Andrés Bello

Introduction

Andrés Bello (b. 1781–d. 1865) is widely recognized as a leading Latin American intellectual whose life spanned the late colonial period, the independence process, and the postindependence building of new nations. He lived in three cities, all of which had a major impact in his life, career, and thought: Caracas (1781–1810), London (1810–1829), and Santiago de Chile (1829–1865). During the first period, he received his university education, joined the colonial administration as a minor official, and was recruited by the new provisional junta established in 1810 in response to the Spanish imperial crisis. In London he was commissioned, along with Simón Bolívar and Luis López Méndez, to secure the support of Great Britain in case of a French invasion or retaliation on the part of the recently established Spanish Council of Regency. The diplomatic mission failed in these objectives, and Venezuela as a whole soon collapsed before a royalist assault. Bello remained in England for nineteen years, initially barely making ends meet and eventually representing Chile and Colombia as legation secretary. He was recruited by the government of Chile in 1828 to join its fledgling nation-state in an administrative capacity, first in the ministry of finance and then in the ministry of foreign relations. Chile proved to be a congenial place for Bello’s impressive level of activity. He was editor of the official newspaper El Araucano, prolific contributor to other journals, teacher, senator for twenty-seven years, founder and rector of the University of Chile, and author of works that, once collected, numbered twenty-six volumes. He is best known for his Principles of International Law (1832, 1844, 1864), Grammar of the Spanish Language (1847, 1850, 1853, 1857, 1860), and Civil Code of the Republic of Chile (1855), but a fuller assessment must consider the wide range of his interdisciplinary concerns, including philosophy, poetry, education, literary criticism, and science. In political terms he was first a loyal member of the imperial government, then a supporter of constitutional monarchy when independence seemed imminent, and eventually a committed republican once independence was secured. His main concern became providing the new republican systems with enough authority and legitimacy to become self-sustaining. It is for this reason that he contributed to the writing of the constitution of 1833, a highly centralist constitution with strong executive powers, and then he devoted over twenty years to reforming civil legislation to provide a stable environment for the rule of law to prosper. He became influential far beyond Chile and his native Venezuela. In the early 21st century virtually no country in Latin America is without some university, street, or monument to commemorate his life and works. He is certainly one of the most studied intellectuals in Latin America. This article provides guidance on how to locate the central and most informative sources to understand Bello’s variegated work.

General Overviews

Although collections of essays evaluating Bello’s contributions to a variety of fields of knowledge and to the public sphere began to appear shortly after his death in 1865 and have abounded ever since, they have tended to be celebratory rather than scholarly. However, in the second half of the 20th century two major events took place that changed the emphasis to a more academic approach. One was the decades-long collection of Bello materials that led to the publication of his complete works in twenty-six volumes, beginning in the 1950s (see Primary Materials and Edited Collections). The discovery of hundreds of original documents and letters and the publication of the texts with erudite annotated comments by leading experts changed the landscape of Bello research, as is most clearly exemplified in Grases 1981. The second event was the bicentennial of Bello’s birthday in 1981. Building on the work done in preparation for the complete works, a committee of Bello experts convened the international scholarly community to present the results of their work at a series of major gatherings in Caracas. The papers presented on that occasion revolutionized Bello studies, moving from the celebratory to the scholarly, placing more emphasis on the larger historical forces leading to and developing from independence from Spain, as shown in Fundación la Casa de Bello 1979, Fundación la Casa de Bello 1980–1981, Fundación la Casa de Bello 1981, and Fundación la Casa de Bello 1982. Some of the work remained celebratory, but the tone and the standards of proof changed dramatically, as can be seen in Lynch 1982. The major challenge for the new work was how to achieve a proper balance between the specific and the general. This challenge was all the more significant given the variety of areas in which Bello worked. As a result many of the contributions achieved higher levels of excellence but were very specific and sometimes removed from a connection to larger contexts. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, an effort has been made to apply a more interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach to Bello studies, as demonstrated in González Stephan and Poblete 2009.

Fundación la Casa de Bello, ed. Bello y Caracas. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1979.
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A collection of twenty essays covering a wide spectrum of Bello’s life and activities in Caracas (1781–1810), prior to departure to London. The biographical information about Bello is placed in the larger context of social, economic, and political developments during the late colonial period. The appendix includes a previously unpublished document.
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Fundación la Casa de Bello, ed. Bello y Londres. 2 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1980–1981.
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Bello lived in London from 1810 to 1829, a period when, in addition to diplomatic activities, he conducted substantial research on medieval philology at the British Museum and published several of his major works, primarily poetry. He also contributed to several major Spanish-language journals, such as Biblioteca Americana and El Repertorio Americano. His role in these areas is analyzed in forty essays.
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Fundación la Casa de Bello, ed. Bello y Chile. 2 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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The fifty-six essays that compose this collection focus on the most productive period of Bello’s life, which coincides with his arrival in Chile (1829–1865). All his major interests and publications are discussed, including some of the activities for which he is less known, such as his work as legislator, theater critic, and journalist.
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Fundación la Casa de Bello, ed. Bello y América Latina. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1982.
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While Bello addressed very specific national concerns in the postindependence period, the emphasis of the thirty-eight essays included in this volume is on those areas, ranging from education to law to the humanities, that transcended any particular country. A secondary purpose of this collection is to trace Bello’s impact beyond the Spanish American countries where he lived, Venezuela and Chile.
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González Stephan, Beatriz, and Juan Poblete, eds. Andrés Bello y los estudios latinoamericanos. Serie Críticas. Pittsburgh, PA: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, University of Pittsburgh, 2009.
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A collection of essays that provides multidisciplinary perspectives, including postmodern perspectives, to understand the work and the motivations of Bello in the context of various forms of modernity inaugurated by independence from Spain. These new perspectives illuminate new areas of scholarly concern, such as ethnicity and the meaning of citizenship in a new social and political environment.
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Grases, Pedro. Estudios sobre Andrés Bello. 2 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Seix Barral, 1981.
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A monumental collection of essays by the dean of Bello studies, Pedro Grases. The first volume concentrates on his research-based contributions to such areas as Bello’s work on medieval literature and on Venezuelan history. The second volume concentrates on shorter essays and reviews on Bello’s biography, international contacts, lesser-known writings, and various editions of his work.
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Lynch, John, ed. Andrés Bello: The London Years. Richmond, UK: Richmond Publishing, 1982.
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A significant group of essays in English by a variety of British and Latin American scholars concentrating on the London years (1810–1829), when Bello acquired important knowledge on international relations and absorbed many of the leading intellectual currents, especially those associated with European liberalism.
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Bibliographies

The bicentennial of Bello’s birthday that led to the publication of the latest edition of his complete works (Bello 1981–1984, cited under Primary Materials and Edited Collections) also led to a major effort to compile bibliographies of the ever-growing body of Bello scholarship. Outstanding among the bibliographers who specialized on Bello was the Argentine-born Horacio Jorge Becco (b. 1924–d. 2009), who resided in Venezuela until his death. Early contributions are in Millares 1970, but Becco 1989 upgraded the standards significantly. Horacio Jorge Becco also produced specific bibliographies on Chilean scholarship (Becco 1980b), Chilean editions of Bello’s publications (Becco 1980a), and Bello’s London publications (Becco 1981). Pedro Grases extended this work to cover Caracas in Grases 1978, and Barry L. Velleman made a major contribution in reconstructing Bello’s personal library and updating the bibliography in Velleman 1995.

Becco, Horacio Jorge. Ediciones chilenas de Andrés Bello (1830–1893). Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1980a.
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The great majority of books and articles by Bello were published in Chile. This bibliography provides publication data and identifies the papers and journals where he made his often unsigned contributions.
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Becco, Horacio Jorge. Medio siglo de bellismo en Chile, 1846–1900. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1980b.
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Due to the length of time that Bello spent in Chile (1829–1865), he left numerous disciples who wrote about him between 1846 and 1900. Perhaps the most outstanding of them was his major biographer, Miguel Luis Amunátegui Aldunate, whose work figures prominently in this bibliography.
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Becco, Horacio Jorge. “Bibliografía analítica de las publicaciones de don Andrés Bello en Londres.” In Bello y Londres. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 283–339. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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A thorough listing and attribution of both signed and unsigned articles by Bello during the London period (1810–1829), primarily in the journals Biblioteca Americana and El Repertorio Americano. It includes helpful indexes.
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Becco, Horacio Jorge. Bibliografía de Andrés Bello. 2 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1989.
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The first volume of this useful source consists of a massive annotated bibliography of Bello’s writings. The second volume is divided into two parts: one dealing with compilations and collective works on various facets of Bello’s work and biography, and the other, the largest, providing an alphabetical list of monographs and journal articles on specific aspects of Bello’s work.
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Grases, Pedro. Libros de Bello editados en Caracas en el siglo XIX. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1978.
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An examination of the various editions of Bello’s works, including some from the Caracas period, addressing some significant problems in the attribution of authorship, such as the Spanish translation of Etienne Bonnot de Condillac’s L’art d’écrire.
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Millares, Agustín. Don Andrés Bello (1781–1865): Ensayo bibliográfico. Mexico City: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, 1970.
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A thorough bibliography of material by and on Bello up to the year 1969, on the eve of a major reinvigoration of the field due to the upcoming bicentennial of Bello’s birth (1981). A commendable effort considering the limited technical bibliographical support available at the time. Also published in Revista de Historia de América 67–68 (January–December 1969): 211–331.
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Velleman, Barry L. Andrés Bello y sus libros. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1995.
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The product of a painstaking reconstruction of Bello’s library, this book provides insight into Bello’s collection and into the range of his interests. In addition it identifies the location of the books in Bello’s shelves, thus providing insights into his methods for classifying sources and the comparative strengths of his holdings in the various fields in which he collected books.
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Primary Materials and Edited Collections

The first edition of Bello’s complete works appeared in Chile between 1881 and 1893 in fifteen volumes. Two new editions were attempted but not completed in Spain (seven volumes, 1882–1905) and Chile (nine volumes, 1930–1935). The current edition had its origin in Caracas in 1948, when a commission began the task of compiling Bello’s writings. Essentially completed by the time of Bello’s bicentennial, it was reissued in twenty-six volumes between 1981 and 1984 (Bello 1981–1984). It is the most complete edition to date, although new documents and letters continue to appear. The monumental enterprise of editing Bello’s complete works is carefully reconstructed in Méndez Salcedo 2004. Numerous compilations of Bello’s work began to be published as early as Bello’s own lifetime. Among the best examples of 20th-century compilations are Arciniegas 1946 and Torres Quintero 1952. Only in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, did modern edited works providing a scholarly apparatus appear, as in Grases 1985, Jaksic 1997, and Jaksic 2010. As new research yields new documents, it is to be expected that a new edition of Bello’s complete works, or at least an edition of unpublished documents, will appear in the future.

Arciniegas, Germán, ed. El pensamiento vivo de Andrés Bello. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Losada, 1946.
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A selection of writings by Bello, including grammar, poetry, literature, law, philosophy, and education. The introduction emphasizes Bello’s proposals for the development of a Spanish American culture firmly anchored in language and the humanities.
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Bello, Andrés. Obras completas. 26 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981–1984.
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The most elaborate collection of complete works to date. It features substantial introductions by leading scholars and a sophisticated scholarly apparatus. It also contains numerous illustrations and indexes. Volumes 25 and 26 compile Bello’s extant correspondence.
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Grases, Pedro, ed. Andrés Bello: Obra literaria. 2d ed. Caracas, Venezuela: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1985.
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A well-chosen selection of Bello writings although focused primarily on language and letters. It contains a preliminary study by Grases and a useful chronology of Bello’s life and works.
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Jaksic, Iván, ed. Selected Writings of Andrés Bello. Translated by Frances M. López-Morillas. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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A representative sample of Bello writings translated into English in three major areas: language and literature; education and history; and government, law, and international relations. It includes the editor’s introduction and a chronology of Bello’s life and works.
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Jaksic, Iván, ed. Andrés Bello: Textos fundamentales; Construcción de estado y nación de Chile. Santiago, Chile: Biblioteca Fundamentos de la Construcción de Chile, 2010.
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This selection focuses on Bello’s contributions to Chilean national development. It includes sections on education and public administration, economic development, organization of the judiciary, civil and constitutional law, and international relations. It includes an introduction by the editor that places the selected pieces in the larger context of Bello’s work.
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Méndez Salcedo, Ildefonso, ed. Andrés Bello: Documentos para el estudio de sus Obras completas, 1948–1985. 2 vols. Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Pedro Grases, 2004.
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A massive collection of letters and other writings that document the organization and activities of the commission that put together the last edition of Bello’s complete works. It underscores the central role played by Pedro Grases in orchestrating the collection of documents and the selection of editors for the different volumes of the complete works.
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Torres Quintero, Rafael, ed. Bello en Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia: Instituto Caro y Cuervo, 1952.
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This selection of writings on the various contributions by Bello and their impact in Colombia (where, along with Chile and Venezuela, the presence of Bello is strongest) has the virtue of uniting the commentaries of the leading figures in Colombian intellectual history, including Miguel Antonio Caro, Rufino José Cuervo, Manuel Ancízar, and Marco Fidel Suárez, among others.
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Biographies

A major limitation of the many Bello biographies and perhaps most biographies of Latin American independence and 19th-century leaders is their celebratory nature or their excessively revisionist tone. Although most biographies of Bello fall into the first category, they still provide useful information and seek to achieve a moderate tone, as can be seen in Amunátegui 1882, Bocaz 2000, Caldera 1994, Leonard 1954, and Lira Urquieta 1948. Some of the older biographies do contain an examination of manuscripts, but it is only in the late 20th and early 21st centuries that a fuller archival treatment has been accorded to Bello’s biography, as in Jaksic 2001 and Murillo Rubiera 1986. A notable contribution on a specific biographical period in English is Racine 2000. A useful work of synthesis is Cunill Grau 2006.

Amunátegui, Miguel Luis. Vida de don Andrés Bello. Santiago, Chile: Imprenta Pedro G. Ramírez, 1882.
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A pioneering work by one of Bello’s disciples, this biography has the incomparable advantage of extracting its information from interviews with Bello himself. It is, however, a celebratory account that tends to justify more than explain Bello’s career and actions. A new edition of this work was published in Santiago in 1962.
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Bocaz, Luis. Andrés Bello: Una biografía cultural. Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia: Convenio Andrés Bello, 2000.
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A helpful synthesis of Bello’s life and works emphasizing cultural activities and organizational efforts. It is also by far the best-illustrated book, providing contemporary images of the different places where Bello lived and photos of manuscripts and various book editions.
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Caldera, Rafael. Andrés Bello: Philosopher, Poet, Philologist, Educator, Legislator, Statesman. Translated by John Street. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1994.
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An extraordinary interpretive essay by one of Bello’s leading scholars and biographers. It represents a first attempt at providing an intellectual biography of Bello, seeking a common thread in his various writings. It was originally published in Spanish in 1935 and has been reprinted numerous times. The translation, however, is often awkward and not completely faithful to the original.
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Cunill Grau, Pedro. Andrés Bello (1781–1865). Caracas, Venezuela: Biblioteca Biográfica Venezolana, 2006.
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A useful synthesis by a notable Bello scholar. It is, however, a work designed for a wide readership and does not therefore attempt to make a contribution to the more specialized scholarship.
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Jaksic, Iván. Andrés Bello: Scholarship and Nation-Building in Nineteenth-Century Latin America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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This intellectual biography places Bello’s life and work in the context of the challenges facing Latin America in the aftermath of the Spanish imperial crisis that led to independence. This work identifies new documents not previously accessible to biographers and provides a larger historical context. Updated Chilean, Venezuelan, and Colombian editions were published in 2001, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2012.
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Leonard, Irving. “Andrés Bello (1781–1865), National Hero.” Hispanic American Historical Review 34.4 (November 1954): 502–505.
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An early assessment of the significance of Bello in English emphasizing the transition in Spanish America from the worship of heroes of the independence wars to the beginnings of a serious study of nation builders, such as Bello. Identifies the contributions of such contemporary Bello scholars as Pedro Grases.
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Lira Urquieta, Pedro. Andrés Bello. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1948.
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A sympathetic account of Bello’s biography whose merits include an expert’s knowledge of one of the key areas of Bello’s activities: civil legislation. It handles the biographical information competently but on the basis of the limited information available in the 1940s.
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Murillo Rubiera, Fernando. Andrés Bello: Historia de una vida y una obra. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1986.
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A thorough, well-written, and reliable biography that is nevertheless mostly based on printed materials. It provides well-balanced coverage of the three major periods in Bello’s life in Caracas, London, and Santiago. It takes full advantage of the works presented during the bicentennial of Bello’s birthday to provide a readable synthesis.
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Racine, Karen. “Nature and Mother: Foreign Residence and the Evolution of Andrés Bello’s American Identity (London, 1810–1829).” In Strange Pilgrimages: Travel, Exile, and National Identity in Latin America, 1880–1990s. Edited by Ingrid Fey and Karen Racine, 3–19. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000.
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Examines the impact of Bello’s extended residence in London and argues that much can be learned from the “psychology of exile” to understand Bello’s dedication to learning about and disseminating knowledge that could be useful for building new nations.
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Poetry and Literature

These were major areas of interest for Bello never abandoned during his long life, although understandably most of his work focused on pressing issues of national and international organization in the postindependence period. Scholarship on his poetry and literary criticism is rich but has tended to focus on the foundational poems of the London period, “Allocution to Poetry” and “Ode to Tropical Agriculture,” as in Cussen 1992 and Gomes 1998, although with different emphases, including gender analysis, as in Davies and Tudela 2007, and ecology, as in Hoeg 2009. Also it has focused on his work on medieval Spanish literature (Altschul 2012, Grases 1981, Smith 1981) and especially the Poem of the Cid. Many of his poems, filling one full volume of his complete works, are obvious exercises (some actually incomplete) in versification and translation. But there is no doubt that Bello paid significant attention to these subjects and actively promoted their study and teaching in the Chilean educational system. The best overall view of Bello’s work on poetry and literature is Rodríguez Monegal 1969; also see Durán 1999. For Bello’s poetry, Menéndez y Pelayo 1911 continues to provide a solid foundation.

Altschul, Nadia R. Geographies of Philological Knowledge: Postcoloniality and the Transatlantic National Epic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
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Focusing on Bello’s work on the Poem of the Cid, the author establishes that medievalism was not an exclusive European concern but rather a research subject that resonated with the needs of the emerging Spanish American states.
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Cussen, Antonio. Bello and Bolívar: Poetry and Politics in the Spanish American Revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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A thorough and insightful analysis of Bello’s poetry mainly in the London period (1810–1829), just as the Spanish imperial crisis and the process of Spanish American independence unfolded. It highlights the complex relationship between Bello and Simón Bolívar. Spanish editions of Cussen’s book appeared in 1995 and 1998.
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Davies, Catherine, and E. S. V. Tudela. “Troped out of History: Women, Gender, and Nation in the Poetry of Andrés Bello.” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 84.1 (2007): 99–111.
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Focuses on the representations of gender in Bello’s two major poems of the London period, the “Allocution to Poetry” and the “Ode to Tropical Agriculture.” The author finds that Bello perpetuated gender stereotypes for the sake of building a conservative order in a republican context.
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Durán Luzio, Juan. Siete ensayos sobre Andrés Bello, el escritor. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1999.
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These seven essays explore the interaction between Bello’s literary writings and the process of independence and nation building. The author argues that these writings reveal a new approach to the relationship between literature, society, and culture. He also pays particular attention to his role as translator of European poetry.
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Gomes, Miguel. “Las Silvas Americanas de Andrés Bello: Una relectura genológica.” Hispanic Review 66.2 (Spring 1998): 181–196.
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Examines the transition from neoclassicism to a qualified romanticism in Bello’s poetry, especially in the “Allocution to Poetry” and the “Ode to Tropical Agriculture,” arguing that the unstable environment of postindependence Spanish America prompted this transition and made Bello emphasize other forms of writing.
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Grases, Pedro. “La épica Española y los estudios de Andrés Bello sobre el Poema del Cid.” In Estudios sobre Andrés Bello. Vol. 1. Edited by Pedro Grases, 335–459. Barcelona: Editorial Seix Barral, 1981.
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An erudite discussion about the extent of Bello’s knowledge of medieval Spanish literature with special reference to the Poema de Mio Cid, which he studied closely in London and returned to in the last years of his life. Grases provides an assessment of his work and places it in the larger framework of Spanish medieval studies.
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Hoeg, Jerry. “Andrés Bello’s ‘Ode to Tropical Agriculture’: The Landscape of Independence.” In Reading and Writing the Latin American Landscape. Edited by Beatriz Rivera-Barnes and Jerry Hoeg, 53–66. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
DOI: 10.1057/9780230101906Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A novel analysis of the “Ode to Tropical Agriculture” placing it in the context of Bello’s search for a viable agricultural model in the postindependence context. The author finds Bello centrally concerned with land use for concrete purposes but also as the bedrock of freedom. The ode is seen as a vehicle for a new aesthetic that would ideally characterize the new republics.
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Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino. Historia de la poesía Hispano-Americana. 2 vols. Madrid: Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, 1911.
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A pioneering older work on Bello’s poetry still relevant because of its sharp critical analysis and its acute sense of the classical sources informing Bello’s writings. Although the book was intended to provide a wide coverage of Spanish American poetry, the section on Bello is substantial (Volume 1, pp. 353–391).
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Rodríguez Monegal, Emir. El otro Andrés Bello. Caracas, Venezuela: Monte Ávila Editores, 1969.
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A sensitively written, well-documented study that comes close to a full intellectual biography except that it does not cover a substantial part of Bello’s activities and writings in civil legislation, international law, and public administration. The main focus is instead on the close interaction of Bello’s life and his literary activities. This book set new standards for understanding Bello’s creative and critical literary thinking.
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Smith, Colin. “Los trabajos de Bello sobre el Poema de Mio Cid.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 61–73. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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As one of the earliest scholars to work on the Poema de Mio Cid, Bello launched ideas that would be acknowledged later by new generations of scholars, especially regarding versification and the origins of some poetic forms in Latin and other romance languages. Smith believes that had these ideas been known in their time they could have changed the direction of Cidian studies.
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Language and Grammar

One of the central pillars of Bello’s work is in the area of language. For him, language was more than a mere vehicle of communication or a gate to the acquisition of knowledge. In the context of independence, it was a fundamental instrument for nation building, as Moré 2004 and Ramos 2001 make clear. Bello was of the belief that independence did not mean a complete break from Spanish traditions and in particular language. He advocated their continued study and the use of Spanish literary models. But he also launched a program of language development that responded to local and regional needs. An important element of this was the spread of literacy, which meant a departure from the Latin model employed in the Spanish peninsula and the adoption of a system of spelling that was based on phonetics rather than etymology, as shown in Torrejón 1993. Another important element of his approach was the launching of a large educational program that spread language literacy in a standardized fashion throughout the nation. His project in this regard went further in the sense that his Grammar of the Spanish Language (1847) was addressed to all Spanish American speakers. The best edition of Bello’s Gramática de la lengua castellana destinada al uso de los Americanos remains Trujillo 1981, while the best studies of Bello’s grammatical views are in Velleman 1974 and Velleman 1978.

Moré, Belford. “La construcción ideológica de una base empírica: Selección y elaboración en la gramática de Bello.” In La batalla del idioma: La intelectualidad Hispánica ante la lengua. Edited by José del Valle and Luis Gabriel-Stheeman, 67–92. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2004.
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An analysis of Bello’s grammar and his larger effort to plan language development in postindependence Spanish America. It discusses the relationship between orality and writing and addresses Bello’s own subjectivity in selecting those aspects of the Spanish language he gave priority to, such as the use by educated speakers, the use of the Castilian variant, and the use of Spanish literary models.
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Ramos, Julio. “Knowledge-(as)-Said: Language and Politics in Andrés Bello”. In Divergent Modernities: Culture and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Latin America. By Julio Ramos, 23–40. Translated by John D. Blanco. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001.
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Chapter 2 of this book is devoted to Bello’s conception of language in a postindependence context. Ramos views Bello as developing a contrast between orality and writing whereby the latter must take precedence over the former for the sake of rationalization and national organization. This essay was originally published in Spanish in 1989 as “Saber decir: Lengua y política en Andrés Bello.”
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Torrejón, Alfredo. Andrés Bello y la lengua culta: La estandarización del castellano en América en el siglo XIX. Boulder, CO: Society of Spanish and Spanish American Studies, 1993.
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A sociolinguistic analysis of Bello’s effort to standardize Spanish language usage in 19th-century Latin America. The book devotes significant attention to Bello’s Grammar of the Spanish Language, a source that according to the author departed in important ways from the grammatical tradition.
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Trujillo, Ramón, ed. Gramática de la lengua castellana destinada al uso de los Americanos. Tenerife, Spain: Cabildo Insular e Instituto Universitario de Lingüística Andrés Bello, 1981.
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Orginally published in 1847, Bello’s grammar appeared in four subsequent revised editions (1850, 1853, 1857, and 1860). In this massive annotated edition Ramón Trujillo provides a substantial introduction to the work and analyzes the changes that Bello made from one edition to the other. He also corrects errata introduced in the numerous editions of Bello’s work after his death.
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Velleman, Barry L. “The Gramática of Andrés Bello: Sources and Methods.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1974.
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This doctoral dissertation provides an analysis of Bello’s theories of language and grammatical description, placing them in the context of Latin, French, and English grammatical traditions. The author establishes a close connection between Bello’s work and that of the American structuralist movement in linguistics.
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Velleman, Barry L. “Structuralist Theory in the Bello Gramática.” Hispanic Review 46 (Fall 1978): 55–64.
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Characterizes Bello’s analyses of grammatical functions as focused on the facts of language from a syntactical perspective and not as derivative of any philosophical approach. The article draws parallels between Bello’s work and the American tradition of structuralist linguistics, with which he shares the rejection of several “fallacies” to be found in traditional grammar.
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International Law

Bello’s exposure to international affairs came early in his career as an employee of the Spanish imperial government in Caracas (1802–1810). The new patriot government established in April 1810 sent him on a diplomatic mission to England, and in London he became secretary of legation for the newly independent nations of Chile and Colombia. Once in Chile in 1829 he assumed important positions in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, advising three governments on international issues and preparing and negotiating treaties with other nations, as can be seen in Barros Jarpa 1973 and Cruchaga Ossa 1935. This concrete exposure to international affairs went hand in hand with his study of international law, a subject on which he wrote a celebrated treatise, the Principles of International Law (1832, 1844, 1864), which was reprinted (and sometimes even plagiarized) in various Latin American nations. Scholarship has understandably focused on this important text (Gros Espiell 1981, Obregón 2002, Murillo Rubiera 1981), but there are important other examples of studies on the variety of other international activities in which Bello was involved, such as Dawson 1987 and Fundación la Casa de Bello 1987.

Barros Jarpa, Ernesto. “Bello: Mentor y anticipacionista.” In Estudios sobre la vida y la obra de Andrés Bello. Edited by the Universidad de Chile, 119–144. Santiago: Ediciones de la Universidad de Chile, 1973.
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Examines the major contributions by Bello to both the diplomacy of Chile and specific issues concerning international law. In the first case, it discusses the treaty between Chile and the United States in 1834 and the recognition of Chilean independence by Spain. It also discusses issues regarding the status of property when nations are at war, an area of particular concern for Bello.
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Cruchaga Ossa, Alberto. Jurisprudencia de la cancillería chilena hasta 1865, año de la muerte de don Andrés Bello. Santiago: Imprenta Chile, 1935.
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A massive compilation of documents and related discussions on Chilean diplomacy between 1810 and 1865. Bello played a central role in the foreign relations of Chile beginning in the 1820s in London and then in Chile from 1829 until his death in 1865. Although signed by other foreign relations officials, many of these documents were authored by Bello.
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Dawson, Frank Griffith. “The Influence of Andrés Bello on Latin American Perceptions of Non-Intervention and State Responsibility.” British Yearbook of International Law 57.1 (1986): 253–315.
DOI: 10.1093/bybil/57.1.253Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Establishes the importance of the London period (1810–1829) for Bello’s development of his international law thinking. The author focuses in particular on Bello’s doctrine of nonintervention and the degree of state responsibility in cases involving damage to property or injury to aliens. Assesses their relevance well into the 20th century.
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Fundación la Casa de Bello, ed. Bello y el derecho Latinoamericano. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1987.
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Seven essays in this collection address various aspects of Bello’s international law thinking and activities. It is a particularly valuable source in that these essays are published along with others on Roman and civil law, thus providing a comprehensive picture of Bello’s legal thought and its impact on various Latin American contexts.
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Gros Espiell, Héctor. “La influencia del derecho internacional de Bello durante la vida de su autor.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 139–160. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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Examines the influence of Bello’s major treatise on international law, Principles of International Law, published in three editions (1832, 1844, 1864), on several Latin American countries. It provides a helpful overview of the editions prepared in other countries. It specifies those contributions of Bello that were adopted in the Paris Congress of 1856 subscribed to by forty-five countries.
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Murillo Rubiera, Fernando. “Variantes de las sucesivas ediciones del derecho internacional de Andrés Bello.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 161–168. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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Establishes the differences in content and sources of the three editions of Bello’s major work on international law, Principles of International Law, published in 1832, 1844, and 1864, showing an increasing concern regarding international private law and the extent of the changes made to reflect developments in the field.
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Obregón, Liliana. “Completing Civilization: Nineteenth-Century Criollo Interventions in International Law.” PhD diss., Harvard University, 2002.
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This dissertation is devoted to the work of Bello as an internationalist. It pays particular attention to the three editions of Bello’s Principles of International Law (1832, 1844, 1864). Bello, according to the author, put these new nations on an equal footing with all other “civilized” nations while acknowledging their distinct challenges in the postindependence period.
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Civil Law

The promulgation of the Chilean civil code was perhaps the greatest single achievement of Bello, who worked on it, usually alone, for over two decades. He drew from a variety of modern codes and built from those Spanish laws that contained an important component of Roman law to provide a document that was applicable to the peculiar conditions of Chile. With some adjustments, it was adopted by a variety of other Latin American countries, as shown in Bravo Lira 1987. It stands as one of the oldest codes still in force in the world. In addition to the legal scholarship involved in the preparation of the articles, what is significant about Bello’s code is that it was adopted after exhaustive congressional discussions and various reviews by different bodies. In the end the passing of the civil code reinforced the separation of powers and became one of the pillars of Chile’s stability. Essential documentation for understanding the passage of the code is in Guzmán Brito 1982, while sources are investigated in Lira Urquieta 1956, Mirow 2001, and Salinas Araneda 2006. The significance of the code and what remains of it are examined in Martinic Galetovic and Tapia Rodríguez 2005 and Tapia Rodríguez 2005.

Bravo Lira, Bernardino. “Difusión del código civil de Bello en los países de derecho castellano y portugués.” In Andrés Bello y el derecho Latinoamericano. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 343–373. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1987.
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Provides a historical context for the early efforts to codify the laws in independent Spanish America, in some cases under French influence, in others building on the previous Spanish colonial laws. It focuses on the success of Bello’s civil code (1855) in spreading its influence throughout Latin America between 1857 and 1917, when in some cases it was adopted in its entirety. It evaluates the degree of influence in each country.
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Guzmán Brito, Alejandro. Andrés Bello codificador: Historia de la fijación y codificación del derecho civil en Chile. 2 vols. Santiago: Ediciones de la Universidad de Chile, 1982.
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After providing a step-by-step examination of the efforts to codify the laws in Chile, including an analysis of the sources and the philosophy of Bello’s civil code, the author provides a massive documentation of various proposals, government correspondence, congressional minutes, judicial reviews, and press articles to illustrate the complexities of adopting a new civil legislation in Chile.
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Lira Urquieta, Pedro. El código civil Chileno y su época. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile, 1956.
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A succinct but valuable introduction to Bello’s civil code (1855) emphasizing the contributions it made to legal equality and the protection of property in Chile and beyond. Although Roman sources and the French civil code are often cited as major influences in Bello’s civil code, the author calls attention to the significant influence of Florencio García Goyena, a legal scholar working on a similar project in Spain in the 1840s.
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Martinic Galetovic, María Dora, and Mauricio Tapia Rodríguez, eds. Sesquicentenario del código civil de Andrés Bello: Pasado, presente y futuro de la codificación. 2 vols. Santiago, Chile: Editorial LexisNexis, 2005.
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A valuable collection of essays that discuss the transformation of the component parts of Bello’s civil code (1855), much of which is still in force in Chile in the early 21st century. It documents not only the changes it has experienced over time but also discussions reflecting changes in the larger society.
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Mirow, Matthew C. “Borrowing Private Law in Latin America: Andrés Bello’s Use of the Code Napoléon in Drafting the Chilean Civil Code.” Louisiana Law Review 61.2 (2001): 291–329.
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After providing a useful context for the codification of civil laws in Chile, the author focuses on Bello’s civil code (1855) and specifically on his use of the Napoleonic Code (1804). The author shows that Bello followed not only the letter, at least in some aspects, of the Napoleonic Code but also the commentary by several French authors.
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Salinas Araneda, Carlos. El influjo del derecho canónico en el código civil de la República de Chile. Valparaiso, Chile: Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso, 2006.
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Bello’s civil code (1855) built on the contributions of a variety of legal traditions, not least of which was canon law. The author carefully analyzes the prevalence of canon law in different definitions contained in the code, such as marriage and church and state interactions. It also provides a historical analysis of those norms that have been superseded and those that are still in force.
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Tapia Rodríguez, Mauricio. Código civil, 1855–2005: Evolución y perspectivas. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile, 2005.
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A cogent, well-organized monograph assessing the historical importance and contemporary relevance of Bello’s civil code (1855). It analyzes the legislative discussions from which the code emerged, the evolution of private law since the adoption of the code, and the challenges it faces due to the influence of common law. Also addresses the question of whether the code should be revamped to reflect current trends.
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Education

Bello’s educational activities go back to the Caracas period (1781–1810), when he served as teacher to Simón Bolívar. His interests were further developed in London (1810–1829), where he taught languages privately and wrote reports on the Lancasterian system (discussed in Márquez Rodríguez 1980) and other educational methods current in Europe at the time. But it was in Chile that he had occasion to shape the national system of education, as shown most clearly in Serrano 1994. He taught at the Colegio de Santiago; reformed the curriculum of the Instituto Nacional, the leading secondary school; and created the University of Chile (1842), an institution he presided over until his death in 1865. It was also there that he wrote profusely on educational matters, as seen in Mandujano 1966, including quinquennial reports on the progress of public education in the 1840s and 1850s. Aspects of his educational thought are covered in Fernández Heres 1982, Jobet 1970, and Kilgore 1961. He is widely recognized for his educational contributions. The University of Chile is still known as La Casa de Bello.

Fernández Heres, Rafael. El proyecto universitario de Andrés Bello (1843). Caracas, Venezuela: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1982.
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Discusses the concept of university that Bello introduced in Chile when he was called upon by the government of Manuel Bulnes (1841–1851) to write the statutes of the University of Chile and preside over the newly created institution. It analyzes in detail the inaugural speech pronounced by Bello in September 1843 and adds some documents related to the foundation of the university.
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Jobet, Julio César. Doctrina y praxis de los educadores representativos Chilenos. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1970.
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One substantial chapter of this volume is devoted to Bello (pp. 155–279). Jobet examines the impact of the University of Chile on the creation of a national educational system, balancing both Bello’s philosophical views on education and concrete policies to shape and expand the educational system, especially at the primary level. The chapter provides useful statistics.
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Kilgore, William J. “Note on the Philosophy of Education of Andrés Bello.” Journal of the History of Ideas 22.4 (October–December 1961): 555–560.
DOI: 10.2307/2708031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
One of the first analyses of Bello’s writings on education in English, based primarily on the collection Arciniegas 1946 (cited under Primary Materials and Edited Collections). Reviews the main objective of Bello’s views on education, that is, promoting an atmosphere of freedom, yet finds it inadequate for understanding what liberty means in an academic and intellectual context.
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Mandujano, Graciela. “Consideraciones sobre la obra educativa de don Andrés Bello.” In Andrés Bello, 1865–1965. Edited by the Facultad de Filosofía y Educación, Universidad de Chile, 194–249. Santiago, Chile: Prensas de la Editorial Universitaria, 1966.
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An important discussion of Bello’s educational thought, including his educational activities in England and Chile. Emphasizes his role not only as an intellectual but as an active administrator of educational projects and institutions. A useful analysis based on primary printed materials of the period, especially the Anales de la Universidad de Chile. His work is seen in the context of the larger educational policy of the Chilean governments of the period.
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Márquez Rodríguez, Alexis. “Bello y Lancaster.” In Bello y Londres. Vol. 1. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 165–176. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1980.
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While in London (1810–1829) Bello was asked to provide a report on the efficacy of the educational methods of Joseph Lancaster. Bello’s qualified support for this system provides an early indication of his interest in spreading primary education to all segments of the population. Márquez Rodríguez goes beyond the London period to find continuities in Bello’s educational views and practice.
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Serrano, Sol. Universidad y nación: Chile en el siglo XIX. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1994.
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An indispensable source for understanding the political and educational context in which Bello founded the University of Chile (1842) and launched an educational program of national scope. It discusses Bello’s conception of the university as a superintendency of education and the establishment of fields that provided the basis for national development, such as engineering, science, and medicine.
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History

Bello wrote on a variety of fields of knowledge and contributed to their diffusion and professionalization. But history was particularly important for his project of nation building. In Caracas he wrote about the history of his native Venezuela, and in London (1810–1829) he engaged in substantial research on the origins of the Spanish language. This research at the British Museum’s library involved the close scrutiny of medieval manuscripts and the application of modern philological techniques. While in London he also commented on various historical works for the journals Biblioteca Americana and El Repertorio Americano. But it was in Chile (1829–1865) that he launched a Chilean tradition of professional historical studies and also engaged in a debate that had considerable impact on Chilean and Latin American historiography. This famous debate, which took place in the 1840s, has understandably attracted considerable attention, such as Dager Alva 2002, Krebs 1982b, and Woll 1974. But scholars have also explored other earlier connections to the field and have placed Bello’s ideas in the context of European traditions and debates during the 19th century, as demonstrated in Gazmuri 1981 and Krebs 1982a. Bello emphasized empirical historical research, though research not entirely deprived of philosophical assumptions or an attractive literary style. The field, in his view, could make a contribution to successful nation building if it resisted manipulation for political purposes. Bello’s long-term influence in the field is discussed in Woll 1982, while the meaning of the historiographical debates from a postcolonial perspective is examined in Unzueta 2009.

Dager Alva, Joseph. “El debate en torno al método historiográfico en el Chile del siglo XIX.” Revista Complutense de Historia de América 28 (2002): 97–138.
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Centrally concerned with Bello’s historiographical approach. His views on history became apparent in a polemical context in the 1840s, when in a series of articles Bello defended a nonideological approach to the field. But the author makes clear that his perspectives on history go beyond those years, in fact to quite early in Bello’s career, and well beyond the polemic.
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Gazmuri, Cristián. “Algunas influencias europeas en el método historiográfico de Bello.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 325–338. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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Suggests that while Bello was an advocate of a research-oriented form of history, he followed some European models in the romantic tradition, emphasizing a readable narrative with some philosophical assumptions. Underscores the importance of Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi, Baron de Barante, Augustin Thierry, and Jules Michelet.
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Krebs, Ricardo. “Bello y la historia.” In Homenaje a don Andrés Bello. Edited by Instituto de Chile, 251–265. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile and Editorial Andrés Bello, 1982a.
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Argues that while Bello was not a historian, he did devote considerable attention to the field, especially regarding methods and the contributions that the discipline could make to education and culture. Provides a useful European context for the Chilean discussions concerning history, identifying in particular the debate between Heinrich Leo and Leopold von Ranke in 1828.
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Krebs, Ricardo. “Proyecciones del pensamiento histórico de Andrés Bello.” In Bello y la América Latina. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 337–354. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1982b.
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Focusing on a debate that took place in Chile in the 1840s on “philosophical” versus empirical approaches to history, the author emphasizes Bello’s focus on research as the fundamental basis of the field. Shows how part of this debate was inspired by different approaches to the Spanish colonial past and its influence in postindependence Chile.
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Unzueta, Fernando. “Bello, la nueva conciencia histórica y los discursos postcoloniales.” In Andrés Bello y los estudios latinoamericanos. Edited by González Stephan, Beatriz and Juan Poblete, 219–243. Pittsburgh, PA: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, University of Pittsburgh, 2009.
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Discusses the emergence of a new historical consciousness in the postcolonial period. The author sees Bello as part of a larger intellectual effort to turn history into an academic discipline—an effort that coincides with the larger formation of new nation-states. Both history and nation are mutually reinforcing and therefore, the author argues, historiographical debates acquire significant importance.
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Woll, Allen. “The Philosophy of History in Nineteenth-Century Chile: The Lastarria-Bello Controversy.” History and Theory 13.3 (October 1974): 273–290.
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Discusses Bello’s views on the methods for writing history in the context of a larger 19th-century Chilean debate about the purposes and function of the field. Bello emphasized facts as the central element of history, while his opponents viewed history as an instrument for social and political change.
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Woll, Allen. A Functional Past: The Uses of History in Nineteenth-Century Chile. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982.
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The most complete examination of historiographical debates and the development of the field in Chile with particular emphasis on the role of Bello. The author argues that although Bello emphasized empirical historical studies, his disciples still used the field for political purposes. History, in his view, became “functional.” And yet, Woll asserts, Bello succeeded in inaugurating a historiographical tradition that emphasized research over what has been termed “philosophical” history.
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Philosophy

Bello received his university training in philosophy in Caracas. Although other intellectual areas occupied his time, he never abandoned his early interest in the field. He applied it to his grammatical studies, studied it in London, and eventually prepared a major treatise, Filosofía del entendimiento (Philosophy of the understanding), published posthumously in 1881. He also published numerous reviews on philosophical subjects, examined in Hanish Espíndola 1981, and closely supervised the teaching of the subject in the Chilean school system. Bello was acquainted with various philosophical schools, most notably the school of ideology and the Scottish common sense school, as discussed in Ardao 1986, Jaksic 1995–1996, and Sutherland 1982, yet he took sides with none. His approach was as eclectic as it was pedagogical: to provide guidance on major philosophical problems, especially the acquisition of ideas, to a nonspecialized public. As scholars have noted, however, his approach was not purely academic or specialized, for it involved certain commitments to the postindependence order and to the secularization of thought. An English edition of Bello’s major philosophical work was masterminded by O. Carlos Stoetzer (Bello 1984), while the relationship between Bello’s philosophy and his politics is examined in Ruiz Schneider 1975 and Ruiz Schneider 1976.

Ardao, Arturo. Andrés Bello, filósofo. Caracas, Venezuela: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1986.
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This is the most complete overview and analysis of Bello’s work as a philosopher. An important section is devoted to Bello’s philosophical masterwork, Filosofía del entendimiento, published posthumously in 1881, but written for the most part in Chile in the 1840s. Ardao underscores the close connection established by Bello between logic and grammar.
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Bello, Andrés. Philosophy of the Understanding. Translated by O. Carlos Stoetzer. Washington, DC: General Secretariat, Organization of American States, 1984.
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A translation of Bello’s main philosophical work, Filosofía del entedimiento, published posthumously in Chile in 1881. This translation by Stoetzer includes an introduction by Arturo Ardao, the leading scholar of Bello’s philosophy. Bello’s work is divided in two parts, “Philosophy” and “Logic” and shows the influence of British philosophy and especially the Scottish common sense school that he approached critically.
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Hanish Espíndola, Walter. “Andrés Bello y su pensamiento filosófico en Chile, 1829–1865.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 1. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 259–316. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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A substantive essay that focuses not only on Filosofía del entendimiento, Bello’s major work, but also on a variety of other writings of philosophical import, including minor essays and reviews. It acknowledges the influence of the Scottish school but identifies the points of departure in Bello’s philosophical thinking.
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Jaksic, Iván. “Racionalismo y fe: La filosofía chilena en la época de Andrés Bello.” Historia 29 (1995–1996): 89–123.
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Describes the development of philosophical studies in Chile prior to and during Bello’s life in the country. It suggests that the field struggled to determine whether it should go in the direction of secular rationalism or of the defense of Catholicism. It establishes that Bello, while a believer, was an advocate of the former approach. The study traces his influence on the discipline and on its teaching.
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Ruiz Schneider, Carlos. “Moderación y filosofía: Notas de investigación sobre la filosofía de Andrés Bello.” Teoría 5–6 (December 1975): 15–39.
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Bello arrived in Chile (1829) with a well-formed body of philosophical ideas but found that the field was the subject of much dispute in the country. According to the author, he consequently sought a middle ground or “moderation” to address philosophical issues. This “moderation” was also to be found in his politics.
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Ruiz Schneider, Carlos. “Política de la moderación: Notas de investigación sobre las ideas filosóficas y políticas de Andrés Bello.” Escritos de Teoría 1 (December 1976): 9–26.
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The author regards Bello’s philosophy of “moderation” as a means to legitimize the Chilean conservative social order. Bello rejected anarchy (or “license”) and defended a view of rational freedom that mirrored the views of the French doctrinaires. The article seeks to show the close connection between philosophy and politics in Bello’s thought.
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Sutherland, Stewart R. “Andrés Bello: The Influence of Scottish Philosophy.” In Andrés Bello: The London Years. Edited by John Lynch, 99–118. Richmond, UK: Richmond Publishing, 1982.
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An analysis of the three Scottish philosophers who most influenced Bello, though not uncritically, Thomas Reid, Dugald Stewart, and Thomas Brown, with references to the work of David Hume as well. The engagement with these thinkers can be traced most clearly in Bello’s Filosofía del entendimiento, published posthumously in 1881.
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Science

An heir to the Enlightenment tradition, which he absorbed in his Caracas education, Bello attached significant importance to research and teaching on scientific subjects. He met and assisted Alexander von Humboldt during his visit to Caracas in 1799–1880. As a member of the government of the captaincy general of Venezuela, he participated in the massive administration of the smallpox vaccine (examined in Archila 1979) in the first decade of the 19th century, the texts of which are included and discussed in Grases 1979. Pereiro-Otero 2008 traces the practical and the metaphorical elements regarding health and colonialism through Bello’s poetry and that of Manuel José Quintana on the eve of the imperial crisis. While in London Bello participated in Royal Institution events and used its facilities to acquaint himself with scientific research. He wrote numerous articles of scientific dissemination in the London Spanish-language journals El Censor Americano, Biblioteca Americana, and El Repertorio Americano. In Chile he continued this effort to promote science through the press and, as rector of the University of Chile (1843–1865), in the educational system as well. In 1848 he published a treatise on astronomy, Cosmografía, and made the arrangements for the installation of an astronomical observatory in Santiago, discussed in Gutiérrez 1982. Science, in his view, was a central component of knowledge, and its applications were particularly significant during the postindependence period, when Latin America needed to develop its own resources and foster the research and training that were essential for long-term development. Facets of Bello’s approach to science and nature are examined in Cunill Grau 1981 and Fernández Caldas 1982.

Archila, Ricardo. “La Junta Central de Vacuna.” In Bello y Caracas. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 197–263. Caracas: La Casa de Bello, 1979.
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A substantial article that discusses Bello’s role in administering smallpox vaccination in Venezuela upon its introduction by Francisco Xavier de Balmis in 1804. Based on primary sources, it includes statistics and documents.
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Cunill Grau, Pedro. “Bello y la divulgación científica en Chile, en especial de los estudios geográficos.” In Bello y Chile. Vol. 2. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 353–392. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1981.
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Emphasizes Bello’s role in scientific dissemination through original articles and translations from various European journals and his influence in the introduction of scientific subjects in the secondary school curriculum and in higher education. Discusses his specific concern regarding the study of geography and his preparation of a text on astronomy (1848).
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Fernández Caldas, Enrique. “Andrés Bello y el medio natural.” In Bello y la América Latina. Edited by Fundación la Casa de Bello, 355–368. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1982.
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Underscores Bello’s sustained interest in nature, especially its human aspects, which he approached from a variety of disciplines and perspectives. In the context of independence from Spain, he was particularly interested in promoting more knowledge about the New World environment. The author emphasizes the use of nature in Bello’s London poetry, where he mixed science and nature to celebrate and call attention to the region’s potential.
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Grases, Pedro. Dos textos de Andrés Bello en la Junta Central de Vacuna, Caracas, 1807–1808. Caracas, Venezuela: La Casa de Bello, 1979.
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As member of the Junta Central de Vacuna, Bello produced two significant documents that are transcribed and commented on here by Grases. These documents, dated 1807 and 1808, respectively, deal mostly with administrative matters but reveal an early exposure to scientific concepts and experience.
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Gutiérrez, Adelina. “Bello y la astronomía.” In Homenaje a don Andrés Bello. Edited by the Instituto Instituto de Chile, 159–168. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile and Editorial Andrés Bello, 1982.
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Examines Bello as the author of the book Cosmografía (1848) and his various essays concerning astronomy. Gutiérrez also discusses Bello’s role in setting up an astronomical observatory in Santiago in the 1850s. It includes various documents concerning the purchase of astronomical equipment and appointments of personnel.
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Pereiro-Otero, José Manuel. “Conquistas vi(r)olentas y vacunas independentistas: Andrés Bello y Manuel José Quintana ante la enfermedad de la colonia.” Hispanic Review 76.2 (Spring 2008): 109–133.
DOI: 10.1353/hir.0.0000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A comparison of Bello’s literary writings on smallpox, “A la vacuna” and “Venezuela consolada,” and Manuel José Quintana’s “A la expedición española” (1806). The article focuses on the larger connection between illness and colonial rule and their implications for independence, both cultural and political.
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