Interesting study on the role of espionage in the transmission of military and political information.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Russell, Frank S. 1999. Information gathering in classical Greece. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. The most complete and thorough analysis of the subject, covering the different aspects (agents, strategies, policies) with an extensive use of primary sources.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Russell, Frank S. 2013. Finding the enemy: Military intelligence. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 474–492. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  870. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871. A summary of the military aspect of information gathering both in Greece and Rome, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Sheldon, Rose Mary. 1988. Tradecraft in ancient Greece. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 2.2: 189–202.
  874. DOI: 10.1080/08850608808435059Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875. An introductory presentation of the practices of information gathering in Greece, emphasizing the technical aspects of the issue.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Sheldon, Rose Mary. 2003. Espionage in the ancient world: An annotated bibliography of books and articles in Western languages. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. A comprehensive list of works on intelligence and espionage, with relevant and critical comments.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Starr, Chester G. 1974. Political intelligence in classical Greece. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883. A fundamental study on information gathering and transmission in the world of the classical polis, with special emphasis on the context of political conflict inside the city.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Strategy
  886.  
  887. Presentations of the principles and patterns of Greek strategy can be found in most of the general textbooks on Greek warfare (see General Overviews of Greek Warfare). No systematic work on the issue, however, has been produced so far, and we rely on studies on specific periods or contexts, such as Gabbert 1983 for Hellenistic warfare and Holladay 1978 and Krentz 1997 for the so-called Periclean strategy of Athens in the Peloponnesian War. Anderson 1970 and Hanson 1989 provide general approaches to the principles of Greek strategy in the world of the polis, while Hanson 2010 offers interesting summaries of the main controversies of the field.
  888.  
  889. Anderson, John K. 1970. Military theory and practice in the age of Xenophon. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Extensive and well-documented review of the principles of Greek strategy, applied to specific cases and campaigns, during the 4th century BCE.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Gabbert, Janice J. 1983. The grand strategy of Antigonos II Gonatas and the Chremonidean War. Ancient World 8.3–4: 129–136.
  894. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  895. A brief presentation of a specific case study in Hellenistic warfare, with interesting and relevant applications to the whole period.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899. General discussion on the simple nature of Greek battle, arguing a minority role for strategic issues in the planning and execution of military campaigns. Presents Greek strategy as the result of agrarian factors.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Hanson, Victor Davis, ed. 2010. Makers of ancient strategy: From the Persian Wars to the fall of Rome. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  903. Collection of papers on different aspects of ancient Greek strategy. See especially the papers by Tom Holland (Greco-Persian Wars), Donald Kagan (Periclean strategy), David Berkey (fortifications), Hanson (Epaminondas), Ian Worthington (Alexander the Great), and John Lee (urban warfare).
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Holladay, Alfred J. 1978. Athenian strategy in the Archidamian War. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 27.3: 399–427.
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907. A general evaluation of the so-called Periclean strategy of Athens in the first phase of the Peloponnesian War in contrast with the “traditional” Greek land strategy of the pitched battle.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Krentz, Peter. 1997. The strategic culture of Periclean Athens. In Polis and polemos: Essays on politics, war, and history in ancient Greece, in honor of Donald Kagan. Edited by Charles D. Hamilton and Peter Krentz, 55–72. Claremont, CA: Regina.
  910. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. New evaluation of the Athenian strategy during the Peloponnesian War, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Tactics
  914.  
  915. Greek battles are commonly regarded as simple and straightforward clashes of masses of infantrymen (see Hanson 1989). The longstanding emphasis on Greek military amateurism lies behind that approach. Commanding armies, however (especially the vast and complex armies of Greek citizens mobilized by the classical city-states, or the multiethnic armies of the Hellenistic kingdoms), entailed much more than a couple of choices regarding terrain, as shown in Anderson 1970, Wheeler 1988, Krentz and Wheeler 1994, and Krentz 2000. More-recent studies on the subject, such as Wheeler 2007 and Echeverría 2011, emphasize that tactics were an extension of political and cultural interests, values, and preconceptions, so an adequate understanding of the world of the political system (the polis in this case) is required for a correct assessment of military campaigns.
  916.  
  917. Anderson, John K. 1970. Military theory and practice in the age of Xenophon. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919. Extensive and well-documented review of the principles of tactics during the 4th century BCE, with a detailed treatment of specific campaigns.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Echeverría, Fernando. 2011. Taktikè technè. The neglected element in classical “hoplite” battles. Ancient Society 41:45–82.
  922. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. A general assessment of the tactical side of classical Greek battles, emphasizing the ideology of the polis as the foundation of military tactics.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war. Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  926. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  927. General discussion on the nature of Greek warfare. It emphasizes Greek tactical simplicity and amateurism.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Krentz, Peter. 2000. Deception in archaic and classical Greek warfare. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 167–200. London: Duckworth.
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931. Well-documented and original refutation of the “simplistic” approach to Greek tactics. Krentz emphasizes trickery and deception as evidence for sophisticated command in the classical period.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Krentz, Peter, and Everett L. Wheeler, eds. and trans. 1994. Polyaenus’ stratagems of war. 2 vols. Chicago: Ares.
  934. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  935. Source-based approach to the topic of strategy in the work of the 2nd-century CE writer Polyaenus. Collection of commented stratagems and their application in Greek warfare.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Wheeler, Everett L. 1988. Stratagem and the vocabulary of military trickery. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  938. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  939. Seminal work on the conceptual field of strategy, emphasizing the idea of stratagem in classical sources. Revealing, fundamental, and heavily documented.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Wheeler, Everett L. 2007. Battle: Land battles. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby, 186–223. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  942. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943. Updated approach to the mechanics of battle in classical Greece. Tactical issues are discussed in detail in the context of planning a pitched battle.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Logistics
  946.  
  947. Always difficult to reconstruct from our primary sources, logistics are still a ground for further academic development. The supply of armies (how to collect, transport, and distribute food, weapons, and other materials to preserve the operational capacity of the army) was a fundamental and extremely time-consuming part of the commander’s task. General presentations can be found in Roth 2007 and Engels 2013, while Hammond 1983 deals with the all-important question of transportation of goods. Bertosa 2003 studies logistics in the classical polis; Lee 2007, in the semiprofessional Greek mercenary armies of the 4th century. Engels 1980 and Seibert 1986 focus on the army of Alexander.
  948.  
  949. Bertosa, Brian. 2003. The supply of hoplite equipment by the Athenian state down to the Lamian War. Journal of Military History 67.2: 361–379.
  950. DOI: 10.1353/jmh.2003.0097Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. Interesting work on the public supply of military equipment, testing the premise of self-armament characteristic of the Greek city-state.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Engels, Donald W. 1980. Alexander the Great and the logistics of the Macedonian army. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. Fundamental study on the logistics and organization of Alexander’s army. Extraordinary introductory value for all readers.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Engels, Donald W. 2013. Logistics: Sinews of war. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 351–368. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  958. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. A more recent summary of logistics in classical Greek warfare, with updated bibliography and discussion.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. 1983. Army transport in the fifth and fourth centuries. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 24.1: 27–31.
  962. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963. Fundamental study of the logistics of transportation of troops by land, surveying the appearance of wagons, carts, and pack animals in the sources.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Lee, John W. I. 2007. A Greek army on the march: Soldiers and survival in Xenophon’s Anabasis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  966. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  967. Interesting monograph on the logistics of a classical Greek mercenary army, following Xenophon’s detailed descriptions.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Roth, Jonathan P. 2007. War. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 368–398. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  970. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  971. This overview of military campaigns in classical Greece, with updated discussion and bibliography, deals with logistics on pp. 380–388.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Seibert, Jakob. 1986. Die Logistik der Feldzüge Alexanders des Großen. Paper presented at the 27th training course of the Militärgeschichtliche Forschungsamt for teaching staff officers and instructors of military history, held in Trier, Germany, on 3–6 September 1985. In Die Bedeutung der Logistik für die militärische Führung von der Antike bis in die neueste Zeit. Edited by Horst Boog, 11–33. Vorträge zur Militärgeschichte 7. Herford, Germany: Mittler.
  974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. An analysis of Alexander’s logistics, partially addressing controversial questions raised in Engels 1980.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Fortifications
  978.  
  979. Current “orthodoxy” on Greek poliorcetics maintains that fortifications were weak and simple during the Archaic period because they were not necessary in a context of inadequate practice of siege warfare. It all seemed to change in the last third of the 5th century and during the 4th century BCE, when storming cities became the rule, new practices were tested, and new machines were engineered. That opened the gates to the i1ncreasingly complex and expensive fortifications in the Hellenistic period. Winter 1971, Lawrence 1979, Adam 1982, Leriche and Tréziny 1986, and de Souza 2008 offer general accounts and descriptions of Greek fortifications. The volumes of the Dossiers d’Archéologie and Fields 2006 offer illustrated summaries by specialists. Ober 1985 and Ober 1987 survey particular cases, while McNicoll 1997 deals with Hellenistic fortifications.
  980.  
  981. Special issue: Les fortifications grecques de Mycenes à Alexandre. 1992. Dossiers d’Archéologie 172 (June).
  982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  983. Volumes of the journal Dossiers d’Archéologie, with contributions by specialists on the field, full of illustrations and diagrams. Excellent introductory value. See also Special issue: À la découverte des fortresses grecques, Dossiers d’Archéologie 179 (February 1993).
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Adam, Jean–Pierre. 1982. L’architecture militaire grecque. Paris: Picard.
  986. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  987. Summary of the modern academic research on Greek fortifications. Good introductory value, with detailed descriptions of fortresses and critical assessment of ancient sources.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. de Souza, Philip. 2008. Greek warfare and fortification. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 673–690. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. Technical analysis of Greek fortifications in connection with siege techniques. Overview with updated discussion and bibliography.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Fields, Nic. 2006. Ancient Greek fortifications, 500–300 BC. Fortress 40. Oxford: Osprey.
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. Illustrated volume of the Osprey series devoted to Greek fortifications in the classical period.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Lawrence, Arnold W. 1979. Greek aims in fortification. Oxford: Clarendon.
  998. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  999. Introduction to Greek fortifications from the point of view of technical and architectural development. Great value as a reference book.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Leriche, Pierre, and Henri Tréziny, eds. 1986. La fortification dans l’histoire du monde grec: Actes du colloque international La Fortification et sa place dans l’histoire politique, culturelle et sociale du monde grec, Valbonne, Décembre 1982. Paris: Éditions du CNRS.
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003. Collection of papers on the diverse aspects of Greek fortifications in the different historical periods. Good summaries of the main questions and controversies.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. McNicoll, Anthony W. 1997. Hellenistic fortifications from the Aegean to the Euphrates. Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1006. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. An overview of defensive architecture in the Hellenistic period.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Ober, Josiah. 1985. Fortress Attica: Defense of the Athenian land frontier 404–322 B.C. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1010. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1011. Detailed introduction to the strategy of territorial defense and the principles of defensive fortifications following the case of 4th-century Athens.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Ober, Josiah. 1987. Early artillery towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid. American Journal of Archaeology 91.4: 569–604.
  1014. DOI: 10.2307/505291Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. An analysis of Greek fortification through the detailed study of specific cases in different Greek regions. It focuses on the architectural developments in the mid-4th century to cope with the introduction of artillery.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Winter, Frederick E. 1971. Greek fortifications. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  1018. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019. Introductory work on Greek fortification techniques, emphasizing architectural issues. Despite its historical layout, fortifications from the classical period attract the greatest attention.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Sieges
  1022.  
  1023. One line of thought maintains that sieges were in many respects radically different from the rest of land and sea military operations and displayed different practices and developed according to different values. Connected to the evolution of fortifications, Greek siege practices have traditionally been regarded as unsophisticated until the irruption of new siege technology in the 4th century. Attacks on towns and urban centers are extremely common in the narratives of the classical historians, but proper sieges remained a minority, so the Greeks had a range of different practices and techniques at hand. Garlan 1974 and Will 1975 are detailed introductions to the subject, while Kern 1999 and Chaniotis 2013 offer more-recent reassessments of the ancient evidence. More-specific studies are Seaman 2013, focused on the Peloponnesian War, Lonis 1996 and Whitehead 2003, dealing with the 4th century, and McNicoll 1978 and McNicoll 1986, on Hellenistic sieges.
  1024.  
  1025. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2013. Greeks under siege: Challenges, experiences, and emotions. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 438–456. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1026. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. Overview of Greek siege practices, with updated discussion and bibliography. It particularly emphasizes the experiences on both sides.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Garlan, Yvon. 1974. Recherches de poliorcétique grecque. Bibliothèque des Écoles Française d’Athènes et de Rome 223. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
  1030. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. Edition with translation and commentary of Philon of Byzantium. Includes a thorough introduction to Greek poliorcetics from Perikles to Demetrios Poliorketes, describing not only siege techniques but also fortifications and territorial strategy in general. A fundamental work with strong theoretical appeal.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Kern, Paul Bentley. 1999. Ancient siege warfare. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
  1034. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. General study on siege warfare in the ancient world, emphasizing the traumatic experience of sieges and their peculiarities against other land military operations. Chapters on Greek siege warfare, pp. 89–250.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Lonis, Raoul. 1996. Poliorcétique et stasis dans la première moitié du IVe siècle av. J.C. In Le IVe siècle av. J.-C.: Approches historiographiques. Edited by Pierre Carlier, 241–257. Études Anciennes 15. Paris: Broccard.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. A study on the political side of Greek siege practices, focusing on the internal conflict of classical poleis as a fundamental part of siege strategy.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. McNicoll, Anthony W. 1978. Some developments in Hellenistic siege warfare with special reference to Asia Minor. In Proceedings of the Xth International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Ankara-Izmir, 23–30/IX/1973. Vol. 1. Edited by Ekrem Akurgal, 405–420. Ankara, Turkey: Türk Tarih Kurumu.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. Overview of Hellenistic siege practices and techniques.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. McNicoll, Anthony W. 1986. Developments in techniques of siegecraft and fortification in the Greek world ca. 400–100 BC. In La fortification dans l’histoire du monde grec: Actes du colloque international La Fortification et sa place dans l’histoire politique, culturelle et sociale du monde grec, Valbonne, Décembre 1982. Edited by Pierre Leriche and Henri Tréziny, 305–313. Paris: Éditions du CNRS.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. Introductory work to Hellenistic siege practices and the general transformations of siege warfare, with special emphasis on the impact of artillery.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Seaman, Michael. 2013. The Peloponnesian War and its sieges. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 642–656. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1050. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051. Detailed analysis of the sieges during the Peloponnesian War, following the descriptions of the literary sources. Interesting and updated discussion on the besieging capacities of the classical Greek armies.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Whitehead, David. 2003. Aineias the Tactician: How to survive under siege. 2d ed. Classical Studies. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical Press.
  1054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. Translation of the tactical treatise of the 4th-century BCE writer Aineias the Tactician, with a critical and detailed introduction.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Will, Edouard. 1975. Le territoire, la ville et la poliorcétique grecque. Revue Historique 253.2: 297–318.
  1058. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1059. Analysis of Greek poliorcetics from the point of view of the strategic defense of the territory and the survival of the city and the citizen community.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Genocide
  1062.  
  1063. An early-21st-century line of research surveys the evidence for massacres and extermination of captives and defeated populations by victorious Greek armies. As long as that evidence seems to point at a formal strategy, scholars have felt legitimized to talk about “genocide,” but a wide variety of cases and contexts have been included under this label. The treatment of captives is addressed in other sections of the article (see Prisoners and Wounded), but since widespread annihilation was more commonly the aftermath of sieges and captures of enemy towns, it is considered appropriate to address it in this context. Konstan 2007 and van Wees 2010 are general treatments of the issue, while Whittaker 2009 and Gaca 2014 deal with a particular aspect (the treatment of women).
  1064.  
  1065. Gaca, Kathy L. 2014. Martial rape, pulsating fear, and the sexual maltreatment of girls (παῖδες), virgins (παρθένοι), and women (γυναῖκες) in Antiquity. American Journal of Philology 135.3: 303–357.
  1066. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2014.0025Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1067. Study on the treatment of women in ancient warfare, with particular attention to Greek examples. Extensively documented.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Konstan, David. 2007. Anger, hatred, and genocide in ancient Greece. Common Knowledge 13.1: 170–187.
  1070. DOI: 10.1215/0961754X-2006-045Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1071. An approach to genocide in Greek warfare from a theoretical and ideological perspective, emphasizing the contexts and arguments that make genocide possible.
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073. van Wees, Hans. 2010. Genocide in the ancient world. In The Oxford handbook of genocide studies. Edited by Donald Bloxham and A. Dirk Moses, 239–258. Oxford Handbooks in History. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1074. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. General overview of genocide, with updated discussions and bibliography.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Whittaker, Tony. 2009. Sex and the sack of the city. Greece and Rome, 2d ser. 56.2: 234–242.
  1078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. Focuses on sexual crimes and the treatment of women by the Greek army after the capture of Troy, contrasting literary references on Virgil’s Aeneid with actual military practices.
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. Spartan Warfare
  1082.  
  1083. Among the hundreds of independent city-states in Greece, surviving evidence allows the individualization of the military practices of only Sparta and Athens. Scholars talk properly of Spartan warfare to refer to the specific conditions of the Spartan army, determined by the particular Spartan society and politics and determining in turn a set of (not entirely exclusive) practices, including religious scruples and stubborn reliance on heavy infantry. Lazenby 1985 offers the most comprehensive introduction, revised and criticized in Singor 2002. Another early-21st-century introduction can be found in Rusch 2011. Cartledge 2001 presents different approaches to the issue, while Anderson 1970, Hamilton 1979, and Hamilton 1991 focus on 4th-century Spartan warfare.
  1084.  
  1085. Anderson, John K. 1970. Military theory and practice in the age of Xenophon. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. Extensive and well-documented review of the principles of Greek strategy, applied to specific cases and campaigns, during the 4th century BCE.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Cartledge, Paul. 2001. Spartan reflections. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091. Collection of papers published by Cartledge on Sparta. Special attention to chapter 11 (“The Birth of the Hoplite”), a reelaboration of his previous works on the field.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Hamilton, Charles D. 1979. Sparta’s bitter victories: Politics and diplomacy in the Corinthian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095. Survey of the Spartan hegemony during the period 404–362 BCE. Critical assessment of Spartan foreign policy, with special attention to military conflict and campaigns.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Hamilton, Charles D. 1991. Agesilaus and the failure of Spartan hegemony. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. A monograph on the brief period of Spartan hegemony in the opening decades of the 4th century, with special attention to Spartan military enterprises in Greece and Asia Minor.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Lazenby, John F. 1985. The Spartan army. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips.
  1102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1103. A fundamental survey of the history, organization, and performance of the Spartan army, from its origins to the time of Xenophon. Detailed, source-based analysis compellingly addressing all the controversies of the field.
  1104. Find this resource:
  1105. Rusch, Scott M. 2011. Sparta at war: Strategy, tactics, and campaigns 550–362 BC. Barnsley, UK: Frontline.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. A synthesis of Spartan history and military organization in the Archaic and classical periods, intended for the general public.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Singor, Henk W. 2002. The Spartan army at Mantinea and its organisation in the fifth century BC. In After the past: Essays in ancient history in honour of H. W. Pleket. Edited by Willem Jongman and Marc Kleijwegt, 235–284. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111. Detailed analysis of the battle of Mantineia (418 BCE) as a starting point for a general treatment of the main problems and controversies around the organization of the Spartan army in the classical period.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Athenian Warfare
  1114.  
  1115. The Athenian military machinery in the classical period was a complex structure comprising different kinds of infantry troops, cavalry, and a huge and expensive fleet. This dynamic and flexible force operated simultaneously in multiple theaters and maintained for several periods of time an empire of subordinated cities. The Athenian military is commonly identified with the democratic system running in Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, so further bibliography can be found under the relevant heading (see Democracy and Warfare). Ridley 1979, Burckhardt 1996, Raaflaub 2007, and Hunt 2010 offer general overviews of Athenian warfare. Crowley 2012 engages in aspects of Athenian military organization, while Frost 1984 and van Wees 2001 deal with the problematic situation of the Archaic period.
  1116.  
  1117. Burckhardt, Leonhard A. 1996. Bürger und Soldaten: Aspekte der politischen und militärischen Rolle athenischer Bürger im Kriegswesen des 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. Monograph on the organization, function, and social background of Athenian land and sea troops during the 4th century BCE. It explores the connection between the sociopolitical (citizens) and military (soldiers) nature of Athenian troops.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Crowley, Jason. 2012. The psychology of the Athenian hoplite: The culture of combat in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1122. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139105767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1123. An exploration of the motivations of Athenian infantrymen to fight, in the context of Athens’ social and political institutions that enable their recruitment and mobilization.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Frost, Frank J. 1984. The Athenian military before Cleisthenes. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 33.3: 283–294.
  1126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127. Illuminating assessment of the Athenian military record during the Archaic period, emphasizing private initiative in the few and local wars of Athens at the time.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Hunt, Peter. 2010. War, peace, and alliance in Demosthenes’ Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1130. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511676604Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1131. A monograph on Athens’ foreign policy and military strategy during the 4th century, on the basis of the preserved speeches by the leading orators of the time.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 2007. Warfare in Athenian society. In The Cambridge companion to the age of Pericles. Edited by Loren J. Samons II, 96–124. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1134. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521807937Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135. An overview of Athenian war making during the central decades of the 5th century, emphasizing the role of the fleet and the impact of warfare on society.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Ridley, Ronald T. 1979. The hoplite as citizen: Athenian military institutions in their social context. L’Antiquité Classique 48.2: 508–548.
  1138. DOI: 10.3406/antiq.1979.1945Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. A study of the connection between the military and the sociopolitical dimensions of Athenian institutions, from the point of view of the full Athenian citizen and his role as heavy-armed infantryman.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. van Wees, Hans. 2001. The myth of the middle-class army: Military and social status in ancient Athens. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 45–71. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. An assessment of the economic power of the different Solonian classes, emphasizing the elitist nature of Solon’s timocracy and the comparative wealth of the “middle” class, the zeugitai, in the Late Archaic period.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Periods of Greek Warfare
  1146.  
  1147. Greek warfare evolved from the Mycenaean period to the end of Hellenistic times. The patterns and dynamics of technological change, together with the natural evolution of Greek communities, ensured a gradual transformation of the ways and means of fighting. These dynamics were not very intense in the ancient world, so cultural and technological change was seldom revolutionary. Therefore, the Greek military evolved gradually, more often as a result of social and political transformation than of strictly military or technological innovations. Technology and combat changed little, and the real evolution took place in the context of politics, society, economy, and ideology. Periodization, however, helps specialists narrow the focus of their research and improves our understanding of the peculiarities of each historical moment.
  1148.  
  1149. Mycenaean and Dark Age Greece
  1150.  
  1151. With an almost complete lack of narrative sources, warfare from the period between 1400 and 750 BCE is extremely difficult to reconstruct. Archaeology is helpful to recover the ways of fighting, the material aspects of combat, but it cannot offer accounts of military events. We then may have glimpses of how Greeks fought in Mycenaean and later times, but we remain in the dark regarding specific campaigns or battles. Academic work has tried to cope with these limitations, making the most of the archaeological record. Lejeune 1968, Fortenberry 1990, Georganas 2010, and Tausend 2011 explore the peculiarities of Mycenaean warfare, while Littauer 1972, Sandars 1985, Drews 1993, Laffineur 1999, and Osgood, et al. 2000 try to insert it in the broader context of Late Bronze Age warfare. Ahlberg 1971 surveys the controversial and critical period of the so-called Dark Age.
  1152.  
  1153. Ahlberg, Gudrun. 1971. Fighting on land and sea in Greek Geometric art. Stockholm: Svenska Institutet i Athen.
  1154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1155. Study of the iconography of combat on vases from the Geometric period, with a detailed list of scenes with commentaries. Illuminating analysis of weapons and combat organization.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Drews, Robert. 1993. The end of the Bronze Age: Changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 BC. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1159. General survey of the end of the Bronze Age in the Aegean and the different theories to explain the “collapse” of Mycenaean civilization. Introductory analysis of the Mycenaean military situation.
  1160. Find this resource:
  1161. Fortenberry, Cheryl D. 1990. Elements of Mycenaean warfare. PhD diss., Univ. of Cincinnati.
  1162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1163. Monograph on Mycenaean warfare, fundamental and updated.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Georganas, Ioannis. 2010. Weapons and warfare. In The Oxford handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000–1000 BC). Edited by Eric H. Cline, 305–314. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1167. An early-21st-century approach to weaponry and to the reconstruction of military practices in the Bronze Age, emphasizing the similarities of the different cultures in the Aegean. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Laffineur, Robert, ed. 1999. Polemos: Le contexte guerrier en Égée à l’âge du Bronze; Actes de la 7e Rencontre égéenne internationale, Université de Liège, 14–17 avril 1998. Aegaeum 19. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
  1170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171. Collective volume on warfare in the Late Bronze Age, with interesting studies on varied topics. For Mycenaean warfare, see chapters by Phoebe Acheson, John Davies and Jack Bennet, Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy, Robin Barber, Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier, and Gisela Walberg.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Lejeune, Michel. 1968. La civilisation mycénienne et la guerre. In Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne. Edited by Jean-Pierre Vernant, 31–52. Civilisations et Sociétés 11. Paris: Mouton.
  1174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1175. Traditional presentation of Mycenaean warfare. Useful as an introduction, but slightly outdated, especially regarding the military information drawn from the Linear B tablets.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Littauer, Mary A. 1972. The military use of the chariot in the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age. American Journal of Archaeology 76.2: 145–157.
  1178. DOI: 10.2307/503858Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. A detailed study of the military applications of the war chariot in the Late Bronze Age, in the particular context of the Aegean.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Osgood, Richard, Sarah Monks, and Judith Toms, eds. 2000. Bronze Age warfare. Stroud, UK: Sutton.
  1182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1183. Reappraisal of Bronze Age warfare. For Greece and the Aegean from an archaeological perspective, see pp. 115–136.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Sandars, Nancy K. 1985. The Sea Peoples, warriors of the ancient Mediterranean, 1250–1150 BC. Rev. ed. London: Thames & Hudson.
  1186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1187. General discussion on the Sea Peoples, emphasizing the military explanation for their migration. Superficial analysis of the Mycenaean situation.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Tausend, Klaus. 2011. Grenzverteidigung im mykenischen Reich von Pylos. In Österreichische Forschungen zur ägäischen Bronzezeit: Acten der Tagung vom 6. bis 7. März 2009 am Fachbereich Altertumswissenschaften der Universität Salzburg. Edited by Fritz Blakolmer, 305–310. Vienna: Phoibos.
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191. An interpretation of the military organization of Mycenaean Pylos on the eve of its destruction, potentially useful as a model for other cases.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. The Trojan War
  1194.  
  1195. Traditionally regarded as the prototype of the Greek conflict against eastern “barbarians,” the Trojan War has been considerably reinterpreted on the light of Hittite documents and the military and political context of Late Bronze Anatolia. A vast array of archaeological and textual sources are now studied, connecting Troy with the Hittite Empire and the circumstances of its fall with the horizon of instability and destruction in the eastern Mediterranean. Global studies about the site and the war can be found in Latacz 2001, Wood 2001, Strauss 2006, and Thomas and Conant 2007. Foxhall and Davies 1984, Raaflaub 1998, and Winkler 2007 offer different approaches to the historicity of the war. Moreau 2003 is a discussion on the connection of the Trojan War to the phenomenon of the Sea Peoples.
  1196.  
  1197. Foxhall, Lin, and John K. Davies, eds. 1984. The Trojan War: Its historicity and context; Papers of the first Greenbank Colloquium, Liverpool, 1981. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical Press.
  1198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1199. Collection of papers on the different aspects and controversies around the Trojan War. Considerable attention is paid to the question of historicity.
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201. Latacz, Joachim. 2001. Troia und Homer: Der Weg zur Lösung eines alten Rätsels. Munich: Köhler & Amelang.
  1202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1203. A monograph on the state of scholarly knowledge about the Trojan War, offering an up-to-date report on the progress of archaeological works and a discussion on written sources, particularly from Hittite contexts.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Moreau, Carlos J. 2003. The Sea Peoples and the historical background of the Trojan War. Mediterranean Archaeology 16:107–124.
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207. An early-21st-century attempt to find an adequate context for a historical Trojan War in the general process of the migrations of the “Sea Peoples.” Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1208. Find this resource:
  1209. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 1998. Homer, the Trojan War, and history. Classical World 91.5: 386–403.
  1210. DOI: 10.2307/4352106Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1211. Fundamental study of the historicity of the Trojan War, with an assessment of the relevant archaeological and literary sources.
  1212. Find this resource:
  1213. Strauss, Barry S. 2006. The Trojan War: A new history. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  1214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1215. An early-21st-century study of the Trojan War, with updated discussion and bibliography on its main aspects and controversies.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Thomas, Carol G., and Craig Conant. 2007. The Trojan War. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
  1218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1219. General overview of the main problems, questions, and approaches to the Trojan War.
  1220. Find this resource:
  1221. Winkler, Martin M., ed. 2007. Troy: From Homer’s Iliad to Hollywood epic. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223. Collection of papers on the modern reflection on the Trojan War. Particularly interesting contribution by Manfred Korfmann on the historicity of the war.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. Wood, Michael. 2001. In search of the Trojan War. Rev. ed. London: BBC Worldwide.
  1226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1227. A global study of the war, intended for the general reader.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Archaic Period
  1230.  
  1231. Greek warfare from the Archaic period is almost completely dominated by Homer and the epic poems. (see Homeric Warfare). Apart from the epics, only the scattered fragments of lyric poetry supplemented by archaeological evidence offer contemporaneous information to reconstruct Archaic Greek warfare. We must reach much-later authors to get extensive narratives on conflicts and battles of the Archaic period. Modern scholarship tries to keep a balance between contemporaneous evidence, scarce and insufficient, and later accounts, abundant but sometimes unreliable or exaggerated. Bowden 1993, Krentz 2007, and Singor 2009 offer general overviews of the subject. Partial aspects can be found in Greenhalgh 1973 (cavalry and chariots), Rihll 1995 (warfare and migration), Morgan 2001 (symbolism and military practices), and Raaflaub 2013 (heavy infantry from a cross-cultural perspective). Van Wees 2004 presents the most complete treatment of the subject.
  1232.  
  1233. Bowden, Hugh. 1993. Hoplites and Homer: Warfare, hero cult, and the ideology of the polis. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 45–63. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  1234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1235. An evaluation of military transformations during the Archaic period, assuming a transition between the “Homeric” way of war and the world of the polis.
  1236. Find this resource:
  1237. Greenhalgh, Peter A. L. 1973. Early Greek warfare: Horsemen and chariots in the Homeric and Archaic ages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1239. Thorough survey on Early Archaic Greek warfare, relying on iconographic sources. Deep study on the chariot and the horse and their use in combat.
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241. Krentz, Peter. 2007. Warfare and hoplites. In The Cambridge companion to Archaic Greece. Edited by H. Alan Shapiro, 61–84. Cambridge Companion to the Ancient World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1242. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521822008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243. A presentation of the different aspects and controversies of warfare in the Archaic period. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1244. Find this resource:
  1245. Morgan, Catherine. 2001. Symbolic and pragmatic aspects of warfare in the Greek world of the 8th to 6th centuries BC. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 20–44. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  1246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1247. Theoretical approach to the mental and ideological background of the military transformations during the Archaic period, in connection with the rise of the polis.
  1248. Find this resource:
  1249. Raaflaub, Kurt. A. 2013. Early Greek infantry fighting in a Mediterranean context. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 95–111. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1251. An interesting presentation of Greek heavy infantry fighting in the context of similar practices across the Mediterranean. It emphasizes Greek distinctiveness from neighboring military systems.
  1252. Find this resource:
  1253. Rihll, Tracey. 1995. War, slavery, and settlement in early Greece. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 77–107. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255. Theoretical approach to Archaic Greek warfare from the point of view of the mobility of groups for economic purposes. An incipient slave market is presented as the main agent for military expeditions abroad and colonization.
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257. Singor, Henk W. 2009. War and international relations. In A companion to Archaic Greece. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees, 585–603. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1258. DOI: 10.1002/9781444308761Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1259. A summary of military practices and transformations during the Greek Archaic period.
  1260. Find this resource:
  1261. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  1262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1263. Contains a thorough examination of Greek warfare, with continual references to the Archaic period.
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265. The “Hoplite Reform”
  1266.  
  1267. The central debate in the scholarship on Archaic Greek warfare revolves around the introduction of the phalanx as the basic tactical unit and its deep implications in the structure of Greek communities. A line of thought has traditionally seen the phalanx as the starting point of a social and political “revolution” that led to the democratic polis or city-state, and the controversy still drags on as long as it compromises the perception of the Archaic polis as a whole. An inclination to determinism lies in the core of the “hoplite reform” theory, which has been questioned and confronted with different arguments. Echeverría 2008 and Kagan and Viggiano 2013 provide a guide throughout the different aspects and phases of the debate. General evaluations of the theory can be found in Snodgrass 1965, Snodgrass 1993, Bryant 1990, and Bowden 1995. Hanson 1999 contextualizes the reform in the agricultural horizon of Archaic Greek communities, while Raaflaub 1997 presents a rejection of the theory.
  1268.  
  1269. Bowden, Hugh. 1995. Hoplites and Homer: Warfare, hero cult, and the ideology of the polis. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 45–63. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  1270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1271. A presentation of the military transformations during the Archaic period as the starting point of a political “revolution” that leads to the developed system of the polis.
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273. Bryant, Joseph M. 1990. Military technology and socio-cultural change in the ancient Greek city. Sociological Review 38.3: 484–516.
  1274. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1990.tb00921.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1275. An affirmation of the “hoplite reform,” emphasizing the connection between military and political transformations in Archaic Greek communities.
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277. Echeverría, Fernando. 2008. Ciudadanos, campesinos y soldados: El nacimiento de la “pólis” griega y la teoría de la “revolución hoplita.” Anejos de Gladius 12. Madrid: Polifemo.
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279. Reassessment of the theory of the “hoplite reform” and of the nature and conditions of Archaic Greek warfare. Extensively documented.
  1280. Find this resource:
  1281. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1999. The other Greeks: The family farm and the agrarian roots of Western civilization. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1283. Thorough study of the agricultural background of Archaic Greek communities, as the proper context both for a military reform and for the rise of the polis.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Kagan, Donald, and Gregory F. Viggiano, eds. 2013. Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1287. Early-21st-century approaches to the “hoplite reform” debate from a theoretical perspective. See chapters by Kagan and Viggiano (“The Hoplite Debate,” pp. 1–56), Viggiano (“The Hoplite Revolution and the Rise of the Polis,” pp. 112–133), and Hanson (“The Hoplite Narrative,” pp. 256–276).
  1288. Find this resource:
  1289. Raaflaub, Kurt A. 1997. Soldiers, citizens, and the evolution of the early Greek polis. In The development of the polis in Archaic Greece. Edited by Lynette G. Mitchell and Peter J. Rhodes, 49–59. London: Routledge.
  1290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. An assessment of the “hoplite reform” theory in the light of literary and archaeological information.
  1292. Find this resource:
  1293. Snodgrass, Antony M. 1965. The hoplite reform and history. Journal of Hellenic Studies 85:110–122.
  1294. DOI: 10.2307/628813Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1295. A cornerstone of scholarly analysis on the “hoplite reform,” rejecting the “orthodox” line (revolutionary change) and emphasizing gradual change both in military and political transformations.
  1296. Find this resource:
  1297. Snodgrass, Antony M. 1993. The “hoplite reform” revisited. Dialogues d’Histoire Ancienne 19.1: 47–61.
  1298. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1993.2075Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299. A revision of Snodgrass 1965 in the light of the advances after thirty years of scholarly discussion on the “hoplite reform.” A new affirmation of the “gradualist” approach.
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301. Classical Period
  1302.  
  1303. The period from the Persian Wars to the rise of Philip’s Macedon is the golden age of Greek historiography, and thus the period from which more-detailed information of wars and military practices has survived. The classical poleis were in an intermittent state of conflict with their neighbors, tensions that from time to time burst into general wars involving different communities with conflicting interests. The mighty Persian Empire became another theater of permanent military activity throughout the period, most of the time in the form of ravaging expeditions targeting the western Anatolian satrapies of the empire. Bibliography on classical Greek warfare is overwhelmingly abundant, so the crucial episodes of the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War will be treated separately. General descriptions of classical military practices can be found in van Wees 2000, Lee 2006, and Lee 2013. Mossé 1999 and Bernard 2000 will be taken as representatives of the fertile French production on classical warfare at the end of the 20th century, when almost a dozen volumes on the subject were published by different specialists. Anderson 1970, Hanson 1996, and Le Bohec-Bouhet 1999 illustrate the evolution of Greek warfare in the 4th century, while Cartledge 1987 and Hamilton 1991 materialize those transformations in the most prominent military figure of the age, King Agesilaos of Sparta.
  1304.  
  1305. Anderson, John K. 1970. Military theory and practice in the age of Xenophon. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307. Fundamental survey of warfare in the period 404–362 BCE. Well documented and carefully argued, it remains an essential reading on the subject.
  1308. Find this resource:
  1309. Bernard, Nadine. 2000. A l’épreuve de la guerre: Guerre et société dans le monde grec; Ve et IVe siècles avant notre ère. Histoire, Cultures et Sociétés. Paris: Seli Arslan.
  1310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1311. A synthesis of Greek warfare during the classical period, intended for students and researchers as a reference book.
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313. Cartledge, Paul. 1987. Agesilaos and the crisis of Sparta. London: Duckworth.
  1314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1315. Thorough study of the figure of the Spartan king Agesilaos, containing frequent references to the general principles and practices of warfare in the 4th century.
  1316. Find this resource:
  1317. Hamilton, Charles D. 1991. Agesilaus and the failure of Spartan hegemony. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1319. One of the most compelling works on the figure of the Spartan warrior king Agesilaos, describing the gradual process of disintegration of the Spartan hegemony during the first third of the 4th century.
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1996. Hoplites into democrats: The changing ideology of Athenian infantry. In Dēmokratia: A conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Edited by Josiah Ober and Charles Hedrick, 289–312. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1323. Theoretical approach to infantry warfare in the 4th century, connecting the expansion of democratic ideals in Athens with the alleged collapse of the hoplite preeminence.
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325. Le Bohec-Bouhet, Sylvie. 1999. Les techniques de la guerre au IVe s. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.–C. Edited by Francis Prost, 257–275. Paris: Errance.
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327. Introductory study of the techniques and dynamics of Greek warfare during the 4th century, emphasizing the idea of a radical change.
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329. Lee, John W. I. 2006. Warfare in the classical age. In A companion to the classical Greek world. Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl, 480–508. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1330. DOI: 10.1002/9780470996799Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. A synthesis of Greek military practices during the classical period. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1332. Find this resource:
  1333. Lee, John W. I. 2013. The classical Greek experience. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 143–161. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1334. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1335. Introductory presentation of the Greek way of war during the classical period, emphasizing military practices and the experience of combat. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337. Mossé, Claude. 1999. Guerres et sociétés dans les mondes grecs: De 490 à 322 av. J.-C. Paris: Vuibert.
  1338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1339. An overview of Greek military practices and protocols during the classical period, intended for the general reader.
  1340. Find this resource:
  1341. van Wees, Hans. 2000. The city at war. In Classical Greece, 500–323 BC. Edited by Robin Osborne, 81–110. Short Oxford History of Europe. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1343. A synthesis of Greek military practices during the classical period in connection with the world of the polis.
  1344. Find this resource:
  1345. The Persian Wars
  1346.  
  1347. From the point of view of the (mainly Athenian) sources of the period, the experience of the two successive wars against the Persian Empire changed the face of Greece for good. A new era of confidence and aggressive enterprises started after the unexpected success against the mighty neighbor and paved the way for the military dynamism of the Greeks in the following decades. How and why the heterogeneous and brawling armies of the Greek poleis were able to defeat the vast resources of the Persians is the main question addressed by scholarly studies, issues summarized in Balcer 1989. General studies on the wars can be found in Hammond 1988, Lazenby 1993, Green 1996, and Cawkwell 2005. Krentz 2010 is an example of the abundant literature on particular episodes and battles of the wars that cannot be included in this article.
  1348.  
  1349. Balcer, Jack Martin. 1989. The Persian wars against Greece: A reassessment. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 38.2: 127–143.
  1350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351. An exploration of the causes of the Persian defeat against the Greeks in the Persian Wars, emphasizing logistical problems and time pressure as the main reasons.
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353. Cawkwell, George. 2005. The Greek Wars: The failure of Persia. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355. A general presentation of the Persian Wars, with a historical narrative and updated discussion on the main controversies of the events.
  1356. Find this resource:
  1357. Green, Peter. 1996. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1359. Fundamental work on the Persian Wars, evaluating the main literary sources and discussing the political situation of Greece during the conflict.
  1360. Find this resource:
  1361. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. 1988. The expedition of Datis and Artafernes. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. IV, Persia, Greece and the western Mediterranean, c. 525 to 479 B.C. 3d ed. Edited by John Boardman, N. G. L. Hammond, David M. Lewis, and Martin Ostwald, 491–517. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1363. Also see Hammond’s “The Expedition of Xerxes” (pp. 518–591). Historical narrative of the Persian Wars, intended for researchers as an introductory discussion.
  1364. Find this resource:
  1365. Krentz, Peter. 2010. The battle of Marathon. Yale Library of Military History. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  1366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1367. Thorough analysis of the Persian campaign against Greece, the battle of Marathon, and the military organization both of Greeks and Persians at the time.
  1368. Find this resource:
  1369. Lazenby, John F. 1993. The defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips.
  1370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1371. Excellent account of the Persian Wars, with special attention to the military events and their many controversies.
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373. The Peloponnesian War
  1374.  
  1375. Two of the most important historians of classical Antiquity, Thucydides and Xenophon, devoted their considerable skills to preserve a detailed account of what was perceived by them as “a war like no other.” The Peloponnesian War, lasting for twenty-seven years and involving dozens of Greek communities, is the most important military conflict in ancient Greek history. The scholarly reflection and production on the war is, consequently, overwhelming, and for this reason only general studies will be included in this section. Kagan 1969 is the most influential analysis of the war, summarized in Kagan 2003. Lazenby 2004, Hanson 2005, and Tritle 2010 are the best military and historical accounts of the war, Cawkwell 1997 engages in the question of Thucydides’ methodology and narrative, while Welwei 2006 provides a summary of more-recent views to the war.
  1376.  
  1377. Cawkwell, George. 1997. Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War. London: Routledge.
  1378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1379. Detailed survey of the Peloponnesian War from the point of view of Thucydides’ literary style and methodology.
  1380. Find this resource:
  1381. Hanson, Victor D. 2005. A war like no other: How the Athenians and Spartans fought the Peloponnesian War. New York: Random House.
  1382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1383. Account of the Peloponnesian War arranged thematically, not chronologically. Conflict and the different ways to cope with it by the Greek cities are emphasized.
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385. Kagan, Donald. 1969. The outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  1386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1387. An outstanding work on the Peloponnesian War, a truly fundamental study of the conflict and an unavoidable starting point for readers. Extremely detailed and carefully argued. See also The Archidamian War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1974), The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1981), The Fall of the Athenian Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991).
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389. Kagan, Donald. 2003. The Peloponnesian War: Athens and Sparta in savage conflict, 431–404 BC. London: HarperCollins.
  1390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1391. A revised and updated summary of Kagan 1969.
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393. Lazenby, John F. 2004. The Peloponnesian War: A Military Study. Warfare and History. London: Routledge.
  1394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1395. An analysis of the Peloponnesian War from a military point of view, emphasizing the grand lines of Greek strategy, the different campaigns, and the historical reconstruction of events.
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397. Tritle, Lawrence A. 2010. A new history of the Peloponnesian War. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  1398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1399. Early-21st-century account of the war, presenting a consistent historical narrative and an exploration of the political and social circumstances of its main events and phases.
  1400. Find this resource:
  1401. Welwei, Karl-Wilhelm. 2006. The Peloponnesian War and its aftermath. In A companion to the classical Greek world. Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl, 526–543. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1402. DOI: 10.1002/9780470996799Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1403. A synthesis of the war, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  1404. Find this resource:
  1405. Philip and Alexander
  1406.  
  1407. Greek warfare experienced a deep transformation during the second half of the 4th century, in the hands of two of the most talented generals of the ancient world. This transformation took some thirty years to complete, but the impression we get from contemporaneous sources is of a series of major and sudden breakthroughs to the professionalization of armies and the expansion of “total war,” as emphasized in Engels 1980 and Lloyd 1996. Philip built the foundations of a great kingdom on the basis of a deep military reform, and he apparently improved the existing tactics, developing the traditional Greek phalanx into the tighter, heavier Macedonian phalanx (Cawkwell 1978, Hammond 1994, Worthington 2008, Gabriel 2010). Alexander, a genius of cavalry warfare, made the most of Philip’s system, expanding the boundaries of the Greek world at the expense of the Persian Empire. The outstanding figure of Alexander has received immense attention by modern scholarship, but informed studies on his military career are scarcer, to be found in Bosworth 1993, Roisman 2003, Cartledge 2004, Heckel 2006, and Heckel and Tritle 2009. Ashley 1998, Wheatley and Hannah 2009, and Carney and Ogden 2010 cover both figures and the whole period.
  1408.  
  1409. Ashley, James R. 1998. The Macedonian Empire: The era of warfare under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 B.C. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
  1410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1411. A survey of the military transformations in Macedon and Greece under Philip and Alexander, with special attention to equipment, tactics, and military organization.
  1412. Find this resource:
  1413. Bosworth, Albert B. 1993. Conquest and empire: The reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1414. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511518539Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1415. Detailed study of the figure of Alexander, emphasizing his campaigns and the impact of his new way of war. Revision of the 1988 original.
  1416. Find this resource:
  1417. Carney, Elizabeth D., and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and son, lives and afterlives. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1419. Collection of papers on the complementary figures of Philip and Alexander. Permanent references to campaigns and Macedonian warfare in this period.
  1420. Find this resource:
  1421. Cartledge, Paul. 2004. Alexander the Great: The hunt for a new past. London: Macmillan.
  1422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1423. An analysis of Alexander’s political and military career, focusing on the impact of his figure on tactics, scholarship, and politics throughout history.
  1424. Find this resource:
  1425. Cawkwell, George. 1978. Philip of Macedon. London: Faber & Faber.
  1426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1427. An interesting and well-documented survey of the figure of Philip, addressing all the crucial aspects of his reign.
  1428. Find this resource:
  1429. Engels, Donald W. 1980. Alexander the Great and the logistics of the Macedonian army. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1431. Useful analysis of Alexander’s campaigns, with an original assessment of the logistics (supplies, troops, followers, revenues) of the Macedonian army in Persia.
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433. Gabriel, Richard A. 2010. Philip II of Macedonia: Greater than Alexander. Washington, DC: Potomac.
  1434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1435. A study of Philip’s reign and achievements, emphasizing his unprecedented reform of the Macedonian state and army.
  1436. Find this resource:
  1437. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. 1994. Philip of Macedon. London: Duckworth.
  1438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1439. A survey of Philip by a specialist in the military history of the period.
  1440. Find this resource:
  1441. Heckel, Waldemar. 2006. The conquests of Alexander the Great. In A companion to the classical Greek world. Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl, 560–588. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  1442. DOI: 10.1002/9780470996799Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1443. A synthesis of Alexander’s campaigns.
  1444. Find this resource:
  1445. Heckel, Waldemar, and Lawrence A. Tritle, eds. 2009. Alexander the Great: A new history. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447. Updated account of Alexander’s reign, with special attention to his campaigns from a historical (rather than strictly military) point of view.
  1448. Find this resource:
  1449. Lloyd, Alan B. 1996. Philip II and Alexander the Great: The moulding of Macedon’s army. In Battle in Antiquity. Edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 169–198. London: Duckworth.
  1450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1451. Interesting contribution on the military reforms that led to the Macedonian army. Special emphasis on the figures of Philip and Alexander as commanders and reformers.
  1452. Find this resource:
  1453. Roisman, Joseph, ed. 2003. Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1455. Collective volume on the figure of Alexander by top-ranked specialists. Special emphasis on campaigns and the structure of the Macedonian army.
  1456. Find this resource:
  1457. Wheatley, Pat V., and Robert Hannah, eds. 2009. Alexander and his successors: Essays from the antipodes. Claremont, CA: Regina.
  1458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1459. Collective volume on the figure of Alexander and his impact in later history (kingship, generalship, representation of power, legitimacy).
  1460. Find this resource:
  1461. Worthington, Ian. 2008. Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  1462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1463. Assessment of the figure of Philip that addresses the main aspects and controversies of his reign.
  1464. Find this resource:
  1465. Hellenistic Period
  1466.  
  1467. The Hellenistic period has traditionally been regarded as a gradual erosion and disintegration of the classical world. This view has been questioned on many grounds, but especially in the field of warfare: the era after Alexander’s death displays a remarkable dynamism and ingenuity, as described in Hamilton 1999 and Bugh 2006. Vast armies of multiple types of troops, new weapons such as elephants or chariots, heavy and innovative machinery—all interact on the battlefield as a display of power and wealth. In general terms, Hellenistic armies returned to some of the logistic features of the classical period, such as massive baggage trains and slow mobilization, but the immense resources of the Hellenistic kingdoms, surpassing anything a Greek city could achieve on its own, ensured a new tendency in warfare: gigantism (Murray 2012). General descriptions of Hellenistic warfare can be found in Baker 2003, Chaniotis 2005, Martin 2013, and Serrati 2013. Beston 2000 focuses on leadership, while Ma 2000 addresses the question of warfare in the surviving Greek poleis.
  1468.  
  1469. Baker, Patrick. 2003. Warfare. In A companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Andrew Erskine, 373–388. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1471. Detailed introduction to the main events, characteristics, and peculiarities of Hellenistic warfare.
  1472. Find this resource:
  1473. Beston, Paul. 2000. Hellenistic military leadership. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 315–335. London: Duckworth.
  1474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1475. Study of the transformation of generalship and command in the Hellenistic period, emphasizing the role of charismatic leadership.
  1476. Find this resource:
  1477. Bugh, Glenn R., ed. 2006. Hellenistic military developments. In The Cambridge companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Glenn R. Bugh, 265–294. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1479. A synthesis of the military transformations of the Hellenistic period, emphasizing the evolution of generalship, the gradual complexity of armies, the use of artillery in sieges, and the mobilization of vast resources.
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1482. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1483. The most recent and detailed study on Hellenistic warfare to date. Covering all the relevant aspects of war (including society, economics, and ideology), it is a fundamental work on the subject. With a complete and updated bibliography, extremely useful for further research.
  1484. Find this resource:
  1485. Hamilton, Charles D. 1999. The Hellenistic world. In War and society in the ancient and medieval worlds: Asia, the Mediterranean, Europe, and Mesoamerica. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Nathan Rosenstein, 163–192. Center for Hellenic Studies Colloquia 3. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1487. General account of the Hellenistic period, with some attention to the military transformations of the time.
  1488. Find this resource:
  1489. Ma, John. 2000. Fighting poleis of the Hellenistic world. In War and violence in ancient Greece. Edited by Hans van Wees, 337–376. London: Duckworth.
  1490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1491. An interesting study of the military situation of the Greek poleis under the rule of the great Hellenistic kingdoms.
  1492. Find this resource:
  1493. Martin, Thomas R. 2013. Demetrius “the Besieger” and Hellenistic warfare. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 671–687. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1494. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495. A presentation of Hellenistic military developments through the figure of Demetrius of Macedon.
  1496. Find this resource:
  1497. Murray, William M. 2012. The age of titans: The rise and fall of the great Hellenistic navies. Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1498. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388640.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1499. Interesting monograph on Hellenistic fleets and their impressive developments thanks to the vast resources of the new kingdoms.
  1500. Find this resource:
  1501. Serrati, John. 2013. The Hellenistic world at war: Stagnation or development? In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 179–198. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1502. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1503. Assessment of the Hellenistic way of war, with updated discussions and bibliography.
  1504. Find this resource:
  1505. Hellenistic Armies
  1506.  
  1507. Despite sharing common features in structure and organization, the different Hellenistic armies of the great kingdoms represent distinctive variations of the same common ancestor (the Macedonian army of Philip and Alexander) and possess their own peculiarities. Moreover, the analysis of particular armies puts the Hellenistic military developments in context. A general study can be found in Launey 1987. Hatzopoulos 2001, Sekunda 2010, and Sekunda 2013 focus on the Macedonian army, while Bar Kochva 1976 and Austin 2001 deal with the Seleucid army, and Fischer-Bovet 2014 concentrates on the Ptolemaic army.
  1508.  
  1509. Austin, Michael. 2001. War and culture in the Seleucid Empire. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 99–109. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  1510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1511. A brief synthesis of warfare in the Seleucid Kingdom, presenting the fundamental lines of the organization, deployment, and command of Seleucid armies.
  1512. Find this resource:
  1513. Bar Kochva, Bezalel. 1976. The Seleucid army: Organization and tactics in the great campaigns. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1515. Fundamental study of the Seleucid army, with attention to logistics, structure, tactics, and command. Interesting analysis of the main battles of the period.
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517. Fischer-Bovet, Christelle. 2014. Army and society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Armies of the Ancient World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1518. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139035231Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1519. A monograph on the organization, mobilization, and operability of the Ptolemaic army.
  1520. Find this resource:
  1521. Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. 2001. L’organisation de l’armée macédonienne sous les Antigonides: Problèmes anciennes et documents nouveaux. Athens, Greece: Centre de Recherche de l’Antiquité Grecque et Romaine.
  1522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1523. Describes the structure and organization of the Macedonian army at the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Extensively documented and illuminating.
  1524. Find this resource:
  1525. Launey, Marcel. 1987. Recherches sur les armées hellénistiques. 2 vols. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 169. Paris: de Boccard.
  1526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1527. Extensive study in two volumes on field armies during the Hellenistic period, with detailed treatment of the different geographical areas of the Greek world and special attention to the political, religious, and economic factors.
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2010. The Macedonian army. In A companion to ancient Macedonia. Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, 446–471. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  1530. DOI: 10.1002/9781444327519Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1531. A synthesis of the main aspects and details of the Macedonian army throughout its history, with special reference to the Antigonid period.
  1532. Find this resource:
  1533. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2013. The Antigonid army. Akanthina 8. Gdańsk, Poland: Foundation for the Development of Gdańsk Univ.
  1534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1535. Analysis of the Macedonian army during the Antigonid dynasty, describing its organization and structure.
  1536. Find this resource:
  1537. The City at War
  1538.  
  1539. Despite some chronological and geographical gaps, the city-state was the main political and cultural framework of the communities of mainland Greece for some six centuries. Even under the rule of empires or kingdoms, individual cities kept mobilizing their citizen bodies and fighting each other to settle local feuds. Despite some gradual transformations, the Greek cities preserved ancient traditions and old customs to wage their wars, and their understanding of the causes, aims, and means of war remained structurally very much the same. Studying the city at war is to a great extent an approach to the history of Greek warfare as a whole.
  1540.  
  1541. Demography and Recruitment
  1542.  
  1543. Each city had its own mechanisms for mobilizing its citizen body in times of war (Christ 2001, Christ 2006), and Athenian organization is particularly relevant (Crowley 2012). Military strength was naturally connected to manpower and demography, although filtered by the social and political institutions involved in the process of recruitment (Corvisier 1999, Corvisier 2000). This connection makes these two kinds of information extremely relevant for the study of the population of the city: demographic figures (when provided) are reasonable guides into military mobilization and army strength, and vice versa (and more frequently), military numbers can offer some ground for demographic estimations (Hansen 1981, Hansen 1982, Holleran and Pudsey 2011). Unfortunately, ancient sources are usually silent regarding numbers, and the figures provided are always subject to question and criticism, as emphasized in Strauss 1986. This makes this subject an especially difficult and controversial field for research.
  1544.  
  1545. Christ, Matthew R. 2001. Conscription of hoplites in classical Athens. Classical Quarterly 51.2: 398–422.
  1546. DOI: 10.1093/cq/51.2.398Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1547. Interesting study on the mechanisms and institutions for recruitment and mobilization in Athens.
  1548. Find this resource:
  1549. Christ, Matthew R. 2006. The bad citizen in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1550. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511618277Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1551. A monograph on civil disobedience and disloyalty in Athens, dealing with, among other issues, military insubordination. It questions the figure of the “good citizen” and contends that mobilization sometimes had to be forced through different mechanisms.
  1552. Find this resource:
  1553. Corvisier, Jean-Nicolas. 1999. Guerre et démographie en Grèce à la période classique. In Guerres et sociétés dans les mondes grecs à l’époque classique: Colloque de la SOPHAU, Dijon, 26, 27 et 28 mars 1999. Edited by Société des Professeurs d’Histoire Ancienne de l’Université, 57–79. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555. General study of demographic questions in Greek warfare. Good introductory value.
  1556. Find this resource:
  1557. Corvisier, Jean-Nicolas. 2000. La population de l’Antiquité classique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  1558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1559. General survey of the population and manpower in the classical world. Some insights to mobilization numbers are provided.
  1560. Find this resource:
  1561. Crowley, Jason. 2012. The psychology of the Athenian hoplite: The culture of combat in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1562. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139105767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1563. A study on the motivations of the average Athenian citizen to fight, dealing with the institutions and structures that enable military mobilization.
  1564. Find this resource:
  1565. Hansen, Mogens Herman. 1981. The number of Athenian hoplites in 431 B.C. Symbolae Osloenses 56.1: 19–32.
  1566. DOI: 10.1080/00397678108590746Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1567. Deep and well-documented survey of the military figures in 5th-century Athens. A reassessment of the controversial passage of Thucydides on the Athenian mobilization on the eve of the Peloponnesian War.
  1568. Find this resource:
  1569. Hansen, Mogens Herman. 1982. Demographic reflections on the number of Athenian citizens, 451–309 BC. American Journal of Ancient History 7.2: 172–189.
  1570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1571. Fundamental study on Athenian demography during the classical period. Revealing and illuminating.
  1572. Find this resource:
  1573. Holleran, Claire, and April Pudsey, eds. 2011. Demography and the Graeco-Roman world: New insights and approaches. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1574. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511863295Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1575. Collection of papers on demography in the classical world, with different references to recruitment and mobilization of citizen armies in Greece.
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577. Strauss, Barry S. 1986. Athens after the Peloponnesian War: Class, faction and policy 403–386 BC. London: Croom Helm.
  1578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1579. General approach to Athenian political and social situation in the first quarter of the 4th century. Some interesting observations on the military population of Athens and the casualties of the Peloponnesian War on pp. 70–86 and 179–182.
  1580. Find this resource:
  1581. Training
  1582.  
  1583. There is an ongoing debate about whether or not Greek citizens prepared themselves for warfare. The widespread idea of Greek military amateurism (supplemented with the modern vision of classical Greek combat as a simple and straightforward practice) has usually taken for granted that training was not necessary in the Archaic and classical periods, but that it became increasingly practiced as long as the armies became more professionalized (Wheeler 1982, Wheeler 1983, Chaniotis 2005). We must assume that the majority of Greek citizens had some kind of knowledge about how to handle a spear or a sword, and almost certainly some practical experience of fighting, as described in Pritchett 1974–1985 and van Wees 2004. However, it remains really difficult to picture how that knowledge was passed from one generation to the next. Different approaches to the Hellenistic gymnasium can be found in Kah and Scholz 2004 and D’Amore 2007.
  1584.  
  1585. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Ancient World at War. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1586. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1587. A general study of warfare in the Hellenistic period, with references to military training on pp. 45–51.
  1588. Find this resource:
  1589. D’Amore, Lucia. 2007. Ginnasio e difesa civica nelle poleis d’Asia Minore (IV–I sec. a.C.). Revue des Études Anciennes 109.1: 147–173.
  1590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591. An analysis of the Hellenistic gymnasium and the epheby and their connection to military training and territorial defense.
  1592. Find this resource:
  1593. Kah, Daniel, and Peter Scholz, eds. 2004. Das hellenistische Gymnasion. Wissenskultur und gesellschaftlicher Wandel 8. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
  1594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1595. Collection of papers on the different aspects and functions of the Hellenistic gymnasium. Reflections on military training can be found in chapters by Kah, Miltiades Hatzopoulos, and Leonhard Burckhardt.
  1596. Find this resource:
  1597. Pritchett, William K. 1974–1985. The Greek state at war. 4 vols. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1599. Pritchett deals with training in his extensive survey on Greek warfare, including a synthesis in Vol. 4 (pp. 61–65), and much more extensively in Vol. 2 (pp. 208–231). Fundamental introduction to the subject.
  1600. Find this resource:
  1601. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth
  1602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1603. General work on Greek warfare, dealing with training on pp. 87–95.
  1604. Find this resource:
  1605. Wheeler, Everett L. 1982. Hoplomachia and Greek dances in arms. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 23.3: 223–233.
  1606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1607. Study of the connection between civic practices (dances) and military training, trying to define the precise boundaries between them.
  1608. Find this resource:
  1609. Wheeler, Everett L. 1983. The hoplomachoi and Vegetius’ Spartan drillmasters. Chiron 13:1–20.
  1610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1611. Original survey of a specific type of professional military trainers in the classical period. Interesting and well documented.
  1612. Find this resource:
  1613. Sport and Competition
  1614.  
  1615. Scholars have always toyed with the possible connections between military training and sports or hunting. Both activities have evident applications in combat, but their aristocratic nature renders their practice by the people in general highly controversial. General approaches can be found in Poliakoff 1987, Perysinakis 1990, Lavrencic 1991, Müller 1996, Reed 1998, and Crowther 1999. Müller 1995 and Mann 2001 introduce sport and competition in the structure and ideology of the polis, while Pritchard 2013 focuses on the case of classical Athens.
  1616.  
  1617. Crowther, Nigel B. 1999. Athlete as warrior in the ancient games: Some reflections. Nikephoros 12:121–130.
  1618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1619. An introductory study of the shared mentality of athletes and warriors, presenting war as a competition with sporting rules.
  1620. Find this resource:
  1621. Lavrencic, Monika. 1991. Krieger und Athlet? Der militarische Aspekt in der Beurteilung des Wettkampfes der Antike. Nikephoros 4:167–175.
  1622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1623. Brief note on the connection between combat and athletic competition from a general perspective.
  1624. Find this resource:
  1625. Mann, Christian. 2001. Athlet und Polis im archaischen und frühklassischen Griechenland. Hypomnemata 138. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
  1626. DOI: 10.13109/9783666252372Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1627. A general study of the nature and function of athletic competition in the world of the polis, with several references to its military applications.
  1628. Find this resource:
  1629. Müller, Stefan. 1995. Das Volk der Athleten: Untersuchungen zur Ideologie und Kritik des Sports in der griechisch-römischen Antike. Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
  1630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1631. A monograph on the role and place of sport in the classical world.
  1632. Find this resource:
  1633. Müller, Stefan. 1996. “Herrlicher Ruhm im Sport oder im Krieg”: Der Apobates und die Funktion des Sports in der griechischen Polis. Nikephoros 9:41–69.
  1634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1635. An exploration of the relationship between athletic competition and military service in the context of the citizen community of the polis.
  1636. Find this resource:
  1637. Perysinakis, Ioannis N. 1990. The athlete as warrior: Pindar’s P. 9.97–103 and P. 10.55–59. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 37.1: 43–49.
  1638. DOI: 10.1111/j.2041-5370.1990.tb00215.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1639. A short note on the metaphor of athletes as warriors through the analysis of Pindar’s odes.
  1640. Find this resource:
  1641. Poliakoff, Michael B. 1987. Combat sports in the ancient world: Competition, violence, and culture. Sport and History. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  1642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1643. A general approach to fighting sports in the classical world, emphasizing their connection with social and ideological structures.
  1644. Find this resource:
  1645. Pritchard, David M. 2013. Sport, democracy and war in classical Athens. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1647. Treatment of the role of athletic competition in democratic Athens. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1648. Find this resource:
  1649. Reed, Nancy B. 1998. More than just a game: The military nature of Greek athletic contests. Chicago: Ares.
  1650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1651. Analysis of the military application of sports in ancient Greece. Updated presentation of the academic discussion on the field as of the late 20th century.
  1652. Find this resource:
  1653. Prisoners and Wounded
  1654.  
  1655. Perhaps owing to the persistent silence of ancient sources, the fate of wounded and prisoners in Greek combat has been frequently overlooked. However, nonfatal wounds and injuries must have been extremely frequent in a combat system involving slashing and piercing weapons (Salazar 2000, Salazar 2013). Taking prisoners, in contrast, seems to be more problematic, basically because of the limited ability of ancient societies to take care of them for long periods until any kind of ransom could be paid, as described in Ducrey 1968, Ducrey 1999, Pritchett 1991, and Bielman 1994. Anyway, both prisoners and wounded embody two common fates in the aftermath of combat, which means a fairly usual experience for ancient Greek soldiers. For the most extreme and violent fate of prisoners, see Genocide.
  1656.  
  1657. Bielman, Anne. 1994. Retour à la liberté: Libération et sauvetage de prisonniers en Grèce ancienne. Paris: École Française d’Athènes.
  1658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1659. New survey of the subject of prisoners and their treatment in Greek warfare. Critical analysis of the ancient evidence.
  1660. Find this resource:
  1661. Ducrey, Pierre. 1968. Le traitement des prisonniers de guerre dans la Grèce antique des origines à la conquête romaine. Paris: École Française d’Athènes.
  1662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1663. Fundamental approach to the phenomenon of prisoners in Greek warfare. Still influential and interesting for any reader.
  1664. Find this resource:
  1665. Ducrey, Pierre. 1999. Les prisonniers de guerre en Grèce antique, 1968–1998. Pallas: Revue d’Études Antiques 51:9–23.
  1666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1667. A revision and up-to-date treatment of Ducrey 1968.
  1668. Find this resource:
  1669. Pritchett, William K. 1991. The Greek state at war, Vol. 5. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1671. Outstanding introduction to the subject of captives and ransom in Greek warfare (pp. 203–312), with reference to all relevant periods of Greek history.
  1672. Find this resource:
  1673. Salazar, Christine F. 2000. The treatment of war wounds in Graeco-Roman Antiquity. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1675. Fundamental study on war wounds in Greece and Rome. “Treatment” is used in a double sense, both as actual medical treatment and literary “treatment” in nonmedical sources. The first comprehensive monograph on the subject.
  1676. Find this resource:
  1677. Salazar, Christine F. 2013. Treating the sick and wounded. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 294–311. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1678. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1679. Synthesis of the issue, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  1680. Find this resource:
  1681. The Dead
  1682.  
  1683. Death in Greek warfare is usually approached from three different perspectives: the first, represented by Krentz 1985, Hammond 1989, Rubincam 1991, and Brulé 1999, is to calculate the mortality rates in ancient battles and thus measure the destructive impact of war in ancient societies; the second, represented by Pritchett 1985, Vaughn 1991, and Tritle 1997, is to analyze the treatment and fate of dead soldiers in the aftermath of battle; the third, also a valuable approach, follows the ancient notion of battle dead as “heroes” of the city, and it studies the different ways to honor and commemorate the citizens who sacrificed their lives for the common good (Rice 1995, Low 2010, Arrington 2011, Arrington 2015).
  1684.  
  1685. Arrington, Nathan T. 2011. Inscribing defeat: The commemorative dynamics of the Athenian casualty lists. Classical Antiquity 30.2: 179–212.
  1686. DOI: 10.1525/CA.2011.30.2.179Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1687. An analysis of inscribed casualty lists as public monuments to commemorate citizens fallen in military service.
  1688. Find this resource:
  1689. Arrington, Nathan T. 2015. Ashes, images, and memories: The presence of the war dead in fifth-century Athens. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1691. A monograph on death in combat and public commemoration, exploring the use of the fallen as a strategy of political legitimation.
  1692. Find this resource:
  1693. Brulé, Pierre. 1999. La mortalité de guerre en Grèce classique: L’exemple d’Athènes de 490 à 322. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.–C. Edited By Francis Prost, 51–68. Paris: Errance.
  1694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1695. Introductory study of casualties in classical Greek warfare, with special reference to the case of Athens. Broad discussion with general conclusions.
  1696. Find this resource:
  1697. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. 1989. Casualties and reinforcements of citizen soldiers in Greece and Macedonia. Journal of Hellenic Studies 109:56–68.
  1698. DOI: 10.2307/632032Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1699. An introductory study of the practices to deal with the challenge of combat casualties by Greek communities. Good assessment of the topic.
  1700. Find this resource:
  1701. Krentz, Peter. 1985. Casualties in hoplite battles. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 26.1: 13–29.
  1702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1703. Fundamental paper on casualties in classical Greek battles, according to the main literary sources. Essential and compelling.
  1704. Find this resource:
  1705. Low, Polly. 2010. Commemoration of the war dead in classical Athens: Remembering defeat and victory. In War, democracy, and culture in classical Athens. Edited by David M. Pritchard, 341–358. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1707. A survey of commemorative practices in Athens, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  1708. Find this resource:
  1709. Pritchett, William K. 1985. The Greek state at war. Vol. 4. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1711. Detailed introduction to the treatment of war dead in Greek warfare, with special reference to practices and customs across different historical periods.
  1712. Find this resource:
  1713. Rice, Ellen. 1995. The glorious dead: Commemoration of the fallen and portrayal of victory in the late classical and Hellenistic world. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 224–257. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  1714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1715. General survey of the public treatment of war casualties in Greece. Comprehensive and compelling.
  1716. Find this resource:
  1717. Rubincam, Catherine. 1991. Casualty figures in the battle descriptions of Thucydides. Transactions of the American Philological Association 121:181–198.
  1718. DOI: 10.2307/284451Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1719. Analysis of the consistency and reliability of Thucydides’ casualty figures, with special attention to the literary context of his battle accounts.
  1720. Find this resource:
  1721. Tritle, Lawrence A. 1997. Hektor’s body: Mutilation of the dead in ancient Greece and Vietnam. Ancient History Bulletin 11.4: 123–136.
  1722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1723. Another aspect of the treatment of the dead in combat: mutilation and humiliation of the enemy’s dead. Interesting comparison with practices in the Vietnam War.
  1724. Find this resource:
  1725. Vaughn, Pamela. 1991. The identification and retrieval of the hoplite battle-dead. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 38–62. London: Routledge.
  1726. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1727. Interesting, source-based survey on the treatment of dead in classical Greek battles, from the aftermath of the battle to the funerary rites and burial.
  1728. Find this resource:
  1729. Noncitizens in Greek Warfare
  1730.  
  1731. Greek cities and kingdoms mobilized not only their citizen body during wartime, but also great numbers of resident noncitizens. Depending on the emergency level, slaves and metics (resident foreigners) could also be mobilized, and from the 5th century onward it became a standard practice to hire mercenaries. These groups enjoyed no privileges or status in the community but had to share the weight of the military burden. Sparta, enrolling large numbers of slaves (helots) and second-rate citizens (periokoi), is a common example of this practice, but many other communities resorted to noncitizens to cope with the high costs of war, especially in the Hellenistic period. In this context, women were mostly victims of the military campaigns but generally played an active role in the logistics and supply of armies, and they could occasionally see action. Since they represented a considerable part of the population, their attitudes in wartime had an impact on morale, and in this way they are occasionally attested in the ancient sources.
  1732.  
  1733. Women
  1734.  
  1735. Ancient literary sources consistently tried to make clear that women did not take part in war: combat was the realm of men, a test for masculinity and courage, so women were excluded from a typically male activity. In Greek sources, women’s participation in war was intended to be limited to the roles of mother and wife (giving birth to, raising, and taking care of male warriors), but this could hardly be the case in some contexts of ancient warfare, as discussed in Schaps 1982, Loraux 1985, Harvey 1985, Ducat 1999, and Bernard 2003. In campaigns and battles, women were excluded from fighting but not from the armies themselves, following them as servants, prostitutes, or nurses. In siege warfare, women are frequently described taking part in the fighting, throwing tiles or stones from the roofs, or even handling rudimentary weapons to reinforce the troops in a delicate situation (Hornblower 2007). For the fate of women as prisoners, see Genocide.
  1736.  
  1737. Bernard, Nadine. 2003. Femmes et societé dans la Grece classique. Paris: Armand Colin.
  1738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1739. General study of women in classical Greek society. Good introductory value.
  1740. Find this resource:
  1741. Ducat, Jean. 1999. La femme de Sparte et la guerre. Pallas: Revue d’Études Antiques 51:159–171.
  1742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1743. Introductory survey of the specific case of the role of Spartan women in wartime.
  1744. Find this resource:
  1745. Harvey, David. 1985. Women in Thucydides. Arethusa 18.1: 67–87.
  1746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1747. General approach to the roles and treatment of women in Thucydides’ account. Only superficially relevant for warfare.
  1748. Find this resource:
  1749. Hornblower, Simon. 2007. Warfare in ancient literature: The paradox of war. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby, 22–53. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1750. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1751. Brief reassessment of the participation of women in warfare (and the treatment of the subject in ancient sources) on pp. 42–47.
  1752. Find this resource:
  1753. Loraux, Nicole. 1985. La cité, l’historien, les femmes. Pallas: Revue d’Études Antiques 32:7–27.
  1754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1755. General survey of the role assigned by literary sources to women in ancient Greece. Superficial treatment of the role of women in wartime.
  1756. Find this resource:
  1757. Schaps, David M. 1982. The women of Greece in wartime. Classical Philology 77.3: 193–213.
  1758. DOI: 10.1086/366710Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1759. Introductory study on the subject, with general but interesting conclusions.
  1760. Find this resource:
  1761. Slaves
  1762.  
  1763. Modern scholarship maintains a lively debate regarding the participation of slaves in Greek warfare. Controversy does not really affect the fact that slaves were present in (and represented a fundamental part of) all Greek armies, but rather the possibility that they took part in the fighting (Hunt 1998, Moggi 2000, Casillas 2000, Bradley and Cartledge 2011). Literary sources are neither clear nor consistent about that: slaves are sometimes mentioned in campaigns (e.g., Plataea), but their role is frequently hard to define. In any case, we can safely assume that their role in warfare went far beyond carrying their masters’ weapons and attending them: they occasionally pulled the oars, wore weapons themselves, and had to fight for their lives. They were not subject, however, to public recognition, and as a result they were usually forgotten in literary accounts, as discussed in Welwei 1974–1977 and Garlan 1988.
  1764.  
  1765. Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. 2011. The Cambridge world history of slavery. Vol. 1, The ancient Mediterranean world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1767. Collection of papers on ancient slavery, with several contributions on Greece in the different historical periods and contexts, and abundant references to the role of slaves in warfare.
  1768. Find this resource:
  1769. Casillas, Juan Miguel. 2000. Los grupos dependientes en el ejército espartano en época clásica, s. V-IV a.C. In Las edades de la dependencia durante la antigüedad. Edited by Maria Mar Myro, Jaime Alvar, and Domingo Plácido, 113–138. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.
  1770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1771. General approach to nonfree groups in the Spartan army, considering the several categories present in Sparta for noncitizens, dependents, and servants.
  1772. Find this resource:
  1773. Garlan, Yvon. 1988. Slavery in ancient Greece. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1775. Fundamental survey of slavery in ancient Greece, with some references to warfare on pp. 32–33, 47–48, and 163–176. Original in French, Les esclaves en Grèce ancienne (Paris: La Découverte, 1982).
  1776. Find this resource:
  1777. Hunt, Peter. 1998. Slaves, warfare and ideology in the Greek historians. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1779. Comprehensive study of the interaction between slaves in warfare and literary accounts, emphasizing the ideological nature of public recognition and memory. Good assessment of the role of slaves in Greek warfare.
  1780. Find this resource:
  1781. Moggi, Mauro. 2000. Prestazioni militari degli elementi servili e dipendenti (a Esparta e altrove). In Las edades de la dependencia durante la antigüedad. Edited by Maria Mar Myro, Jaime Alvar, and Domingo Plácido, 81–90. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.
  1782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1783. Introductory work on the role of slaves in Greek warfare. Basic selection of sources and general conclusions.
  1784. Find this resource:
  1785. Welwei, Karl-Wilhelm. 1974–1977. Unfrei im antiken Kriegsdienst. 2 vols. Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei 5. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner.
  1786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1787. Vol. 1, Athen und Sparta; Vol. 2, Die Kleineren und mitteren griechischen Staaten und hellenistischen Reiche. General approach to nonfree groups in Greek warfare. Exhaustive and careful analysis of literary and archaeological sources.
  1788. Find this resource:
  1789. Metics and Foreigners
  1790.  
  1791. Since their impact in warfare has been traditionally assessed as low, metics have received little attention in modern research. Several sources, however, attest to the participation of foreigners in military campaigns of specific Greek city-states. That was an extraordinary effort on the part of the metics, who were presumably forced to contribute to their new communities with the highest commitment while still being excluded from political participation (Whitehead 1977). The phenomenon is still obscure for modern scholars: as Duncan-Jones 1980 and Hunt 2007 show, it is difficult to ascertain whether metic mobilization caused troubles in the city, what exactly was their military role, or what recognition (if any) did they receive for their service.
  1792.  
  1793. Duncan-Jones, Richard P. 1980. Metic numbers in Periclean Athens. Chiron 10:101–109.
  1794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1795. Introductory study to metics in Athens. Only superficial treatment of warfare.
  1796. Find this resource:
  1797. Hunt, Peter. 2007. Military forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby, 108–146. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1798. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1799. Brief reference to the recruitment of metics in classical Athens on pp. 138–139.
  1800. Find this resource:
  1801. Whitehead, David. 1977. The ideology of the Athenian metic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Philological Society.
  1802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1803. General and comprehensive survey on the situation of metics, focusing on the case of Athens. Frequent references to military participation of metics throughout the book.
  1804. Find this resource:
  1805. Weapons
  1806.  
  1807. Men and their weapons are the true protagonists of warfare. Politics, society, logistics, or religion were just the framework in which men handling fairly simple tools fought, killed, and died. This idea has prompted new and illuminating lines of research in the early 21st century: on the one hand, weapons have been approached from the point of view of their practical use in combat, their qualities for fighting, and the many cultural and ideological preconceptions they entail. On the other hand, the individual soldier has received renewed attention not only as a social and political figure in his community, but also as a human being subject to the extreme pressure and intense emotions of the horrifying experience of combat.
  1808.  
  1809. Arms and Armor
  1810.  
  1811. All the fighting and killing in ancient Greek campaigns and battles was carried out with spears and swords, helmets and shields, and javelins and bows. These are fairly simple pieces of military technology, “tools” intended to perform basic actions such as cutting, slashing, thrusting, or piercing (Jarva 1995; Jarva 2013; Snodgrass 1999; Aldrete, et al. 2013). This equipment (and the practices and actions attached to it) changed little during ancient times, reducing innovation to mainly cosmetic adaptations in shapes or decoration. From this perception, it is even hard to recognize these weapons as proper technology, as Hanson 1991 discusses extensively. Modern scholarship has more recently attempted to analyze the special relationship of ancient Greek warriors with their weapons (sometimes a truly significant possession) and to study the mechanics of their use in combat (Anderson 1991, Schwartz 2013). These are just two lines in a very promising research field. Bugh 2006 explores the Hellenistic military equipment (see also Hellenistic Period).
  1812.  
  1813. Aldrete, Gregory S., Scott Bartell, and Alicia Aldrete. 2013. Reconstructing ancient linen body armor: Unraveling the linothorax mystery. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  1814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1815. A fine example of experimental archaeology, reconstructing and testing the qualities of the linothorax. Extensively documented and exemplary in its methodology.
  1816. Find this resource:
  1817. Anderson, John K. 1991. The men and their equipment: Hoplite weapons and offensive arms. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 15–37. London: Routledge.
  1818. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1819. General description of Greek weapons and their use in combat. Source-based and well-documented study.
  1820. Find this resource:
  1821. Bugh, Glenn R. 2006. Hellenistic military developments. In The Cambridge companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Glenn R. Bugh, 265–294. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1823. General approach to Hellenistic warfare, with detailed references to equipment and technology.
  1824. Find this resource:
  1825. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1991. Hoplite technology in phalanx battle. In Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. Edited by Victor Davis Hanson, 63–86. London: Routledge.
  1826. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639_chapter_3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1827. Interesting analysis of the interaction of men and their weapons in Greek combat, describing the mechanics of weapon handling and the practices and uses attached to them.
  1828. Find this resource:
  1829. Jarva, Eero. 1995. Archaiologia on Archaic Greek body armour. Studia Archaeologica Septentrionalia 3. Rovaniemi, Finland: Societas Historica Finlandiae Septentrionalis.
  1830. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1831. Thorough reassessment of the qualities and features of Greek body armor (mainly helmets and shields), on the basis of archaeological research of the deposits in the sanctuary of Olympia. Interesting cultural and sociological conclusions.
  1832. Find this resource:
  1833. Jarva, Eero. 2013. Arms and armor: Part I; Arming Greeks for battle. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 395–418. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1834. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1835. A synthesis of Greek military equipment, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  1836. Find this resource:
  1837. Schwartz, Adam. 2013. Large weapons, small Greeks: The practical limitations of hoplite weapons and equipment. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 157–175. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1838. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1839. An evaluation of the qualities of Greek weapons and their tactical applications, with special emphasis on the “phalanx debate.”
  1840. Find this resource:
  1841. Snodgrass, Anthony M. 1999. Arms and armor of the Greeks. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  1842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1843. Fundamental study on the historical evolution of Greek weapons, by a top-range specialist in the field. Good introductory value.
  1844. Find this resource:
  1845. Equipment and the Phalanx
  1846.  
  1847. Weapons interact with tactics and formations in a symbiotic relationship. Pressing this argument a bit further, an influential line of thought maintains that Greek weapons determined the shape of tactics and formations in the Archaic period, and concludes that the Argive shield and the single spear determined the introduction of the typically Greek phalanx. The argument was shaped in the first half of the 20th century, but it found new support later on, as shown in Hanson 1989, Bryant 1990, and Storch 1998, and more recently in Schwartz 2002 and Schwartz 2009. Criticism has been raised from several fields (e.g., Echeverría 2010), but the controversy still drags on, as shown in the contributions to Kagan and Viggiano 2013.
  1848.  
  1849. Bryant, Joseph M. 1990. Military technology and socio-cultural change in the ancient Greek city. Sociological Review 38.3: 484–516.
  1850. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1990.tb00921.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1851. Introductory survey of the ideological and cultural meaning of military technology. Emphasis on the idea of technological progress prompting social and political transformations.
  1852. Find this resource:
  1853. Echeverría, Fernando. 2010. Weapons, technological determinism, and ancient warfare. In New perspectives on ancient warfare. Edited by Garrett G. Fagan and Matthew Trundle, 21–56. History of Warfare 59. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1855. A general evaluation of determinism as an academic approach to ancient tactics and technological change and innovation.
  1856. Find this resource:
  1857. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1859. A detailed presentation of the relationship between Greek weapons and tactics, emphasizing the exclusive adequacy of “hoplite” equipment to the phalanx.
  1860. Find this resource:
  1861. Kagan, Donald, and Gregory F. Viggiano, eds. 2013. Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1862. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1863. Collection of papers on the “phalanx debate,” the military transformations of the Archaic period, and the alleged relationship between Greek weapons and the phalanx.
  1864. Find this resource:
  1865. Schwartz, Adam. 2002. The early hoplite phalanx: Order or disarray? Classica et Mediaevalia 53:31–64.
  1866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1867. Assessment of the introduction of the phalanx and the adequacy of “hoplite” equipment for closed formations.
  1868. Find this resource:
  1869. Schwartz, Adam. 2009. Reinstating the hoplite: Arms, armour and phalanx fighting in Archaic and classical Greece. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
  1870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1871. New assertion of the traditional notion of technological determinism, emphasizing military change as the basis for wider cultural and historical change.
  1872. Find this resource:
  1873. Storch, Rudolph H. 1998. The Archaic Greek “phalanx,” 750–650 BC. Ancient History Bulletin 12.1–2: 1–7.
  1874. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1875. An overview of the introduction of the “hoplite” equipment and the phalanx in the Archaic period, exploring the social and political implications of the process.
  1876. Find this resource:
  1877. Artillery and Siege Machines
  1878.  
  1879. Machinery and siege artifacts have been traditionally regarded as proper military technology by modern studies. There is some basis to that assumption, because machines entail the participation of engineers and specialists, and the use of several physical principles with accurate calculations. Gille 1980 and Cuomo 2007 are good introductions to the subject. Machinery, however, was rarely employed on Greek battlefields and was often restricted to siege warfare: catapults, towers and battering rams were the main types used by Greek armies, as shown in Marsden 1969–1971, Campbell 2003, Rihll 2007, Chaniotis 2013, and Seaman 2013. Literary sources reveal other devices from time to time and attest to a remarkable technological ingenuity to cope with especially troublesome situations. These occurrences are rare, though, and they do not seem to be imitated or copied in other contexts. As a result, innovations and developments in this field are usually slow and problematic (DeVries 1997, Pimouguet-Pedarros 2000).
  1880.  
  1881. Campbell, Duncan B. 2003. Greek and Roman artillery 399 BC–AD 363. New Vanguard 89. Oxford: Osprey.
  1882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1883. General study of ancient classical artillery intended for the common reader. Interesting collection of pictures, drawings, and diagrams.
  1884. Find this resource:
  1885. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2013. Greeks under siege: Challenges, experiences, and emotions. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 438–456. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1886. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1887. A study of Greek siege warfare in the classical period, with reference to artillery and siege technology. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  1888. Find this resource:
  1889. Cuomo, Serafina. 2007. Technology and culture in Greek and Roman Antiquity. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1891. Introductory study of technology in classical Antiquity and its connection with cultural practices, traditions, and preconceptions. Significant treatment of military technology throughout the book.
  1892. Find this resource:
  1893. DeVries, Kelly. 1997. Catapults are not atomic bombs: Towards a redefinition of “effectiveness” in premodern military technology. War in History 4.4: 454–470.
  1894. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1895. Interesting reassessment of the effectiveness of ancient Greek artillery. Theoretical approach from a comparative perspective.
  1896. Find this resource:
  1897. Gille, Bertrand. 1980. Les mécaniciens grecs: La naissance de la technologie. Science Ouverte. Paris: Seuil.
  1898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1899. General survey of Greek machinery, with a detailed treatment of (and frequent references to) military devices throughout the book.
  1900. Find this resource:
  1901. Marsden, Eric W. 1969–1971. Greek and Roman artillery. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1903. Vol. 1, Historical Developments; Vol. 2, Technical Treatises. Fundamental and still-unsurpassed survey on siege machinery in two volumes, with detailed technical descriptions and exhaustive documentation.
  1904. Find this resource:
  1905. Pimouguet-Pedarros, Isabelle. 2000. L’apparition des premiers engins balistiques dans le monde grec et hellénisé: Un état de la question. Revue des Études Anciennes 102.1–2: 5–26.
  1906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1907. A survey of the scholarly work on the introduction of artillery in Greek warfare, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  1908. Find this resource:
  1909. Rihll, Tracey E. 2007. The catapult: A history. Weapons in History. Yardley, PA: Westholme.
  1910. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1911. Survey on the catapult in classical Antiquity. Extensive and well documented, the book offers new insights into different aspects of the subject.
  1912. Find this resource:
  1913. Seaman, Michael. 2013. The Peloponnesian War and its sieges. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 642–656. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1914. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1915. A detailed analysis of sieges during the Peloponnesian War, emphasizing practices, techniques, and technological innovations.
  1916. Find this resource:
  1917. Chariots and Elephants
  1918.  
  1919. Chariots and elephants will be listed here as “weapons,” emphasizing their use by Greek commanders as military tools, but they could be also included under Troops. They are intriguing and striking weapons. Although with radically different features and limitations, they have usually been studied together because they were intended to perform exactly the same tactical function: to break and disperse the enemy’s heavy infantry (Scullard 1974, Crouwel 1992). Despite their intermittent use in Greek armies, neither of them were truly successful in performing that task: their limitations usually outweighed their advantages. Both chariots and elephants were heavy weapons, difficult to handle and expensive to maintain; besides, they could fight only under special circumstances (flat ground, no obstacles: see Anderson 1965, Anderson 1975, Raulwing 2002, Bugh 2006, and Sabin 2007). For these reasons, they were relegated to a secondary status, and they have accordingly attracted limited attention by modern scholarship.
  1920.  
  1921. Anderson, John K. 1965. Homeric, British and Cyrenaic chariots. American Journal of Archaeology 69.4: 349–352.
  1922. DOI: 10.2307/502184Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1923. Brief and compelling study on the mechanics of chariot warfare in historical Greece, comparing early Greek chariots to later examples.
  1924. Find this resource:
  1925. Anderson, John K. 1975. Greek chariot-borne and mounted infantry. American Journal of Archaeology 79.3: 175–187.
  1926. DOI: 10.2307/503478Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1927. Introductory analysis of the connection between chariots and cavalry in the early stages of Greek warfare.
  1928. Find this resource:
  1929. Bugh, Glenn R. 2006. Hellenistic military developments. In The Cambridge companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Glenn R. Bugh, 265–294. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1931. Cursory analysis of the use of chariots and elephants is included in this general approach to Hellenistic warfare.
  1932. Find this resource:
  1933. Crouwel, Joost H. 1992. Chariots and other wheeled vehicles in Iron Age Greece. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1934. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1935. Seminal work on chariots and chariot fighting in early Greece. Source-based approach with many archaeological references.
  1936. Find this resource:
  1937. Raulwing, Peter, ed. 2002. Selected writings on chariots and other early vehicles, riding and harness. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 6. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1938. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1939. Collection of papers by Mary A. Littauer and Joost Crouwel on the typology and use of chariots, covering different aspects and controversies on the subject.
  1940. Find this resource:
  1941. Sabin, Philip. 2007. Battle: Land battles. In Cambridge history of Greek and Roman Warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 399–433. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1942. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739.014Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1943. Updated and well-documented analysis of Greek land warfare during the Hellenistic period. Summary on chariots and elephants is on pp. 417–421.
  1944. Find this resource:
  1945. Scullard, Howard H. 1974. The elephant in the Greek and Roman world. Aspects of Greek and Roman Life. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1946. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1947. Seminal work on the tactical use and handling of the elephant, with special reference to its limitations as a weapon in land warfare.
  1948. Find this resource:
  1949. Troops
  1950.  
  1951. Recruited and mobilized men could carry different pieces of equipment and thus perform different tactical functions. Given that, they were usually deployed together in coherent units and formations and followed their own officers, so we usually refer to them as different types of troops. Infantry was the basic and fundamental military force in Antiquity, able to perform a wide range of military functions, and cavalry joined soon as a secondary but important section. However, not only strictly military matters were taken into account to differentiate between the various kinds of troops, but also social and economic issues connected to status and citizenship.
  1952.  
  1953. Heavy Infantry
  1954.  
  1955. Heavy infantry was the core of Greek armies in all periods, and some scholars have consistently focused on the “hoplite,” the heavy-armed infantry soldier who fought in the phalanx, as the main (sometimes even the sole) agent in Greek warfare (Hanson 1989, Hanson 1991). This notion represents just one of the possible meanings or uses the word had in ancient literary sources (Echeverría 2012). It also referred to high-class infantry warriors wealthy enough to afford the complete and fairly expensive panoply (Ridley 1979, van Wees 2001, Franz 2002). Regardless their status or social background, heavy infantry commonly fought in the phalanx in classical times (van Wees 2004, Hunt 2007, Sekunda 2007) and also composed the core of the Macedonian phalanx in the Hellenistic period (Sekunda 2010).
  1956.  
  1957. Echeverría, Fernando. 2012. Hoplite and phalanx in Archaic and classical Greece: A reassessment. Classical Philology 107.4: 291–318.
  1958. DOI: 10.1086/666924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1959. A study of the concepts of “hoplite” and “phalanx” in ancient sources, trying to establish the nature of Greek heavy infantry and closed formations.
  1960. Find this resource:
  1961. Franz, Johann Peter. 2002. Krieger, Bauern, Bürger: Untersuchungen zu den Hopliten der archaischen und klassischen Zeit. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag.
  1962. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1963. Thorough study of the figure of the hoplite as a citizen and landowner, with special emphasis on the historical evolution of the figure.
  1964. Find this resource:
  1965. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1989. The Western way of war: Infantry battle in classical Greece. 2d ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1966. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1967. General survey on “hoplite” warfare, with special emphasis on the figure of the hoplite, his ideology, and his experience of combat.
  1968. Find this resource:
  1969. Hanson, Victor Davis, ed. 1991. Hoplites: The classical Greek battle experience. London: Routledge.
  1970. DOI: 10.4324/9780203423639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1971. Collection of papers focused on “hoplite” warfare and the figure of the hoplite from different perspectives.
  1972. Find this resource:
  1973. Hunt, Peter. 2007. Military forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 108–146. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1975. Reassessment of the figure of the hoplite on pp. 111–117.
  1976. Find this resource:
  1977. Ridley, Ronald T. 1979. The hoplite as citizen: Athenian military institutions in their social context. L’Antiquité Classique 48.2: 508–548.
  1978. DOI: 10.3406/antiq.1979.1945Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1979. Analysis of the socioeconomic aspects of the figure of the hoplite as a high-class citizen.
  1980. Find this resource:
  1981. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2007. Military forces: Land forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 325–357. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1983. A reassessment of heavy infantry in the late classical and Hellenistic times.
  1984. Find this resource:
  1985. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2010. The Macedonian army. In A companion to ancient Macedonia. Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, 446–471. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  1986. DOI: 10.1002/9781444327519Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1987. A general analysis of the Macedonian army, paying considerable attention to the different kinds of heavy infantry used in Hellenistic armies.
  1988. Find this resource:
  1989. van Wees, Hans. 2001. The myth of the middle-class army: Military and social status in ancient Athens. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 45–71. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  1990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1991. Fundamental reassessment of the socioeconomic background of the Athenian hoplite, emphasizing his relatively well-off status and rejecting the notion of middle classes.
  1992. Find this resource:
  1993. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  1994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1995. Detailed analysis of the hoplite as a heavy-armed infantryman, his social context, and his ideology.
  1996. Find this resource:
  1997. Archers, Peltasts, and Light Infantry
  1998.  
  1999. Light-armed troops were regarded by ancient Greeks as subsidiary troops. As a result, they were consistently discarded from detailed accounts in literary sources, and they were granted little recognition by the institutions of the polis. This situation has been reflected by a similar lack of interest on the part of modern scholarship, and therefore only a handful of modern studies deal primarily with them in detail. The resulting picture is far from complete but represents a starting point in a necessary field for further research. Best 1969 explores the figure of the peltast and his performance in Greek warfare, while Lissarrague 1990 approaches the issue from the point of view of iconography. Reboreda Morillo 1996 discusses the use of bow and arrows in the early periods of Greek history. Pritchett 1991 still is the best and most comprehensive account of the subject. More-recent summaries can be found in Hunt 2007, Sekunda 2007, and Trundle 2010.
  2000.  
  2001. Best, Jan G. P. 1969. Thracian peltasts and their influence on Greek warfare. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 1. Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters-Noordhoff.
  2002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2003. Fundamental study on the figure of the peltast and its introduction and evolution in Greek warfare. Rather-old work but still influential and elementary for any reader.
  2004. Find this resource:
  2005. Hunt, Peter. 2007. Military forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 108–146. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2006. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2007. General study of Greek armies in the Archaic and classical periods, with detailed references to light infantry.
  2008. Find this resource:
  2009. Lissarrague, François. 1990. L’autre guerrier: Archers, peltastes, cavaliers dans l’imaginerie attique. Images à l’Appui 3. Paris: Éditions La Découverte.
  2010. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2011. Iconographic analysis of the “other warriors,” light-armed troops and cavalry in opposition to the hoplites. Good introductory value.
  2012. Find this resource:
  2013. Pritchett, William K. 1991. The Greek state at war. Vol. 5. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2015. Detailed survey on the types, military practices, and nature of light-armed troops, pp. 1–67.
  2016. Find this resource:
  2017. Reboreda Morillo, Susana. 1996. L’arc et les flèches en Grèce à la fin de l’Âge du Bronze et au début de l’Âge du Fer. Dialogues d’Histoire Ancienne 22.2: 9–24.
  2018. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1996.2294Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2019. Introductory work on the characteristics and use of the bow and arrows in the early Iron Age. Spanish translation in Gerión: Revista de Historia Antigua 16 (1998): 85–99.
  2020. Find this resource:
  2021. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2007. Military forces: Land forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 325–357. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2023. General study of Greek armies in the late classical and Hellenistic periods, with detailed references to light infantry.
  2024. Find this resource:
  2025. Trundle, Matthew. 2010. Light troops in classical Athens. In War, democracy, and culture in classical Athens. Edited by David M. Pritchard, 139–160. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2027. Assessment of the nature, function, and organization of light infantry in imperial Athens.
  2028. Find this resource:
  2029. Mercenaries
  2030.  
  2031. There is still an ongoing and lively academic discussion on the origins and nature of Greek mercenary service. Different theories have been put forward to explain a phenomenon that appeared in the Late Archaic period and developed into a prosperous market in the classical era (Bettalli 1995). Greece provided fine mercenary infantry to all Mediterranean regions for several centuries, and scholars have been investigating the causes and processes of that phenomenon. Greek mercenaries represented a clear rupture in the principle of the citizen militias in many communities, as discussed in Casillas 1994, Trundle 1999, Trundle 2004, Trundle 2013, and Hale 2013. The organization and logistics of mercenary armies (with special reference to the Ten Thousand) are promising fields, as shown in Baker 1999 and Lee 2007. Mercenary service expanded considerably during the Hellenistic period, as described in Launey 1987 and Chaniotis 2005.
  2032.  
  2033. Baker, Patrick. 1999. Les mercenaires. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.–C. Edited by Francis Prost, 240–256. Paris: Errance.
  2034. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2035. General survey of Greek mercenary service, especially focused on the classical period. Good introductory value.
  2036. Find this resource:
  2037. Bettalli, Marco. 1995. I mercenari nel mondo greco. Vol. 1, Dalle origini alla fine del V sec. a.C. Studi e Testi di Storia Antica 5. Pisa, Italy: Edizioni ETS.
  2038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2039. Study on Greek mercenary service during the Archaic and classical periods. Source-based and well-documented approach.
  2040. Find this resource:
  2041. Casillas, Juan Miguel. 1994. Los mercenarios en Esparta: Desde Leuctra hasta la llegada de los macedonios. In Actas del VIII Congreso Español de Estudios Clásicos: Madrid, 23–28 de septiembre de 1991. Vol. 3. Edited by Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos, 115–124. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.
  2042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2043. General survey on the recruitment and military use of mercenaries in Sparta during the 4th century BCE.
  2044. Find this resource:
  2045. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Ancient World at War. Oxford: Blackwell.
  2046. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2047. Substantial account of warfare in the Hellenistic period, with a specific analysis of mercenary service on pp. 78–96.
  2048. Find this resource:
  2049. Hale, John R. 2013. Not patriots, not farmers, not amateurs: Greek soldiers of fortune and the origins of hoplite warfare. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 176–193. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2050. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2051. A study of the origins of “hoplite” warfare, which the author situates not in the rise of the polis but in the expansion of mercenary service in the Early Archaic period.
  2052. Find this resource:
  2053. Launey, Marcel. 1987. Recherches sur les armées hellénistiques. 2 vols. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 169. Paris: de Boccard.
  2054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2055. Extensive study on field armies during the Hellenistic period. Frequent references to mercenaries throughout the work.
  2056. Find this resource:
  2057. Lee, John W. I. 2007. A Greek army on the march: Soldiers and survival in Xenophon’s Anabasis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2058. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2059. Illuminating study of the logistics of classical Greek mercenary armies, according to Xenophon and the mercenary army depicted in the Anabasis.
  2060. Find this resource:
  2061. Trundle, Matthew. 1999. Identity and community among Greek mercenaries in the classical world, 700–322 BCE. Ancient History Bulletin 13.1: 28–38.
  2062. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2063. Introductory study of mercenary service in Greece, emphasizing the internal organization of mercenary armies as political communities.
  2064. Find this resource:
  2065. Trundle, Matthew. 2004. Greek mercenaries: From the Late Archaic period to Alexander. London: Routledge.
  2066. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2067. Comprehensive account of Greek mercenary service. Fundamental reading on the subject.
  2068. Find this resource:
  2069. Trundle, Matthew. 2013. The business of war: Mercenaries. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 330–350. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2070. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2071. Synthesis of the nature, functions, and organization of mercenary service in classical warfare. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  2072. Find this resource:
  2073. Cavalry
  2074.  
  2075. Mounted soldiers first and proper cavalry later figure regularly in ancient Greek sources, occasionally to a considerable effect in battle (Greenhalgh 1973, Sidnell 2006, Hunt 2007, Sekunda 2007, Hyland 2013). Approaches to Greek cavalrymen, such as Bugh 1988, Spence 1993, and Worley 1994, also take into account their socioeconomic background, which evolves from the aristocratic horse breeders of the Archaic period to the humble light-armed mounted warriors of the classical and Hellenistic periods.
  2076.  
  2077. Bugh, Glenn R. 1988. The horsemen of Athens. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2079. Fundamental study on Athenian horsemen from the earliest times to the Hellenistic period. Broad perspective not limited to military cavalry.
  2080. Find this resource:
  2081. Greenhalgh, Peter A. L. 1973. Early Greek warfare: Horsemen and chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2083. Interesting iconographic study on the figure of cavalrymen in Archaic Greek vase painting, exploring their connection with chariots both in art and in real practice.
  2084. Find this resource:
  2085. Hunt, Peter. 2007. Military forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 108–146. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2087. General study of Greek armies in the Archaic and early classical periods, with detailed references to cavalry.
  2088. Find this resource:
  2089. Hyland, Ann. 2013. War and the horse. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 493–526. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2090. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2091. A synthesis of the nature, functions, and organization of cavalry in classical warfare, with updated discussion and bibliography.
  2092. Find this resource:
  2093. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor. 2007. Military forces: Land forces. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 325–357. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2095. General study of Greek armies in the late classical and Hellenistic periods, with detailed references to cavalry.
  2096. Find this resource:
  2097. Sidnell, Philip. 2006. Warhorse: Cavalry in the ancient world. London: Hambledon Continuum.
  2098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2099. Reassessment of the role of military cavalry in combat in the ancient world, specifically intended to underline the effectiveness of cavalry fighting. Treatment of the Greek cavalry (from the classical period to the Successors) on pp. 23–148.
  2100. Find this resource:
  2101. Spence, Iain G. 1993. The cavalry of classical Greece: A social and military history with particular reference to Athens. Oxford: Clarendon.
  2102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2103. General survey on Greek military cavalry and its historical evolution. Thorough and detailed, as well as well documented.
  2104. Find this resource:
  2105. Worley, Leslie J. 1994. Hippeis: The cavalry of ancient Greece. History and Warfare. Boulder, CO: Westview.
  2106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2107. Analysis of the Greek military cavalry, emphasizing socioeconomic aspects.
  2108. Find this resource:
  2109. Ships and Fleets
  2110.  
  2111. The omnipresence of land operations has slightly obscured the research on Greek naval warfare in modern scholarship. Navigation was an extremely ancient skill in historical Greece, but because of the excessive costs of building and manning a fleet, naval warfare developed to a large scale only in later times, as shown in Morrison and Williams 1968, Wallinga 1993, de Souza 1998, and Pagès 2000. When it did, it was thanks to economic transformations in the city-state, and then it prompted social and political adaptations in turn (Gabrielsen 2001, de Souza 2013). For this reason, naval warfare has a longstanding reputation as a more “democratic” way of war (Jordan 1975, Strauss 1996, Strauss 2007). In Hellenistic times, and fueled by the immense resources of the great kingdoms, navies escalated into huge fleets of massive and barely operative ships (de Souza 2007, Murray 2012).
  2112.  
  2113. de Souza, Philip. 1998. Towards thalassocracy? Archaic Greek naval developments. In Archaic Greece: New approaches and new evidence. Edited by Nick Fisher and Hans van Wees, 271–293. London: Duckworth.
  2114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2115. An assessment of the role and organization of fleets in the Archaic period, in the context of Greek colonial expansion overseas and the consolidation of the polis.
  2116. Find this resource:
  2117. de Souza, Philip. 2007. Battle: Naval battles and sieges. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 434–460. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2119. Updated and well-documented analysis of Greek naval warfare during the Hellenistic period.
  2120. Find this resource:
  2121. de Souza, Philip. 2013. War at sea. In The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle, 369–394. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2122. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2123. A synthesis of the different aspects and controversies of naval warfare in the classical world. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  2124. Find this resource:
  2125. Gabrielsen, Vincent. 2001. Naval warfare: Its economic and social impact on Greek cities. Paper presented at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters meeting held in January 1998 in Copenhagen. In War as a cultural and social force: Essays on warfare in Antiquity. Edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen and Lise Hannestad, 72–98. Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter 22. Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  2126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2127. An assessment of the financing and logistics of navies in the Greek poleis.
  2128. Find this resource:
  2129. Jordan, Borimir. 1975. The Athenian navy in the classical period: A study of Athenian naval administration and military organization in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2131. A monograph on the organization, financing, and military activity of the Athenian navy during the period of imperial dominance in the Aegean.
  2132. Find this resource:
  2133. Morrison, John S., and Roderick T. Williams. 1968. Greek oared ships, 900–322 B.C. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2135. Fundamental study on the evolution of shipbuilding during the early times of historical Greece. Precise technical details about the different types of Greek ships. Special evaluation of the main Greek warship, the trireme.
  2136. Find this resource:
  2137. Murray, William M. 2012. The age of titans: The rise and fall of the great Hellenistic navies. Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2138. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388640.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2139. Study of Hellenistic naval developments, emphasizing the inclination toward the investment of greater resources in mightier fleets of oversized ships.
  2140. Find this resource:
  2141. Pagès, Jean. 2000. Recherches sur la guerre navale dans l’Antiquité. Hautes Études Maritimes 15. Paris: Institut de Stratégie Comparée.
  2142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2143. Collection of Pagès’s papers on different aspects of naval warfare: weapons and fighting on ships, Hellenistic navies, convoys, and so on.
  2144. Find this resource:
  2145. Strauss, Barry S. 1996. The Athenian trireme, school of democracy. In Dēmokratia: A conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Edited by Josiah Ober and Charles Hedrick, 313–326. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2147. Political analysis of Athenian naval power during the classical period, connecting service in the fleet with the development of democratic values.
  2148. Find this resource:
  2149. Strauss, Barry S. 2007. Battle: Naval battles and sieges. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 223–247. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2151. Updated and well-documented analysis of Greek naval warfare during the Archaic and classical periods. Most recent summary on the subject.
  2152. Find this resource:
  2153. Wallinga, Herman T. 1993. Ships and sea power before the great Persian War: The ancestry of the ancient trireme. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  2154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2155. Comprehensive survey of fleets and military naval power during the Archaic period. Illuminating on a scarcely known period of Greek naval warfare.
  2156. Find this resource:
  2157. Warfare and Economy
  2158.  
  2159. Warfare naturally had strong economic foundations: military campaigns were a common mechanism for the acquisition of goods (booty, agricultural products, cattle, slaves, territory), they contributed to the general circulation of wealth and sometimes kept the balance in a city’s finance system, and, from the point of view of logistics, ancient Greek armies were a living body that consumed vast amounts of resources, so financing military expeditions (especially long sieges or naval campaigns) became a growing challenge for the simple economies of most city-states. Greek history shows how the increase in military expenditures led not to a period of stability and peace but to an escalation in the frequency, complexity, and ubiquity of warfare. That helps explain some historical periods, such as the last third of the 5th century BCE, or the turbulent period of the Successors.
  2160.  
  2161. Agriculture and Production
  2162.  
  2163. Early-21st-century scholarship has extensively discussed the connection between warfare and agriculture. The result is an interesting line of work dealing with the different aspects of farming, landowning, and agricultural production, of which Chandezon 1999 is a sample. Agriculture was the origin and the end of many of the interstate conflicts during the Archaic and classical periods: disputes over agricultural land prompted longstanding feuds between neighboring communities, and the destruction and plunder of enemy farms remained a crucial element in Greek strategy, as discussed in Harvey 1986, Foxhall 1995, Thorne 2001, Krentz 2007, and van Wees 2013. Hanson 1983 and Hanson 1995 show that Greek warfare was determined by agricultural factors, and most of the soldiery was recruited among the farmers and landowners of the city.
  2164.  
  2165. Chandezon, Christophe. 1999. L’économie rurale et la guerre. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.–C. Edited by Francis Prost, 195–208. Paris: Errance.
  2166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2167. General introduction to the topic of agriculture and its connections with warfare. It offers a summary of the late-20th-century discussion on the subject.
  2168. Find this resource:
  2169. Foxhall, Lin. 1995. Farming and fighting in ancient Greece. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 134–145. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  2170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2171. Critical response to Hanson 1983, evaluating the impact of agriculture in the outbreak and evolution of Greek wars. Compelling and illuminating.
  2172. Find this resource:
  2173. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1983. Warfare and agriculture in classical Greece. Biblioteca di Studi Antichi 40. Pisa, Italy: Giardini.
  2174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2175. Seminal work on the connection between warfare and agriculture. Good introduction to the agrarian dynamics of Greek warfare. Revised edition (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1998) is an updated, accessible, and corrected version with a response to the critiques to the first edition.
  2176. Find this resource:
  2177. Hanson, Victor Davis. 1995. The other Greeks: The family farm and the agrarian roots of Western civilization. New York: Free Press.
  2178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2179. Reappraisal and development of Hanson 1983; a chronological survey (from Homer to Alexander) on the “agrarian roots” of Greek communities and warfare.
  2180. Find this resource:
  2181. Harvey, Paul B. 1986. New harvest reappear: The impact of war on agriculture. Athenaeum 64.1–2: 205–218.
  2182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2183. Critical review of Hanson 1983, assessing the extent of agricultural destruction in Greek warfare and its strategic role for victory.
  2184. Find this resource:
  2185. Krentz, Peter. 2007. War. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby, 147–185. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2186. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2187. An evaluation of the topic on pp. 154–156 and 170–173, with updated bibliography.
  2188. Find this resource:
  2189. Thorne, James A. 2001. Warfare and agriculture: The economic impact of devastation in classical Greece. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 42.3: 225–253.
  2190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2191. Reassessment of the discussion on warfare and devastation, revisiting the hypothesis of Hanson 1983. Thorne finds the case of Attica’s devastation in the Peloponnesian War fundamentally misleading and difficult to extrapolate to the rest of Greece.
  2192. Find this resource:
  2193. van Wees, Hans. 2013. Farmers and hoplites: Models of historical development. Paper presented at a conference on early Greek hoplite warfare held in April 2008 at Yale University, New Haven, CT. In Men of bronze: Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece. Edited by Donald Kagan and Gregory F. Viggiano, 222–255. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  2194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2195. An analysis of the relationship between agriculture and warfare in ancient Greece, particularly connected to the world of the polis and the citizen farmer.
  2196. Find this resource:
  2197. Financing War
  2198.  
  2199. Warfare is an expensive activity, at least for tribal and state societies with their own recruitment, mobilization, and arming mechanisms. In order to keep an army on the march, men and beasts had to be fed, and in order to accomplish the military aims, arms of all kinds (weapons, horses, ships, machines) had to be purchased, engineered, and maintained (Engels 1980, Feyel 1999, Chaniotis 2005, Gabrielsen 2007, Burrer and Müller 2008, Pritchard 2012). Ancient sources usually overlook the all-important fields of finances and logistics, and only occasional echoes reach us. It is no exaggeration, however, to state that feeding the army was the main and overarching concern of any Greek general (Descat 1995, Blamire 2001). Gabrielsen 1994 and van Wees 2013 show that building and maintaining fleets was an especially complex and expensive business. For more references, see Logistics.
  2200.  
  2201. Blamire, Alec. 2001. Athenian finance, 454–404 BC. Hesperia 70.1: 99–126.
  2202. DOI: 10.2307/2668488Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2203. General survey of the Athenian finances in the period of its imperial hegemony, with frequent references to war expenditures.
  2204. Find this resource:
  2205. Burrer, Friedrich, and Holger Müller, eds. 2008. Kriegskosten und Kriegsfinanzierung in der Antike. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  2206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2207. Collection of papers on different aspects of ancient war finance and logistics. On Greece (and especially focused on Athens), see chapters by Klaus Meister (Athens), Jürgen Malitz (Thucydides and Athens), Vincent Gabrielsen (Athenian navy), Friedrich Burrer (payment), and Hans van Wees (Eretria).
  2208. Find this resource:
  2209. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Ancient World at War. Oxford: Blackwell.
  2210. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2211. Substantial account of warfare in the Hellenistic period, with a specific analysis of the costs of war and finances on pp. 115–142.
  2212. Find this resource:
  2213. Descat, Raymond. 1995. Marché et tribut: L’approvisionnement des Dix-Mille. In Dans les pas des Dix-Mille: Peuples et pays du Proche-Orient vus par un Grec. Edited by Pierre Briant, 99–108. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
  2214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2215. Short study on the sources of supplies for the Ten Thousand during the campaign in Persia. Emphasis on purchasing products, which entails carrying large amounts of metal.
  2216. Find this resource:
  2217. Engels, Donald W. 1980. Alexander the Great and the logistics of the Macedonian army. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2219. Fundamental study on the logistics and organization of Alexander’s army. Extraordinary introductory value for all readers.
  2220. Find this resource:
  2221. Feyel, Christophe. 1999. Aperçu sur le financement de la guerre dans la cité classique. In Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique: Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe S. av. J.–C. Edited by Francis Prost, 209–222. Paris: Errance.
  2222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2223. General introduction to the provisioning and financing of armies in ancient Greece, focusing on the city-state as the main political structure.
  2224. Find this resource:
  2225. Gabrielsen, Vincent. 1994. Financing the Athenian fleet: Public taxation and social relations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  2226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2227. Seminal work on military finances, focusing on the Athenian fleet of the classical period. Thorough and well-documented study.
  2228. Find this resource:
  2229. Gabrielsen, Vincent. 2007. Warfare and the state. In The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby, 248–272. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2230. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782739Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2231. Reassessment of the subject, with updated bibliography. Focus on the resources of the Greek communities to finance military campaigns.
  2232. Find this resource:
  2233. Pritchard, David M. 2012. Costing festivals and war: Spending priorities of the Athenian democracy. Historia 61.1: 18–65.
  2234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2235. A thorough analysis of Athenian expenditures both in religious festivals and in military campaigns in the classical period.
  2236. Find this resource:
  2237. van Wees, Hans. 2013. Ships and silver, taxes and tribute: A fiscal history of Archaic Athens. London: I. B. Tauris.
  2238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2239. A monograph on the financing of the Athenian fleet and other military expenditures during the Archaic period. Updated discussion and bibliography.
  2240. Find this resource:
  2241. Piracy and Booty
  2242.  
  2243. Piracy has traditionally been studied separately from other aspects of combat: war is commonly regarded as an organized conflict between states or centralized entities, while piracy seems to be a subsidiary activity by stateless and marginal groups (Brulé 1978, Garlan 1989). This perspective is constructed according to modern examples of piracy, but it is not actually sensitive to the peculiarities of this phenomenon in ancient times. The moral condemnation of piracy by central powers has influenced as well our way of understanding this activity. Modern research has consistently shown that ancient Greek warfare, especially in the narrow focus of local disputes between communities, frequently took the form of plundering expeditions with the double intention of inflicting harm on the enemy and stealing goods (Jackson 1995, Rihll 1995, de Souza 1995, de Souza 1999, Gabrielsen 2003). This second aim turns piracy into a way of economic acquisition (Brun 2000). Pritchett 1991 still is the most comprehensive approach to the subject.
  2244.  
  2245. Brulé, Pierre. 1978. La piraterie crétoise hellenistique. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  2246. DOI: 10.3406/ista.1978.1015Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2247. Detailed analysis of the particular case of Crete in the Hellenistic period, famous for the piratical activities of many of its communities. Illuminating for Hellenistic piracy in general.
  2248. Find this resource:
  2249. Brun, Patrice, and Raymond Descat. 2000. Le profit de la guerre dans la Grèce des cités. In Économie antique: La guerre dans les économies antiques. Edited by Jean Andreau, Pierre Bryant, and Raymond Descat, 211–230. Entretiens d’Archéologie et d’Histoire 5. Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges, France: Musée Archéologique Départemental.
  2250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2251. Introductory survey on booty in Greek warfare, focusing in the conflicts between city-states. Emphasis on the economic aspects of plundering and raiding.
  2252. Find this resource:
  2253. de Souza, Philip. 1995. Greek piracy. In The Greek world. Edited by Anton Powell, 179–198. London: Routledge.
  2254. DOI: 10.4324/9780203269206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2255. A synthesis of the relevant aspects and discussions around Greek piracy, with particular emphasis on the classical period.
  2256. Find this resource:
  2257. de Souza, Philip. 1999. Piracy in the Graeco-Roman world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  2259. Fundamental study on Greek and Roman piracy, with extensive analysis of the socioeconomic grounds of the phenomenon. Source-based approach with critical discussion of literary evidence.
  2260. Find this resource:
  2261. Gabrielsen, Vincent. 2003. Piracy and the slave-trade. In A companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Andrew Erskine, 389–404. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell.
  2262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2263. An overview of piracy in the Hellenistic period, with special reference to maritime activities and slavery.
  2264. Find this resource:
  2265. Garlan, Yvon. 1989. Les pirates. In Guerre et économie en Grèce ancienne. By Yvon Garlan, 173–201. Textes à l’Appui. Paris: Éditions La Découverte.
  2266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2267. Introductory survey of piracy in the Greek world. Fundamental work for any reader.
  2268. Find this resource:
  2269. Jackson, Alistar. 1995. War and raids for booty in the world of Odysseus. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 64–76. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  2270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2271. Illuminating analysis of Homeric and early Greek warfare as a sequence of raids and plundering expeditions both with economic and prestige purposes.
  2272. Find this resource:
  2273. Pritchett, William K. 1991. The Greek state at war. Vol. 5. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  2274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2275. Thorough study on the concept, vocabulary, and practices of booty in classical Greece. Source-based approach with extensive literary references.
  2276. Find this resource:
  2277. Rihll, Tracey. 1995. War, slavery, and settlement in early Greece. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 77–107. Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4. London: Routledge.
  2278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2279. Thought-provoking paper presenting piratical expeditions in search of slaves as an economic argument to explain the process of Greek colonization.
  2280. Find this resource:
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