Insular Manuscript Illumination (Medieval Art)

Introduction

The manuscript decoration produced in Ireland and the British Isles from about 600 to 850 marks the advent of medieval book art. Linked to the arrival of Christianity, it includes some of the earliest surviving examples from groups of northern European people who, never having lived fully within the Roman Empire, received the religion from a culture outside their own milieu. Artistic developments in this context included mixtures of native art with Mediterranean as well as interpretations of Late Antique and contemporary Mediterranean art. The name “Insular,” however, is used here not to denote a style but rather to provide a simplified label for the stylistically diverse examples of decorated manuscripts from 7th- through mid-9th-century Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Welsh, Pictish, British, and Scottish contexts. Another term, “Hiberno-Saxon,” is sometimes used, but it, too, is not entirely satisfactory because it appears to exclude all but Irish and Anglo-Saxon contributions and to ignore the complexity of the various groups’ interactions. Manuscript decoration played an important role in visual art developments because of the Bible’s centrality to Christian thought, ritual, and authority. Moreover, the imported medium of book art required adaptations of native decorative forms and assimilation of foreign traditions, such as illusionism and depictions of the human figure. By the late 8th century, Gospel books and Psalters, the most significant biblical texts for Christian thought and prayer, appear to have become sites for development of complex interpretative images and traditions of graphic presentations that incorporated concepts of orthodoxy, liturgical and devotional meaning, and the role of the church. Of all illuminated Insular manuscripts, biblical manuscripts survive in the largest numbers, but they were not alone in receiving decoration. Other types of illuminated texts include prayers, histories, lives of saints, biblical commentaries, poetry, natural science texts, liturgical books, canon law, and grammatical studies. The chronological reach of Insular manuscript illumination extends from the 7th century, when the groundwork laid by Irish monastic founders (such as Patrick, Brendan, Columba, and Aidan) and the missionaries sent from Italy and Gaul to the Anglo-Saxons (Augustine, Mellitus, Paulinus, Felix, and Birinus) had begun to flourish, and it comes to an end in the later years of the Carolingian empire, with changes brought with the arrival of the Vikings. Geographically its embrace reaches beyond the islands of Britain and Ireland to Continental centers (Luxeuil, Bobbio, St. Gall, Echternach, Fulda, and others) founded by Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries and their followers, the major figures being Columbanus, Willibrord, and Boniface. Most of the decorated manuscripts have undoubtedly been lost, however, and determining dates and places of origin and of use for those that have survived is fraught with difficulty, with only a few of them attributable and datable by evidence such as scribal colophons. Production of Insular manuscripts is thought to have been done almost exclusively in monasteries, but the involvement of royal and aristocratic families in these communities certainly exerted a considerable force. Royal involvement left some record in texts and in the archaeology of royal sites such as Dunadd. The gaps in our knowledge about specific contexts have given rise to a sometimes frustrating conflict of opinions in scholarship but also to lively debate and an ever-widening discussion.

General Overviews

Few modern overviews of Insular manuscript illumination have been published, in part because it is perceived as a specialist subject and, in part, because the relatively small number of surviving examples and the uncertain attribution and dating of nearly all of them make an overview difficult without the context of contemporary sculpture, metalwork, and architecture. Moreover, trends since the early 1980s, responding to the theoretical preoccupations of related humanities disciplines, have tended toward iconographic and contextual studies, and publishers consider monographs on the most well-known individual manuscripts more marketable than scholarly overviews (see Studies on Individual Manuscripts). Academic publication of surveys on Insular manuscripts peaked during the 1930s to 1970s. Interest in that time was to a degree linked to nationalistic concerns (Henry 1965, Henry 1967, Masai 1947), a tendency against which more recent scholarship has reacted (see Historiography). Micheli 1939 demonstrates some of the strengths and weaknesses of this earlier scholarship, in the author’s discussion of the spread of Insular art on the Continent and in her attempt to establish its stylistic influence into the Romanesque period in France. The most-comprehensive modern surveys of Insular manuscripts are found in Alexander 1978 and Henderson 1987, but valuable overviews are given in Webster and Backhouse 1991 (see Exhibition Catalogues) and in the commentary volume of the Lindisfarne Gospels facsimile, Brown 2003 (see Studies on Individual Manuscripts: Lindisfarne Gospels). Modern overviews of Insular art of all media suitable for students and more serious readers are not numerous, but Neuman de Vegvar 1987 gives a thorough and readable account focusing on Northumbria, and Brown 2007 provides a short overview into the later Anglo-Saxon period. Useful discussion is sometimes given in scholarship also dealing with Carolingian manuscripts (Koehler 1972, Zimmerman 1916) and in other disciplines, such as paleography. General surveys of Insular and early medieval art provide further introductions to the subject (see also Textbooks).

Alexander, Jonathan J. G. Insular Manuscripts 6th to the 9th Century. A Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles. London: Harvey Miller, 1978.
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Presents well-organized individual entries in catalogue form on nearly all the surviving examples, in roughly chronological order. Each entry succinctly covers the relevant aspects and questions, gives a summary of provenance, and has a complete bibliography to the mid-1970s as well as illustrations. Remains essential to Insular manuscripts research.
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Brown, Michelle P. Manuscripts from the Anglo-Saxon Age. London: British Library, 2007.
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A compact overview focusing on decoration and paleography of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts but with some examples relating to Irish contexts, such as the Cathach of Columcille, the Books of Durrow and Kells, and the British Library’s Irish pocket gospels (Additional MS 40618). Lavishly illustrated with dozens of full-page color illustrations.
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Henderson, George. From Durrow to Kells: The Insular Gospel-Books 650–800. London: Thames and Hudson, 1987.
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This study of gospel books extends to manuscripts of other texts, integrating historical background and earlier scholarship. Henderson provides important insights into the seemingly eccentric iconography of Insular art. A forerunner of recent arguments for complex iconographic meaning based on patristic and Insular exegesis (see Iconography; Design, Interlace, and Ornament; Studies on Individual Manuscripts).
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Henry, Françoise. Irish Art in the Early Christian Period to 800 A.D. London: Methuen, 1965.
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A student of Mâle and Focillon and a leading scholar of medieval Irish art, Henry in her two-volume survey champions the Irish contribution to Insular manuscript decoration. Although much of her work has been refined, revised, or disproved, present-day scholarship maintains many of her attributions, dates, and interpretations.
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Henry, Françoise. Irish Art during the Viking Invasions. London: Methuen, 1967.
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The second volume of Henry’s two-volume survey of early medieval Irish art. Covers the Book of Kells, the Book of Armagh, Macdurnan Gospels, the Turin Gospel fragment, and other illuminated manuscripts attributed to Irish contexts to the 11th century.
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Koehler, Wilhelm. Buchmalerei des frühen Mittelalters: Fragmente und Entwürfe aus dem Nachlass. Edited by Ernst Kitzinger and Florentine Mütherich. Veröffentlichungen des Zentralinstituts für Kunstgeschichte in München. Munich: Prestel, 1972.
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Koehler died in 1959 before completing his history of manuscript illumination. His posthumously published notes give an insightful treatment, which sees Insular illumination as produced by a unified early medieval culture and both figural art and abstract ornament manifestations of a unified, dynamic visual tradition. An unconventional view at the time.
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Masai, F. Essai sur les origines de la miniature dite Irlandaise. Les publications de scriptorium. Brussels: Éditions “Erasme,” 1947.
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Influential despite being deeply flawed, even repugnant, with its racially skewed argument. Masai, not having studied the original manuscripts, placed the origins of all early deluxe examples and the Book of Kells in Northumbria. His book gave rise to the more thoughtful theories found in Brown 1972 (cited in Studies on Individual Manuscripts: Book of Kells).
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Micheli, Geneviève Louise. L’enluminure du haut Moyen Âge et les influences irlandaises. Brussels: Éditions de la Connaissance, 1939.
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Micheli, a student of Focillon, saw Insular art as originating in Ireland, with subsequent developments in England, and acting as the intermediary of Antique and Romanesque decoration. Following early-20th-century theories of stylistic sympathy, she argues on behalf of Insular manuscript illumination’s Continental influence. Presents the broader early medieval artistic context.
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Neuman de Vegvar, Carol L. The Northumbrian Renaissance: A Study in the Transmission of Style. Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press and Associated University Presses, 1987.
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A clearly written survey of visual art and architecture in the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. An excellent introduction that places manuscript illumination in Northumbria in historical and artistic contexts. Informative notes and full bibliography to the mid-1980s.
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Zimmerman, Ernst Heinrich. Vorkarolingische Miniaturen. 5 vols. Berlin: Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft, 1916.
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One volume of text; four volumes of plates, two of these devoted to Insular manuscripts. Intended to reproduce all illuminated pages of early medieval manuscripts. Remains a useful resource but is flawed by inaccuracies, particularly in dating of the manuscripts. See Nordenfalk 1987 (cited in Historiography) as well as Arthur Haseloff’s review, Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft 42 (1920): 164–220.
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Historiography

For Insular manuscripts studies, the roots of historiography lie in book reviews such as Henry 1948, Ó Riordan 1948, Schapiro 1950, Ó Cróinín 1982, and O’Sullivan 1985 that attempt to rebalance the arguments on the origins of major Insular illuminated manuscripts (see General Overviews). Clapham 1934 sets off the decades-long debate (which continues today) in arguing that the Insular style originated in Northumbria. Brown 1972 (cited in Studies of Individual Manuscripts: Book of Kells) revises earlier arguments, which could in some respects be described as racist, but only with the unmasking of national stereotypes and nationalistic aspirations in the late 20th century has a critical historiography emerged (Brown 2004, Netzer 1999, Nordenfalk 1987).

Brown, Michelle. “Fifty Years of Insular Palaeography, 1953–2003: An Outline of Some Landmarks and Issues.” Archiv für Diplomatik 50 (2004): 277–325.
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Account of developments in illumination and paleography, giving a balanced view of the controversies (see Ó Cróinín 1982, Netzer 1999). An excellent update for older works such as Lowe 1971 (cited in Reference Works) and Henry 1965, Henry 1967, and Henderson 1987 (all cited in General Overviews).
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Clapham, Alfred W. “Notes on the Origin of Hiberno-Saxon Art.” Antiquity 8 (1934): 43–57.
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Written when Ireland was accepted as Insular art’s place of origin. Clapham moved the birthplace to Northumbria, arguing (incorrectly) that styles associated with it were unknown in Ireland before the end of the 7th century. A response to Salin’s studies on Germanic animal ornament.
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Henry, Françoise. “Irish Culture in the Seventh Century.” Studies (September 1948): 267–279.
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Review of Masai 1947 (see General Overviews). Points out evidence in metalwork and other media that the art traditions seen in Insular manuscript illumination were present in Ireland. Henry gives a passionate argument for the Irish contribution to the origins of Insular art.
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Netzer, Nancy. “The Book of Durrow: The Northumbrian Connection.” In Northumbria’s Golden Age. Edited by Jane Hawkes and Susan Mills, 315–326. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1999.
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A clear summary of writings on the question of the origins of the Insular style, from 17th-century antiquarian authors up to mid-1990s scholarship. Netzer dispels nationalistic arguments and points to balanced approaches appearing in late-20th-century scholarship, while warning of the dangers of commercialization of the manuscripts.
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Nordenfalk, Carl. “One Hundred Fifty Years of Varying Views on the Early Insular Gospel Books.” In Ireland and Insular Art A.D. 500–1200. Edited by Michael Ryan, 1–6. Dublin, Ireland: Royal Irish Academy, 1987.
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Particularly important because Nordenfalk places the writings of Continental scholars, such as Müller, Zimmerman, and Koehler, in the historiography of Insular illumination, where English-speaking authors have neglected them. Moreover, he points out the impact of photographic reproduction and gives a balanced account of the Irish versus Anglo-Saxon dispute over stylistic origins.
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Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí. “Pride and Prejudice.” Peritia 1 (1982): 352–362.
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Sets out objections to attributions of Durham A.II.17 and Echternach Gospels to Lindisfarne and the theory of the “Durham-Echternach Calligrapher” (see Verey, et al. 1980, cited in Facsimiles). Points out evidence for the origins of the manuscripts in Ireland.
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Ó Riordan, Seán, “A Note on the Archaeological Evidence.” Studies (September 1948): 279–282.
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Published alongside Henry’s review on the art-historical questions, Ó Riordan’s “Note” augments her criticisms with an account of archaeological finds in Ireland that contradict Masai’s theory of the Northumbrian origins of Insular art.
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O’Sullivan, William. “Insular Calligraphy: Current Problems.” Peritia 4 (1985): 346–359.
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In his valuable review of a book on Irish scripts, O’Sullivan suggests revisions to the accepted narrative of Insular manuscripts, their scripts, and art, by noting the many examples of evidence and publications that are (still) often overlooked.
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Schapiro, Meyer. “The Place of Ireland in Hiberno-Saxon Art.” Gazette des Beaux-Arts 37. (1950): 134–138.
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With Henry 1948 and Ó Riordan 1948 and Nordenfalk’s review (“Before the Book of Durrow,” Acta Archaeologica 17 [1947]: 141–174), presents details of the argument against Insular manuscript decoration as exclusively Anglo-Saxon. See Masai 1947 (cited in General Overviews). Reprinted in Meyer Schapiro, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art: Selected Papers (New York: George Braziller, 1979), pp. 225–241.
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Reference Works

Works listed include a selection of printed and online sources that give brief, specialized accounts of individual Insular manuscripts, with references and, in some cases, images of script and illumination. Kenney 1966 gives extensive background information in addition to entries on individual manuscripts. Lowe 1971 has not yet been replaced by online sources: it is the only comprehensive paleographical source for early Latin manuscripts, even though its references are very much outdated. McGurk 1961 gives codicological accounts of gospel manuscripts that relate illumination to overall structure. Ohlgren 1986 constitutes a convenient iconographic dictionary.

Kenney, James F. The Sources for the Early History of Ireland: Ecclesiastical, an Introduction and Guide. Records of Civilization, Sources and Studies 11. New York: Octagon Books, 1966.
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Remains indispensable for research on any aspect of early medieval Ireland. Organizes and annotates listings of all known documentary evidence, with references and insightful commentary. Covers 7th to 12th centuries. Chapter 7, “Religious Literature and Ecclesiastical Culture,” includes illuminated manuscripts. First published in 1929 (New York: Columbia University Press).
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Lowe, Elias Avery. Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century. 12 pts. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1971.
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Standard abbreviation of the title is CLA. Catalogue of nearly all known early Latin manuscripts, organized by country, city, and library or collection. Summarizes important physical features and details of provenance of manuscripts, although some attributions and dates are controversial. Part 2 has British and Irish libraries, where the bulk of Insular manuscripts are held. Fundamental resource.
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McGurk, Patrick. Latin Gospel Books from A.D. 400 to A.D. 800. Les publications de scriptorium 5. Paris: Éditions “Erasme,” 1961.
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Analyzes the decorative and physical (codicological) structure of nearly all known Latin gospel books to 800 CE. Tells which folios have decoration, giving brief description. Generally reliable for accepted dates, origins, important details, and bibliography. Organized by country, city, and library. Important also for its “Introduction” (see McGurk 1998, cited under Anthologies).
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Ohlgren, Thomas H. Insular and Anglo-Saxon Illuminated Manuscripts: An Iconographic Catalogue, c. AD 625 to 1100. New York: Garland, 1986.
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A convenient, general reference for iconography. Should be seen as one of several starting points.
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Library and Museum Collection Catalogues

Library and museum catalogues of manuscripts collections represent an important category of research tool. A catalogue will usually give reliable information on the manuscript’s physical condition and dimensions, provenance or history of ownership, and references. Some may discuss other aspects, such as style of decoration, script, and relevant unanswered questions, and provide illustrations. Printed catalogues are not produced very often because of the time and expense involved: they become out of date. Digital technology has brought the medium of the Internet, which is less expensive, more flexible, easily updated, and more accessible. Online sources have been selected for the quantity of Insular manuscript images presented on the website, as well as the quality of accompanying metadata. The British Library’s significant holdings of Insular manuscripts are gradually appearing in the British Library Digital Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts, which is being created collection by collection. A considerable number of additional images are available on the British Library’s Online Gallery. Trinity College Library in Dublin, holding one of the world’s other large collections, has not, to date, put a catalogue of its Insular manuscripts on the web, but a printed one was published in 1991 (Trinity College Library 1991) and was updated with a supplement in 2008 (see Simpson 2008, cited under Facsimiles: Book of Kells). The Swiss national libraries have made great digital progress with the excellent Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland, making available color facsimiles of the St. Gall, Schaffhausen, and other manuscripts. Mandragore of the Bibliothèque nationale de France provides high-quality images of its Insular manuscripts, such as the Echternach Gospels. The Bodleian Library at Oxford University has the LUNA, which includes a full facsimile of the Macregol Gospels. Other libraries with small holdings of Insular manuscripts have excellent websites: Parker on the Web provides access to an important gospel fragment as well as the St. Augustine Gospels and later Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, while Cologne’s Dombibliothek displays its Collectio Canonum in images (which are not cropped) on its Codices Electronici Ecclesiae Coloniensis website. The Cambridge University Library does not yet have an online digital catalogue of its Insular manuscripts, but a digital facsimile of the Book of Deer is available, providing access to one of a few Insular manuscripts attributed to Scotland, post-800 CE.

Book of Deer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Library.
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A complete, full-color facsimile of the Book of Deer (MS Ii.6. 32). Has short introduction on the manuscript and bibliography.
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British Library Digital Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts. London: British Library.
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Called “Digicim,” in-progress catalogue of all medieval illuminated Western manuscripts in the British Library. Full catalogue entries and references, and images of illuminated pages. Has useful glossary and introductory thematic “Tours.” Easily searchable. See also the library’s general-audience Online Gallery: hundreds of Insular manuscript images. Searchable by shelfmark, date, title, etc., but no bibliography.
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Codices Electronici Ecclesiae Coloniensis. Cologne: University of Cologne.
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Manuscripts of Cologne’s libraries, including 392 items from the Archiepiscopal Diocese and the Cathedral Library. Has a complete full-color facsimile of early-8th-century Insular Collectio Canonum (MS 213), with catalogue text and references. Excellent tools for zoom; easy to navigate.
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LUNA. Oxford: Bodleian Library.
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Has complete facsimile of Rushworth or Macregol Gospels (MS Auct. D. 2. 19), and images of the 9th-century Ars amatoria I of Ovid, from Wales (Auct. F. 4. 32, folios 37–47), and Insular gospel manuscript, Rawlinson MS G.167. Catalogue text provides basic information but no discussion or bibliography.
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Mandragore. Paris: Bibliothèque nationale de France.
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Has good color digital images of the Insular manuscripts in its collections. No full facsimiles and no bibliographies, and little information is given. Has thirty-seven color images of the Echternach Gospels (lat. 9389) and five of the Codex Bigotianus (lat. 281, 298). In French.
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Parker on the Web. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, Corpus Christi College, Parker Library.
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Although zoom, bibliography, and catalogue summaries are available only to subscribers, individuals can view the site’s images of manuscripts. Has Corpus Christi College’s early-8th-century Insular gospel fragment, MS 197B.
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Trinity College Library. Trinity College Library Dublin: Descriptive Catalogue of the Mediaeval and Renaissance Latin Manuscripts. 2 vols. Aldershot, UK: Trinity College Library and Scolar Press, 1991.
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See with supplement: Marvin L. Colker, Trinity College Library Dublin: Descriptive Catalogue of the Mediaeval and Renaissance Latin Manuscripts: Supplement One. (Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press, 2008). Includes illustrated catalogue entries for all the Insular manuscripts in Trinity College Library, Dublin. Supplement One has fully updated bibliographies for important Insular manuscripts such as the Books of Armagh, Durrow, Kells, and Dimma. See also Facsimiles.
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Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland. Fribourg, Switzerland, and St. Gallen, Switzerland: University of Fribourg, Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen.
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Eventually will put full facsimiles of all manuscripts in Swiss libraries online. To date, has 864 manuscripts from thirty-five libraries, including the Insular gospel manuscript St. Gall, Stiftsbibliothek MS 51, and the Schaffhausen Adomnán (Stadtbibliothek, MS Gen. 1). Full bibliographies and excellent zoom tools. In German, English, French, and Italian.
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Textbooks

University courses on Insular art are seldom offered: art history textbooks are virtually nonexistent. Well-chosen general medieval survey texts can serve satisfactorily, but standard art history surveys rarely give good coverage. Calkins 1983, Brown 1994, Diebold 2000, and Nees 2002 have chronological and geographical scopes extending beyond Insular manuscripts, but all were written by specialists in early medieval art and provide commendable introductions and guides for students. Schapiro 2006 probably most nearly meets the requirements of an introductory textbook on Insular manuscript illumination, but it may need augmenting with material on context and other approaches.

Brown, Michelle P. Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms. Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum and the British Library, 1994.
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Useful, inexpensive glossary for beginning students, written by a leading scholar of Insular manuscript illumination. An illustrated glossary is also available online; see British Library Digital Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts (cited in Library and Museum Collection Catalogues).
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Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983.
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Out of print for some time, this textbook has a section on Insular gospel books and an appendix giving contents of three examples. An intelligent, well-informed presentation. Needs augmentation with comparative material from other media, material on social context, updating with recent archaeological discoveries, and a glossary.
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Diebold, William J. Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000.
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A short book (160 pages) giving an excellent introduction to the study of early medieval art, through the questions art historians ask to gain an understanding of the period and its works. Variety of approaches introduced; well-written and stimulating. Not an overview, not specialized for Insular manuscript illumination.
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Nees, Lawrence. Early Medieval Art. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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Another excellent introduction to the art of the period. Limited coverage of Insular manuscripts, but gives engaging, thought-provoking discussion of well-chosen examples within a broader early medieval context. Good bibliography, time line, maps, and list of museums.
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Schapiro, Meyer. The Language of Forms: Lectures on Insular Manuscript Art. New York: Pierpont Morgan Library, 2006.
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Schapiro’s lectures given at the Pierpont Morgan Library in 1968, intended to open viewers’ eyes to the beauty and high quality of Insular manuscript art, obliterating preconceptions based on standards of naturalism. Superb formal method and exercise in looking; some exposition of his theories. Good introduction for students; interesting reading for anyone.
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Bibliographies

Publications on Insular manuscript illumination are spread over many journals in different disciplines and in volumes of papers that can be difficult to locate. Bibliographies are a helpful tool for locating articles, books, and reviews of books. Printed bibliographies become outdated, but they are useful for locating earlier scholarship. Three that apply in particular to Insular manuscript illumination are Bonser 1957, Werner 1984, and Marmion 1990. See also Brown 2004 (cited in Historiography). Online bibliographies allow precise searches. The most useful are the International Medieval Bibliography (IMB) and the Bibliography of the History of Art (BHA), now available free on the Getty website for the years 1975–2007. The Index of Christian Art (ICA) can be of some use for Insular manuscript illumination, and it provides the free online Bibliographies for the Study of Medieval Art. The International Center of Medieval Art provides a vital service in the Census of Dissertations on Medieval Art, which can provide references on the most recent research. An effective bibliographic search requires looking into several different bibliographies, both online and in print, because no single bibliography will have all the relevant works over an adequate number of years.

Bibliography of the History of Art (BHA). Santa Monica, CA: J. Paul Getty Trust, 1975–2007.
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See with International Bibliography of Art (IBA), available online by subscription. BHA and IBA form a valuable database for Insular manuscript illumination. Covers books and core journals of Western art, Late Antique to 21st century, 1975 to present. Excellent search tools; precise short abstract for each entry. BHA free to public on Getty website.
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Bibliographies for the Study of Medieval Art. Princeton, NJ: Index of Christian Art, Princeton University.
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Most well known for its iconographic index, which is available by subscription, the ICA also hosts “Bibliographies for the Study of Medieval Art,” including a page “Early Medieval Art 500–1000 CE.” A good introduction to sources and references for students. Free and open to the public.
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Bonser, Wilfrid. An Anglo-Saxon and Celtic Bibliography (450–1087). 2 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, 1957.
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An excellent account of older bibliography across disciplines. Sections on “General Culture” and “Archaeology” are useful for manuscript illumination. Has very brief annotations.
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Census of Dissertations in Medieval Art. New York: International Center of Medieval Art, 1982–.
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International listing of dissertations and theses on all periods of medieval art, subdivided into 1982–1993 and 1993–2007. It is not comprehensive, however, and the resources given on the introductory pages and other general indices of dissertations should be searched as well. Searchable by topic.
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International Medieval Bibliography (IMB) Leeds, UK: University of Leeds, 1967–.
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Available by subscription from Brepols Publishers. With Bibliographie de civilisation médiévale, provides references to books, articles, and reviews on medieval culture, 300–1500 CE, including Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, with short abstracts. Has tutorial, index terms, and help screens to facilitate effective searches. The most useful online bibliography for Insular manuscripts.
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Marmion, Gerard. “Select Bibliography.” In The Book of Kells MS 58 Trinity College Library Dublin, Commentary. Edited by Peter Fox, 357–373. Lucerne, Switzerland: Fine Art Facsimile Publishers of Switzerland, 1990.
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Not annotated, but it lists in chronological order virtually every publication mentioning the Book of Kells, including some PhD dissertations, through the late 1980s. Provides a nearly comprehensive bibliography for scholarship on Insular manuscript decoration, just before the digital age.
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Werner, Martin. Insular Art: An Annotated Bibliography. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984.
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Although published in 1984, it is still valuable for earlier references as well as its historiographic introduction. Divided into sections by medium and background, with a section on manuscripts.
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Anthologies

Collections of papers by major scholars (Henry 1984, McGurk 1998) and volumes of conferences on Insular Art (Bourke 1995; Moss 2007; O’Mahony 1994; Redknap, et al. 2001; Ryan 1987; Spearman and Higgitt 1993) have been chosen for this section. See also Schapiro 2006 (cited in Textbooks).

Bourke, Cormac. From the Isles of the North: Early Medieval Art in Ireland and Britain; Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Insular Art Held in the Ulster Museum, Belfast, 7–11 April 1994. Belfast: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1995.
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The third Insular Art conference’s volume has studies on Insular manuscripts, including Marx on zoomorphic ornament, Netzer on Insular contributions to the Stuttgart Psalter’s decoration, Ó Cróinín on the Salaberga Psalter, Farr on mnemonic iconography in the Book of Kells, and Edwards on 11th-century Welsh manuscripts.
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Henry, Françoise, and Geneviève Marsh-Micheli. Studies in Early Christian and Medieval Irish Art. Vol. 2, Manuscript Illumination. London: Pindar, 1984.
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Second of three volumes of Henry’s collected studies, this has Marsh-Micheli as co author because of her collaboration on some projects. Includes four of Henry’s articles on Insular manuscripts, Marsh-Micheli’s on manuscripts of St. Gall and Reichenau, and the two scholars’ essay on their teacher, Henri Focillon.
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McGurk, Patrick. Gospel Books and Early Latin Manuscripts. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate 1998.
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Paleographer, codicologist, and textual historian, McGurk has written important publications for the study of Insular manuscripts (on Irish pocket gospels, Book of Kells, gospel books, canon tables, graphic articulation, “Hebrew names,” etc.). This study brings together several, with the addition of indices and an updated bibliography.
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Moss, Rachel, ed. Making and Meaning in Insular Art: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Insular Art Held at Trinity College Dublin, 25–28 August 2005. TRIARC Research Studies in Irish Art 1. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press, 2007.
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Papers range widely over the media. Contributions on manuscript art: Neuman de Vegvar on canon table arcades, Pulliam on marginal images in the Book of Kells, Meehan on technical aspects of the devil figure of Kells’s Temptation page, and O’Reilly on the Crucifixion picture in the Durham Gospels.
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O’Mahony, Felicity, ed. The Book of Kells: Proceedings of a Conference at Trinity College Dublin, 6–9 September 1992. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1994.
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Includes Ó Corráin on historical background, McGurk on the Hebrew names, Higgitt on display script, Kelly on Lough Kinale book shrine, Netzer on beast canon tables, Michelle Brown on links with Southumbrian manuscripts, O’Reilly on Lucan genealogy, Éamonn Ó Carragáin on liturgical images, and other key papers.
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Redknap, Mark, Nancy Edwards, Susan Youngs, Alan Lane, and Jeremy Knight, eds. Pattern and Purpose in Insular Art: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Insular Art Held at the National Museum and Gallery, Cardiff, 3–6 September 1998. Oxford: Oxbow, 2001.
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Includes papers on the Barberini Gospels (George Henderson), Insular style (Nancy Netzer), St. Petersburg Gospels (Victoria Bruno), St. Gall 51 (Martin MacNamara), and carpet pages (Emmanuelle Pirotte). Contributions cover topics and manuscripts that have not otherwise received their due art-historical attention.
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Ryan, Michael, ed. Ireland and Insular Art: Proceedings of a Conference at University College Cork, 31 October–3 November 1985. Dublin, Ireland: Royal Irish Academy, 1987.
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The proceedings of the first International Insular art conference. Contains Ó Cróinín on the Book of Durrow, Haseloff on Insular animal styles, and Isabel Henderson on Pictish snake-boss motif in the Book of Kells. See also Nordenfalk 1987 (cited in Historiography).
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Spearman, R. Michael, and John Higgitt, eds. Age of Migrating Ideas: Early Medieval Art in Northern Britain and Ireland; Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Insular Art Held in the National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh, 3–6 January 1991. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 1993.
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Contributions of Kitzinger on interlace and Mediterranean influences, Stevenson relating sculpted to illuminated ornament, Netzer on Northumbrian and Continental manuscripts, Campbell and Lane on excavations at Dunadd, Nees on Ultan the Scribe, and O’Reilly on Book of Kells folio 114r. Others give important insights.
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Exhibition Catalogues

Exhibitions devoted solely to Insular illuminated manuscripts or even to Insular art are rare. One or two works may sometimes be found in exhibitions on larger themes relating to the early Middle Ages or of a particular collection or library. Nonetheless, exhibition catalogues can present the collaborative efforts of major scholars, providing well-informed discussions of contexts and individual works. Scholarly catalogue entries are useful also in providing precise physical descriptions of the objects, often written by curators or specialists who have extensive firsthand knowledge of them. Such information is helpful in filling out the sometimes generalized, incomplete, or even inaccurate discussions given in general overviews and textbooks. An excellent short overview of Insular manuscript illumination, with contextual information, can be found in the introductions to the sections on manuscript illumination in Webster and Backhouse 1991. A thorough presentation of the context for Insular manuscripts in the late 8th to early 9th centuries on the European continent and discussions of their influence are provided in the commentary and second volume of Stiegemann and Wemhoff 1999. Brown 2006 goes beyond Latin manuscripts to the lands of the eastern Mediterranean and farther into Asia and the Sinai region to situate well-known and less famous Insular illuminated manuscripts in their broader religious, historical, and geographic contexts.

Brown, Michelle P., ed. In the Beginning: Bibles before the Year 1000. Exh. cat., Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, Bodleian Library, Oxford, 21 October 2006–7 January 2007. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2006.
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A celebration of the centenary of Charles Lang Freer’s first donation of Bible manuscripts to the Smithsonian. Insular examples from many collections are written up and illustrated throughout the catalogue. Excellent, lively essays and entries written by leading scholars put Insular manuscript art in the context of Christianity’s first millennium.
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Stiegemann, Christoph, and Matthias Wemhoff, eds. 799 Kunst und Kultur der Karolingerzeit: Karl der Grosse und Papst Leo III in Paderborn. 3 vols. Exh. cat., Stadt Paderborn, Erzbistums Paderborn, and Landschaftsverbandes Westfalen-Lippe, 23 July–1 November 1999. Mainz, Germany: Verlag Phillip von Zabern, 1999.
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Although for a major exhibition on Carolingian culture, it includes Katharina Bierbrauer’s essay on the influence of Insular manuscript art (commentary vol., pp. 465–481) and a chapter on the Anglo-Saxon mission (catalogue vol. 2, pp. 418–491), with entries on the Barberini Gospels (exceptional illustrations), Freiburg gospels fragment, Cadmug pocket gospels, and others. Full bibliographies.
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Webster, Leslie, and Janet Backhouse, eds. The Making of England: Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture AD 600–900. Exh. cat., British Museum, London, 8 November 1991. London and Toronto: British Museum and University of Toronto Press, 1991.
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Presents the Anglo-Saxon material in seven chronological chapters, each including a section on manuscripts, with an introduction giving broader contexts. A wide selection of examples, including undecorated manuscripts and illuminated ones rarely discussed or illustrated in color. An excellent introduction, with essays and entries by Backhouse and Michelle Brown.
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Journals

Articles on Insular manuscript illumination appear mostly in English-language journals. Peritia (pronounced “Per-IT-zia”), the journal of the Medieval Academy of Ireland, has published several important articles relating to Insular manuscripts since its first volume in 1982. Anglo-Saxon England, a hardcover annual under the auspices of the University of Cambridge, regularly publishes valuable articles on all aspects of manuscripts associated with Anglo-Saxon England. Strictly art-historical scholarly journals that sometimes print pieces on Insular illumination include Gesta and Art Bulletin. Some notable studies have appeared in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section C, the series for humanities. Studies are found, although not regularly, in journals with broader emphases on the history, literature, and archaeology of medieval Europe, including Speculum and Early Medieval Europe. The Belgium journal on manuscript scholarship, Scriptorium, is also a key publication. In addition to these sources, relevant studies can be found in archaeological, librarian, and antiquarian journals as well as those specializing in studies of manuscripts published in Europe, Japan, and North America.

Anglo-Saxon England.
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Published since 1972. High-quality offerings in a broad range of disciplines, including manuscript illumination, for Britain, 5th through 11th centuries. Each volume has an annual bibliography with sections on every branch of Anglo-Saxon studies. Every fifth year an index volume is published that includes listings of individual manuscripts (by shelfmark).
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Art Bulletin.
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One of the foremost English-language journals of art history, which has been published since 1913 (other titles until 1919). Published by College Art Association. Although relatively few in number, studies on Insular manuscript illumination are published in this journal. Some past contributors include scholars such as Schapiro, Nordenfalk, Werner, and Nees. College Art Association membership includes subscription and online access.
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Early Medieval Europe.
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Interdisciplinary, covering later Roman Empire through 11th century. Publishes specialized studies of manuscripts, including iconographic and contextual studies. Excellent for specialized background in areas such as political contexts and liturgies. Published since 1992.
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Gesta.
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Published since 1964 by the International Center of Medieval Art. One of the premier journals of medieval art, it has published some important articles on Insular manuscript illumination. The International Center of Medieval Art also maintains a useful image database and links to further resources online.
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Peritia.
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Published since 1982 by the Medieval Academy of Ireland, a key journal for Irish medieval studies. Articles on any aspect of European medieval culture, but a tendency toward language, literature, history, law, material culture, architecture, and art of Ireland and Britain, 7th to 12th centuries. Also important for its book reviews. Searchable tables of contents available.
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Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section C.
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Important for publication of studies by leading Irish and other European scholars of Insular art. Focus tends to be on history and archaeology, but not exclusively so. Has published some important studies of Insular art. Published since 1836.
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Scriptorium.
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Scriptorium is a biannual journal of manuscripts studies, specializing in codicology (physical components, including illumination) as well as contexts and bibliography of European medieval manuscripts. Provides detailed book reviews. Published since 1946; in French, Dutch, German, and English.
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Speculum.
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Quarterly journal of the Medieval Academy of America; since 1926, Speculum has published on all aspects of medieval culture. Occasionally publishes studies relating to Insular manuscript illumination. Each issue has a lengthy section of book reviews and notices and listings of recently published books.
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Facsimiles

A facsimile, or complete reproduction, of a manuscript is highly useful to the study of Insular illumination; first of all, because it provides high-quality, full-size reproductions of all the manuscript’s folios, making it ideal for study in lieu of, or preliminary to, consulting the original. Microfilms and published photographs rarely have the quality necessary for serious study and are incapable of conveying features such as scale and overall structure. Older facsimiles, however, usually reproduce only heavily decorated folios in color, the rest in black and white. Recent technology has made feasible excellent full-color facsimiles in book and digital form. Moreover, although printed facsimiles are expensive, luxury books often promoted by publishers as art objects, most have commentary volumes authored by leading scholars. Their studies frequently become standard references. Complete digital facsimiles of a few well-known decorated Insular manuscripts are available online (see Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland, cited in St. Gall 51 Gospels, and LUNA cited in Library and Museum Collection Catalogues).

Cathach of Colum Cille

An early-7th-century Psalter from Ireland, one of the earliest surviving manuscripts with decoration in the Insular style. A CD-ROM, with introductory essay, Herity and Breen 2002 is the only modern facsimile.

Herity, Michael, and Aidan Breen, eds. The Cathach of Colum Cille: An Introduction. CD-ROM. Dublin, Ireland: Royal Irish Academy, 2002.
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A digitized facsimile on CD-ROM, with introductory essay by two leading scholars of medieval Irish studies. Includes a digital version of the edition of H. J. Lawlor, “The Cathach of St. Columba,” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 33 C 11 (1916): 243–443 (including important commentary by W. M. Lindsay), and searchable Douay Rheims English translation of the relevant Psalms. Available from the Royal Irish Academy.
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Book of Durrow

Of much-debated origin, the Book of Durrow is considered to represent a milestone in the development of Insular manuscript decoration. Only one complete facsimile has ever been published—Luce, et al. 1960—but this facsimile is not full color. Access to the manuscript is highly restricted.

Luce, A. A., G. O. Simms, P. Meyer, and Ludwig Bieler, eds. Evangeliorum Quattuor Codex Durmachensis. 2 vols. Olten, Switzerland, and Lausanne, Switzerland: Urs Graf, 1960.
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The only complete facsimile of this key manuscript. Commentary, although still worthwhile, needs updating because of subsequent discoveries, such as fragments of a gospel book from Bobbio presenting script closely related to Durrow’s (see Netzer 1999, cited in Historiography). See also Meehan 1996, cited in Studies on Individual Manuscripts: Book of Durrow.
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Durham Cathedral Library, MS A.II.17

Only 108 folios remain of the originally luxurious, large-format gospel book, made in the late 7th or early 8th century. Important because of its full-page Crucifixion picture, drypoint notations, and relationships with the Lindisfarne Gospels (see Kendrick, et al. 1956–1960, cited in Facsimilies: Lindisfarne Gospels). Verey, et al. 1980 remains the single most important study of the manuscript, although see also O’Reilly 2010 (cited in Iconography) and the author’s contribution in Moss 2007 (cited in Anthologies).

Verey, Christopher D., T. Julian Brown, and Elizabeth Coatsworth, eds. The Durham Gospels. Early English Texts in Facsimile 20. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1980.
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The only facsimile of an important manuscript of disputed origin and date. The commentary represents the only full-length study of it. Verey’s essay on the corrections reveals the manuscript’s location relative to the Lindisfarne Gospels, early 8th century, and much else in the commentary is important.
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Lindisfarne Gospels

One of the trio of famous Insular gospel manuscripts and crucial to understanding many aspects of Insular manuscript art. Each of its two modern facsimiles is valuable. Kendrick, et al. 1956–1960 presents key essays on decoration and script. Brown 2002 is a full-color facsimile produced from digital scans of the manuscript, and the commentary volume (see Brown 2003, cited in Studies of Individual Manuscripts: Lindisfarne Gospels) gives new observations and conclusions.

Brown, Michelle P., ed. The Lindisfarne Gospels, British Library, Cotton MS Nero D. iv. Lucerne, Switzerland: Faksimile Verlag, 2002.
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This full-color facsimile is the most important published source for study, the original manuscript being virtually closed to examination. Some images available online or for purchase from the British Library (see British Library Digital Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts, cited in Library and Museum Collection Catalogues). The commentary volume was published separately (see Brown 2003, cited in Studies of Individual Manuscripts: Lindisfarne Gospels).
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Kendrick, Thomas D., T. Julian Brown, Rupert L. S. Bruce-Mitford, et al., eds. Evangeliorum Quattuor Codex Lindisfarnensis. 2 vols. Olten, Switzerland, and Lausanne, Switzerland: Urs Graf, 1956–1960.
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Some commentary essays are still valuable (T. Julian Brown on paleography, Bruce-Mitford on decoration), but Roosen-Runge’s pigment analysis is outdated. Brown and Bruce-Mitford’s connection of Lindisfarne Gospels, Durham A.II.17 and Echternach Gospels through the so-called Echternach-Durham calligrapher has provoked enduring controversy (see Netzer 1999, cited in Historiography).
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Codex Amiatinus

Made at Wearmouth-Jarrow, early 8th century, and one of only a few pandect (one-volume) Bibles surviving from the early Middle Ages. Of immense importance because of its exemplary Vulgate text and its series of full-page introductory images and diagrams, some of which are rarely reproduced, even in black and white. Ricci 2000 fills a huge gap in resources for study of this monument and its series of prefatory images.

Ricci, Luigi G. G., ed. La Bibbia Amiatina: Riproduzione integrale su CD-ROM del manoscritto: Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Amiatino 1 = The Codex Amiatinus: Complete Reproduction on CD-ROM of the Manuscript. Florence: SISMEL, Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2000.
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Feasible only by digital medium, this facsimile makes accessible good-quality color images of all 1,030 folios of this huge pandect Bible, which is of utmost importance to early medieval and religious studies across the disciplines. Access to the images is not obvious from its first menu: some exploration is necessary. User guide included.
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Augsburg Gospels and Salaberga Psalter

The missions of Irish and Anglo-Saxon churchmen to evangelize in France and Germany have left a trail of Insular and Insular-style manuscripts in Continental libraries. Studying the manuscripts without facsimiles would require much time spent in travel. Dáibhí Ó Cróinín, who has specialized in the study of these churchmen and their legacies at centers such as Echternach, was involved in the predigital microform and microfiche facsimiles of two less well-known manuscripts, the Augsburg Gospels (Ó Cróinín 1988) and Salaberga Psalter (Ó Cróinín 1994).

Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, ed. Evangeliarum Epternacense (Universitätsbibliothek Augsburg, Cod. I.2.4o 2), Evangelistarium (Erzbischöfliches Priesterseminar St. Peter, Cod. Ms. 25). Codices Illuminate Medii Aevi 9. Munich: H. Lengenfelder, 1988.
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Microform full-color facsimile of a little-studied deluxe gospel book with relationships to the Echternach and Trier Gospels. See Netzer 1994 (cited in Trier Gospels).
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Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, ed. Psalterium Salabergae: Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz—Ms. Hamilt. 553. Codices Illuminate Medii Aevi 30. Munich: H. Lengenfelder, 1994.
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In microfiche, a full-color reproduction of this not well-known but important 8th-century decorated Psalter, which has been attributed to Northumbria. Ó Cróinín, a leading scholar on Insular manuscripts and history, authored the brief but informative introduction.
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Vespasian Psalter

Important for its David portrait, early historiated initials, decorated display capitals, Old English gloss, and other features of its script and decoration. Only a few digital images are available on the British Library’s websites, and few have been published in color. Wright 1967 is the only source of color images of several of its important decorated pages.

Wright, David H., ed. The Vespasian Psalter. Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile 14. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1967.
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Full facsimile in black and white. Frontispiece (“David Composing the Psalms”) and some decorated initials in color. Color illustrations of initials show the initial and accompanying lines of display script. Wright’s commentary remains valuable for its discussion of decoration and iconographic analysis of the frontispiece.
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Stockholm Codex Aureus

A luxury manuscript among luxury manuscripts, it cannot be studied adequately without color reproductions of all its pages. Although no digital facsimile is available, Gameson 2001–2002 provides a modern scholarly alternative: not the typical deluxe production but a straightforward color reproduction of the entire manuscript in two volumes, priced for the research library budget.

Gameson, Richard G., ed. The Codex Aureus: An Eighth-Century Gospel Book: Stockholm, Kungliga Bibliotek, A. 135. 2 vols. Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 2001–2002.
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Complete color facsimile of a manuscript important for its canon tables, evangelist portraits, incipit decoration, and purple-dyed, cross-decorated pages, which are rarely reproduced. Part 1 has “Commentary” and Gospel of Matthew facsimile; Part 2 notes on condition and individual quires, followed by a facsimile of the other three gospels.
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Book of Kells

On public display at Trinity College, Dublin, this national treasure is rarely allowed for individual study. Few good-quality images are available online, making access to facsimiles crucial for its study. Alton and Meyer 1950–1951 reproduces the entire manuscript, but mostly in black and white. Fox 1990 greatly facilitates study, while Simpson 2008 provides an inexpensive digital color facsimile, although the resolution is not clear enough for very detailed study.

Alton, E. H., and Peter Meyer, eds. Evangeliorum Quattuor Codex Cenannensis. 3 vols. Berne, Switzerland: Urs Graf, 1950–1951.
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Although the 1990 facsimile reproduces the manuscript far more justly, the older one is serviceable enough for preliminary study. Some libraries may have only Alton and Meyer.
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Fox, Peter, ed. The Book of Kells MS 58 Trinity College Library Dublin. 2 vols. Lucerne, Switzerland: Faksimile Verlag, 1990.
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The first full-color book facsimile of an Insular gospel manuscript has made possible the detailed study of the Book of Kells. The commentary volume includes a section titled “The Illumination,” by Jonathan Alexander, which discusses all the decorated pages in detail, with summaries of important scholarship. Comprehensive bibliography to the late 1980s.
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Simpson, Bill, ed. The Book of Kells. DVD-ROM. Dublin, Ireland: Trinity College and X-Communications, 2008.
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A digitized version of all 340 folios of the Book of Kells. A convenient, inexpensive, and portable full-color facsimile, which runs either on PC or Macintosh (4x DVD-ROM drive). The images cannot be downloaded. Available for purchase from Trinity College Library, Dublin.
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Maaseik Gospels

Has early-8th-century, flawed canon tables and evangelist portrait, together with a slightly later, longer gospels fragment. Important for understanding the group of Insular and Insular-influenced manuscripts associated with Echternach. Its decoration has received little study. Coppens, et al. 1994 provides an essential research tool.

Coppens, Christian, Albert Derolez, and Hubert Heymans. Codex Eyckensis: An Insular Gospel Book from the Abbey of Aldeneik, Maaseik, Belgium. Antwerp, Belgium: Standaard, 1994.
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Facsimile of fragments of two early-8th-century Anglo-Saxon gospel books bound together. A valuable resource on relatively little-studied manuscripts. Commentary on conservation, condition, scripts, decoration, and codicology, with bibliography. Some color reproduction, the remainder black and white. See also Netzer 1993 and Netzer 1994 (both cited in Trier Gospels).
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St. Gall 51 Gospels

Made in Ireland or an Irish foundation on the Continent, St. Gall 51 has important full-page pictures of the Crucifixion and of Christ flanked by trumpeting angels over twelve adoring figures, as well as a carpet page and evangelist portraits with symbols. The e-codices website Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland makes possible the detailed study of the images in their manuscript context.

Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland.
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Excellent full-color digital facsimile, with powerful zoom capabilities. Navigation of the website and images is straightforward. In German, English, French, and Italian.
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Macregol or Rushworth Gospels

One of the few Insular manuscripts with known place and date of origin (Birr, Ireland, between 800 and early 820s). Most studied for its Old English gloss; very high-quality images of its decoration and evangelist portraits are now available on the website of the Bodleian Image Library.

Bodleian Image Library.
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A full-color facsimile with powerful zoom facilities. An excellent resource for studying the decoration and the 10th-century Old English gloss.
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Iconography

Since the early 1980s, iconographic studies have progressed rapidly following pioneering studies by several scholars. A strong analytic, archaeological trend that searched out iconographic origins and tended to deny meaning had limited interpretation, creating a general distortion of the art’s position within early medieval culture (see Historiography). To situate Insular manuscript art in relation to Late Antique and early medieval art across Europe, early- and mid-20th-century studies often attempted to arrange iconographic elements within a stemma, or family tree, a famous example being Nordenfalk 1968. Beginning in the late 20th century, art historians have attempted to reunite manuscript art with its physical, religious, and intellectual contexts. The earliest studies appeared in German, notably Werckmeister 1967. Lewis 1980 brought the more sophisticated approach to English-language publication, having an impact on studies such as Werner 1990. Studies selected reflect the developing understanding of abstract patterns and page design, as well as the increasing attention to exegetical and other textual sources (Farr 2007, Neuman de Vegvar 2007, O’Reilly 2010). They will be useful to specialists and teachers along with upper-level and graduate students. See also Farr 2005 (cited in Design, Interlace, and Ornament); Henderson 1987 (cited in General Overviews); Brown 2003 (cited in Studies on Individual Manuscripts: Lindisfarne Gospels); and Pulliam 2006 (cited in Studies on Individual Manuscripts: Book of Kells).

Farr, Carol A. “Bis per chorum hinc et inde: The ‘Virgin and Child with Angels’ in the Book of Kells.” In Text, Image, Interpretation: Studies in Anglo-Saxon Literature and Its Insular Context in Honour of Éamonn Ó Carragáin. Edited by Alastair Minnis and Jane Roberts, 117–134. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2007.
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Places the underlying design of the page and the picture’s details in relation to a liturgical context suggested by Cú Chuimne’s hymn to the Virgin (“Cantemus in omni die”). Suggests the picture’s tangible reference to the book’s community and explores how its presence in a gospel manuscript affects meaning.
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Lewis, Suzanne. “Sacred Calligraphy: The Chi Rho Page in the Book of Kells.” Traditio 26 (1980): 139–159.
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Marked the appearance of a sophisticated iconographic methodology in English-language publications on Insular manuscript art. Opened the door to the interpretative power of patristic and insular biblical commentaries and liturgical contexts, broadening understanding of iconography.
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Neuman de Vegvar, Carol. “Remembering Jerusalem: Architecture and Meaning in Insular Canon Table Arcades.” In Making and Meaning in Insular Art: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Insular Art Held at Trinity College Dublin, 25–28 August 2005. Edited by Rachel Moss, 242–256. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press, 2007.
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Neuman de Vegvar and others have moved the study of canon tables into iconographic study, relating their design to that in other media, in particular architecture. Her notes provide a full bibliography. See also Mullins 2001 (cited in Design, Interlace, and Ornament).
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Nordenfalk, Carl. “An Illustrated Diatesseron.” Art Bulletin 50 (1968): 119–140.
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Example of iconographic-sources method favored from the 1940s to the 1980s. Proposes that the Book of Durrow’s cross-carpet page shared a Mediterranean model with a 16th-century Persian manuscript. Meyer Schapiro challenged (“The Miniatures in the Florence Diatesseron (Laur. MS Orient 81),” Art Bulletin 51 [1969]: 494–531). Highlights the weaknesses of methods relying on visual resemblance.
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O’Reilly, Jennifer. “The Image of Orthodoxy, the Mysterium Christi and Insular Gospel Books.” In L’Irlanda e gli irlandesi nell’alto medioevo: Spoleto, 16-21 aprile 2009, 651–705. Settimane di Studio della Fondazione Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo 67. Spoleto, Italy: Fondazione Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 2010.
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On the Crucifixion pages in Durham A.II.17 and St. Gall Gospels, but covering much more Insular iconographic ground. O’Reilly’s work positions the Durham Crucifixion and inscription in a late-7th- to early-8th-century context. Notes give references to many of her earlier publications and a good survey of Insular iconographic studies.
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Werckmeister, Otto-Karl. Irisch-northumbrische Buchmalerei des 8. Jahrhunderts und monastiche Spiritualität. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1967.
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A pioneering, book-length iconographic study that treats abstract and figural elements as having virtually equal significance within the context of early medieval monastic spirituality. Limited to four main examples: the Matthew portrait in the Echternach Gospels, the Crucifixion picture in Durham A.II.17, and the John portrait and Chi monogram in the Book of Kells. Intensive citation of biblical commentaries.
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Werner, Martin. “The Cross-Carpet Page in the Book of Durrow: The Cult of the True Cross, Adomnan and Iona.” Art Bulletin 72.2 (1990): 174–223.
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An in-depth study of Insular iconography of the True Cross, interpreting Durrow’s cross-carpet page as within a diptych opening, facing its four-symbols page. Werner’s view of the design’s meaning has gained increasing support from recent explorations of Hiberno-Latin commentaries, contextual knowledge having grown significantly since 1990 (see O’Reilly 2010).
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Design, Interlace, and Ornament

The nonfigural ornament and carefully composed pages of Insular manuscripts have been considered as purely aesthetic, without intended meaning. Recent studies, however, have begun to explore the ways in which the splendid abstract designs and rich patterns, like the figural images, express complex meaning (O’Reilly 1998, Pirotte 2001, Tilghman 2009). Methods of interpreting abstract patterns in Insular art, however, were pioneered in the 1950s and 1960s by a few German scholars (e.g., Elbern 1955). Minor and marginal decoration as well as overall design have been connected with the highly developed interpretative skills and concern for orthodox harmony of the religious communities in which they almost certainly were created (Farr 2005, Farr 2007, Mullins 2001, Stevick 1994). See also O’Reilly 2010 (cited in Iconography), and O’Reilly 2009 (cited in Wearmouth-Jarrow Manuscripts and Codex Amiatinus).

Elbern, Victor H. “Die Dreifaltigkeitsminiatur im Book of Durrow.” Wallraf-Richartz-Jahrbuch 17 (1955): 7–42.
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Elbern was an early interpreter of abstract forms in Insular art, recognizing the relationship of numbers and meaning in early medieval cultures. The article also gives a valuable critical view of the widespread ascription of iconographic and ornamental elements in Insular art to Coptic sources.
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Farr, Carol A. “Commas and Columba, Power and Patrick: Restating the Archaic in the Book of Kells.” In Omnia Disce: Medieval Studies in Memory of Leonard Boyle, O.P. Edited by Anne J. Duggan, Joan Greatrex, and Brenda Bolton, 129–154. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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Puts the so-called Arrest of Christ in the Book of Kells into the graphic design context of early Latin gospel books. Shows the preservation of earlier forms in manuscripts associated with Irish contexts and suggests possible liturgical significance. See also McGurk 1961 (cited in Reference Works).
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Farr, Carol A. “The Incipit Pages of the Macregol Gospels.” In Making and Meaning in Insular Art: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Insular Art Held at Trinity College Dublin, 25–28 August 2005. Edited by Rachel Moss, 275–287. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press, 2007.
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Analytic comparisons suggest an iconography of gospel incipit designs, relating Macregol to Lindisfarne and Lichfield Gospels and Book of Kells. Interprets the small human figures at the edges of Macregol’s incipit pages as cosmological personifications. Suggests contemporary Irish context for this iconography. The first study of Macregol’s incipit pages.
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Mullins, Elizabeth. “The Insular Reception of the Eusebian Canon Tables: Exegesis and Iconography.” PhD diss., University College, Cork, 2001.
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Analysis of interpretative iconography in Insular canon table decoration, demonstrating the sophistication and intensity of the Irish and British response to textual and visual Christian forms arriving from Mediterranean culture. As yet unpublished.
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O’Reilly, Jennifer. “Patristic and Insular Traditions of the Evangelists: Exegesis and Iconography.” In Le Isole britanniche e Roma in etá romanobarbarica. Edited by Anna Maria Luiselli Fadda and Éamonn Ó Carragáin, 49–94. Biblioteca di cultura romanobarbarica 1. Rome: Herder, 1998.
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An encyclopedic presentation of material relating to iconography of evangelists and their symbols in Insular art. Discusses unpublished Hiberno-Latin texts and relatively unknown ones to demonstrate solidly that Insular Christians understood the symbolism of abstract forms, dispelling skepticism that the geometric patterns in Insular art could be only decorative.
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Pirotte, Emmanuelle. “Hidden Order, Order Revealed: New Light on Carpet Pages.” In Pattern and Purpose in Insular Art: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Insular Art held at the National Museum and Gallery, Cardiff, 3–6 September 1998. Edited by Mark Redknap, Nancy Edwards, Susan Youngs, Alan Lane, and Jeremy Knight, 203–208. Oxford: Oxbow, 2001.
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How Insular carpet pages exploit visual perception. Argues the significance of the pages merges with their form as surface patterns; analyzes their culturally specific uses of ambiguity. Uses psychological concepts such as Gestalt theory. An innovative analytical method for articulating nonverbal significance.
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Stevick, Robert D. The Earliest Irish and English Bookarts: Visual and Poetic Forms before A.D. 1000. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994.
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Proposes that Insular art and Anglo-Saxon poetry have mathematical commensurability based on the Golden Mean: physical dimensions of shapes in visual designs and of metric form in poetic. Supports theory with empirical evidence and analysis. A carefully made argument for significant abstract form in Insular art.
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Tilghman, Ben C. “The Symbolic Use of Ornament and Calligraphy in the Book of Kells and Insular Art.” PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2009.
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A fresh, imaginative study interpreting the manuscript’s ornament and aspects of script to show that these features connect with, and express, complex meaning in a variety of plays on shapes, letter forms, and other nonfigural visual elements. Detailed study of Incarnation pages in Matthew 1:18 and Lucan incipit. Available from ProQuest (AAT 3381647).
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Studies on Individual Manuscripts

Scholarship on Insular manuscript illuminations favors publication in monographs as well as articles focusing on individual manuscripts and particular questions on them. Some manuscripts, however, more easily group together and seem to relate to a specific context or decades within the two hundred years that constitute the Insular period. The two such groups on which developed bodies of scholarship exist are the Wearmouth-Jarrow manuscripts, and the mid-8th- to 9th-century manuscripts called the “Tiberius Group,” after the British Library’s “Tiberius Bede” manuscript. Studies on major individual illuminated manuscripts have been selected for their presentation of codicological aspects, stylistic analysis and comparison, iconographic studies, and discussion of relationships to other manuscripts. Works on Wearmouth-Jarrow and Tiberius Group represent discussions of the defining features and their significance, as well as key studies of examples within these groups. See also Facsimiles; Iconography; and Design, Interlace, and Ornament.

Book of Durrow

The Book of Durrow is a key manuscript for understanding the history of Insular illumination. The works selected augment those referring to the Book of Durrow in the other categories of this bibliography (Historiography; Iconography; Design, Interlace, and Ornament) and also add to an understanding of the manuscript’s decoration in its own right. Meehan 1996 represents the most accessible introduction to the manuscript and its decoration, while Netzer 2009 presents the pros and cons of paleographic and art-historical theories, arguing for a consideration of the broader Insular context. Comparison with works in other media has proved to be a fruitful approach to Durrow’s illumination (Nees 1978, Stevick 1995, Youngs 2009).

Meehan, Bernard. The Book of Durrow: A Medieval Masterpiece at Trinity College Dublin. Dublin, Ireland: Town House, 1996.
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A short, general-audience book by the Keeper of Manuscripts, Trinity College Library; provides useful summaries of scholarship, insightful comments, and the most extensive set of good color images of the manuscript, in a readily available, inexpensive publication.
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Nees, Lawrence. “A Fifth-Century Bookcover and the Origin of the Four Evangelist Symbols Page in the Book of Durrow.” Gesta 17.1 (1978): 3–8.
DOI: 10.2307/766707Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Points out a 5th-century Neapolitan mosaic that shows a book cover bearing a design resembling a cross-page with evangelist symbols. Revises some theories of Werner (see Werner 1990, cited in Iconography) on models of the Durrow four-symbols page.
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Netzer, Nancy. “Framing the Book of Durrow Inside/Outside the Anglo-Saxon World.” In Form and Order in the Anglo-Saxon World, AD 600–1100. Edited by Sally Crawford and Helena Hamerow with Leslie Webster, 65–78. Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 16. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2009.
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An examination of T. D. Kendrick’s attribution of the manuscript to Northumbria. Questions the art-historical and paleographic picture of late-7th- to early-8th-century Northumbria, as built by Kendrick and Julian Brown. Considers impact of Sutton Hoo treasure and Turin Gospel fragments.
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Stevick, Robert D. “What We Can Learn from Imperfect Forms.” In Ordo et Mensura. Vol. 3, III: Internationaler interdisziplinärer Kongress für Historische Metrologie vom 17.bis 21. November 1993 im Städtischen Museum Simeonstift Trier. Edited by Dieter Ahrens and Rolf C. A. Rottländer, 325–331. Sachüberlieferung und Geschichte: Siegener Abhandlungen zur Entwicklung der materiellen Kultur 15. St. Katharinen, Germany: Scripta Mercaturae, 1995.
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A detailed comparative analysis of the proportions of the Book of Durrow’s cross-page and the meter of the Old English poem, Christ III. Stevick argues for the presence of metrical commensurability in Insular decoration and Old English poetry and that it is a consistent feature in Insular and Anglo-Saxon cultural forms.
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Youngs, Susan. “From Metalwork to Manuscript: Some Observations on the Use of Celtic Art in Insular Manuscripts.” In Form and Order in the Anglo-Saxon World, AD 600–1100. Edited by Sally Crawford and Helena Hamerow with Leslie Webster, 45–64. Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 16. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2009.
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Carefully done, detailed study of the specific ways in which “Celtic” decorative forms are integrated into manuscript art, with the Book of Durrow providing a prominent example. Discusses implications for the manuscript’s origins and suggests significance of motifs in particular uses. Explores the interplay of metalwork craftsmen, scribes, and painters.
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Wearmouth-Jarrow Manuscripts and Codex Amiatinus

Twin monasteries founded by an Anglo-Saxon aristocrat, Benedict Biscop, Wearmouth-Jarrow was one of the powerhouses of the Insular Christian world. Out of this environment came some of the most important works of the Middle Ages: Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica and the one volume, or pandect copy, of the Bible known as the Codex Amiatinus. Many art-historical studies of the Codex Amiatinus concern its full-page prefatory images: their iconography and relationship to the rest of the manuscript (Bruce-Mitford 1967, Corsano 1987, Henderson 1993, Meyvaert 1996). Two influential essays—Schapiro 1958 and Parkes 1982—are followed by O’Reilly 2009, which reexamines the generally accepted characterization of Wearmouth-Jarrow’s monastic culture as “romanizing.” See also Kendrick, et al. 1956–1960 (cited in Facsimiles: Lindisfarne Gospels) and Ricci 2000 (cited in Facsimiles: Codex Amiatinus).

Bruce-Mitford, Rupert L. S. The Art of the Codex Amiatinus. Jarrow Lecture. Jarrow, UK: Parish of Jarrow, 1967.
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Gives authoritative, succinct, and salient description of script and illumination. Does not, however, ask or answer all the questions on the extremely important pandect Bible. Very influential analysis of the Ezra miniature. See also Kendrick, et al. 1956–1960 (cited in Facsimiles: Lindisfarne Gospels).
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Corsano, Karen. “The First Quire of the Codex Amiatinus and the Institutiones of Cassiodorus.” Scriptorium 41 (1987): 3–34.
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Examines the possible literary sources of the iconography of the pictures in the first quire. Argues that the manuscript’s makers knew Cassiodorus’s Institutiones, but that the pictures were not copies but rather emulations of Mediterranean art, composed at Wearmouth-Jarrow from several sources. See also Meyvaert 1996.
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Henderson, George. “Cassiodorus and Eadfrith Once Again.” In The Age of Migrating Ideas: Early Medieval Art in Northern Britain and Ireland. Edited by R. Michael Spearman and John Higgitt, 82–91. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 1993.
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Analysis of the Ezra miniature and its relationship to the Matthew portrait in the Lindisfarne Gospels and to literary and artistic works from Cassiodorus’s Vivarium, including wall decoration in opus sectile technique.
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Meyvaert, Paul. “Bede, Cassiodorus, and the Codex Amiatinus.” Speculum 71.4 (October 1996): 827–883.
DOI: 10.2307/2865722Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A detailed analysis that includes the iconography and other aspects of the pictures and decoration in the first quire. Argues relationships of iconography with Cassiodorus’s Institutiones and the Codex Grandior. See also Corsano 1987.
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O’Reilly, Jennifer. “‘All That Peter Stands For’: The Romanitas of the Codex Amiatinus Reconsidered.” In Anglo-Saxon/Irish Relations before the Vikings. Edited by James Graham-Campbell and Michael Ryan, 367–395. Proceedings of the British Academy 157. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
DOI: 10.5871/bacad/9780197264508.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Reexamines questions of ideological uses of uncial letter forms and uniformly Mediterranean-inspired decorative and iconographic elements in the manuscript’s decoration. A clarification of the position of “romanizing” cultural forms in late-7th- to early-8th-century Northumbria. Notes provide excellent bibliographic references.
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Parkes, Malcolm. The Scriptorium of Wearmouth-Jarrow. Jarrow Lecture. Jarrow, UK: Parish of Jarrow, 1982.
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Influential lecture on the manuscripts produced at Wearmouth-Jarrow and the cultural and historical reasons for the style of their scripts and decoration, which consistently imitated Mediterranean forms in the late 7th to early 8th centuries.
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Schapiro, Meyer. “The Decoration of the Leningrad Manuscript of Bede.” Scriptorium 12.2 (1958): 191–207.
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Compares the foliate decoration of incipit B (fol. 3v) and the portrait in the historiated initial (fol. 26v) with decoration of a wide range of Insular manuscripts to argue that Wearmouth-Jarrow, despite its developed classicizing art, “was also open to Celtic forms.” See plates 23–25. Reprinted in Meyer Schapiro, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art: Selected Papers (New York: George Braziller, 1979), pp. 199–224.
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Lindisfarne Gospels

A spectacular manuscript generally thought of as a pinnacle of medieval book art, the Lindisfarne Gospels has little illumination on the pages of its text but very fine decoration and pictures at the canon tables and beginnings of each of the gospels, including the Insular “second beginning” of the Gospel of Matthew, the word “Christi” (written as an abbreviation in Greek characters Χρι) at the end of the ancestors of Christ (Matthew 1:18). It has a 10th-century note (colophon) in Old English written by Aldred, provost at the Lindisfarne community’s later monastery at Chester-le Street (the result of relocation due to Vikings). Aldred states that “Eadfrith, Bishop of the Lindisfarne Church, originally wrote this book, for God and for St Cuthbert.” This is the basis of the manuscript’s attribution to Lindisfarne and its date just before or during Eadfrith’s time as bishop (698–721). Much scholarship tries to pin down the date more precisely and to relate the gospel book’s decoration to other examples of Insular art in all media. A considerable body of scholarship concerns itself with the iconography of the evangelist portraits and the style of the decoration. Brown 2003 discusses nearly all of this, much of it in relative detail. Nees 2003, which appeared too late for the author to discuss, urges critical reconsideration of the date and background, both of which have become accepted as fact.

Brown, Michelle P. The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality and the Scribe. The British Library Studies in Medieval Culture. London: British Library, 2003.
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Commentary volume for Brown 2002 (cited in Facsimiles: Lindisfarne Gospels), published as an affordable free-standing monograph addressed both to specialists and the interested general public. Redates the manuscript, suggests use of new materials and techniques, details its context, and gives pigment analysis (see Brown, et al. 2003, cited in Pigments), among other contributions. A key study.
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Nees, Lawrence. “Reading Aldred’s Colophon.” Speculum 78.2 (April 2003): 333–377.
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A critical view of the accepted early date and origin of the Lindisfarne Gospels. Reexamines Aldred’s colophon (dated 10th century) and background of Insular manuscript production, scribal working habits and conditions, possibility of small scriptoria, and other factors. Suggests moving manuscript’s possible date range toward the mid-8th century.
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Trier Gospels

Although few art-historical studies are devoted to it, the Trier Gospels (Trier, Domschatz, Codex 61) is of great importance to understanding the production of manuscripts in centers established by the Anglo-Saxons and Irish on the European continent during the 7th and 8th centuries. Little evidence remains to tell of the origins of Insular manuscripts on the Continent, and the ways in which Insular illuminators interacted with Continental artists and scribes. The Trier Gospels was the result of a collaboration between Insular and Frankish artists, who left their names in the manuscript. The manuscript has some unique examples of iconography, such as the “Tetramorph,” as well as evangelist portraits, a decorated inscription page, a four-symbols page, decorated incipits, and canon tables. Netzer 1994 analyzes the manuscript in detail and synthesizes the results into a picture of Insular artists working on the Continent. The author places the scriptorium that produced it at Echternach, thus relating it to some other decorated Insular manuscripts, including the Echternach Gospels. Netzer 1993 considers the broad context of Northumbrian influence.

Netzer, Nancy. “Observations on the Influence of Northumbrian Art on Continental Manuscripts of the 8th Century.” In The Age of Migrating Ideas: Early Medieval Art in Northern Britain and Ireland. Edited by R. Michael Spearman and John Higgitt, 45–51. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 1993.
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Relates iconographic and stylistic features of the Trier Gospels and other Echternach manuscripts to illumination in Northumbrian manuscripts. Sees particular types of influence at work.
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Netzer, Nancy. Cultural Interplay in the Eighth Century: The Trier Gospels and the Making of a Scriptorium at Echternach. Cambridge Studies in Palaeography and Codicology 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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A groundbreaking study of the Trier Gospels and related manuscripts. Reconstructs from the manuscript evidence the working and creative processes of an Insular scriptorium on the Continent, shedding light on early-8th-century cultural fusion. Valuable analyses of the manuscripts.
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Book of Kells

The Book of Kells is the subject of more studies than any other Insular manuscript. Its opulently decorated pages have provoked several controversies and inspired many words on their significance. Its origin and date remain controversial: Ireland; Iona, western Scotland; and Northumbria, sometime between 750 up to 830 (Brown 1972, Henry 1988; also Ó Cróinín 1982, cited in Historiography), have been claimed. The Book of Kells has more figural iconography than any other Insular manuscript, leading to studies on sources and meanings (Henderson 1982, O’Reilly 1998). More recently, the rich geometric ornament and highly inventive initials have received interpretative analysis (Pulliam 2006). Most recent studies have avoided the touchy questions of date and origin.

Brown, T. Julian. “Northumbria and the Book of Kells.” Anglo-Saxon England 1 (1972): 219–246.
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Carefully argues the manuscript’s possible origin in Northumbria (see also Masai 1947, cited in General Overviews). Cites detailed evidence of scripts, layouts, ornament (including other media), and initials, but the proposed origin in eastern Scotland continues to provoke controversy (see Historiography). Includes Christopher Verey’s note on Durham A.II.17 and Lindisfarne Gospels. Important. Reprinted in A Paleographer’s View: Selected Writings of Julian Brown, edited by Janet Bately, Michelle Brown, and Jane Roberts (London: Harvey Miller, 1993), pp. 97–124.
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Henderson, Isabel. “Pictish Art and the Book of Kells.” In Ireland in Early Medieval Europe: Studies in Memory of Kathleen Hughes. Edited by Dorothy Whitelock, Rosamund McKitterick, and David Dumville, 79–105. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
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Examines possible relationships between Pictish carvings and Insular manuscript art: What were the contacts between Pictish carvers and artists of the Book of Kells? Henderson’s consideration of Pictland as a candidate for the manuscript’s origin represents an important step in understanding the cultural context of Insular manuscript illumination.
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Henry, Françoise. The Book of Kells: Reproductions from the Manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin. New York: Knopf, 1988.
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First full-length monograph on the manuscript’s decoration, iconography, and ornamental motifs. Presents numerous insights that have endured, although inevitably some interpretations are outdated. Important analysis of a team of artists. Illustrated with 126 color plates of Kells’s folios, seventy-five monochrome of comparatives. Useful appendices. Essential introduction to the Book of Kells. Originally published in 1974.
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O’Reilly, Jennifer. “Gospel Harmony and the Names of Christ: Insular Images of a Patristic Theme.” In The Bible as Book: The Manuscript Tradition. Edited by John L. Sharpe III and Kimberly van Kampen, 73–88. London: British Library and Oak Knoll Press in association with the Scriptorium, Center for Christian Antiquities, 1998.
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A rich discussion of the textual background in Insular commentaries on the Incarnation to explain the reasons for, and iconography of, the splendid Χρι (Chi rho) monograms in the Book of Kells and other Insular gospel books. Key for connections between textual and visual works.
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Pulliam, Heather. Word and Image in the Book of Kells. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts, 2006.
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The first extended study of the minor initials in the Book of Kells. Sees the use of human and animal forms as artists’ responses to the gospel text, within the Insular monastic context of contemplation. Relates the decoration to page layout; figures sometimes refer across openings to one another.
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“Tiberius Group”

Manuscripts associated with the English Midlands and southern England during the second quarter of the 8th century to the first third of the 9th century generally have a style of decoration that features a classicism related to that seen in Carolingian manuscript art and a zoomorphic, or animal, interlace in which the animals have more rounded, naturalistic shapes than those of the earlier manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the interlace looks more like whips or cords, taking on a lacertine appearance. The animals often look, according to a distinguished scholar, like tiny playful brontosauruses. The historical context in Anglo-Saxon England is the heyday of the Mercian kings. The most prominent of these kings, Offa, ambitiously sought to emulate Charlemagne and his imperial visual culture. The power grabbing had an effect on ecclesiastics, setting off the development of showy script and decoration styles in the manuscripts produced for them. The name “Tiberius,” however, comes from the modern name of a manuscript of Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica in the British Library, the “Tiberius Bede” (Cotton MS Tiberius C.ii). Study of these manuscripts has been moved forward by the work of Michelle Brown, who has established their connections with other manuscripts and each other in her several publications on them, beginning with her doctoral thesis and subsequent book on the Book of Cerne (Brown 1996). The definitive discussion of the group as a whole so far is Brown 2001. She has also pointed out their broader relationships (Brown 1994). Her studies of the Barberini Gospels have led to her cogent suggestion of its origin at Peterborough (Brown 2007). Budny 1985 is the only full-length art-historical study of the Royal Bible fragment and contains descriptions and analyses not available elsewhere. Bruno 2001 is the only article devoted to the St. Petersburg Gospels.

Brown, Michelle P. “Echoes: The Book of Kells and Southern English Manuscript Production.” In The Book of Kells: Proceedings of a Conference at Trinity College, Dublin, 6–9 September 1992. Edited by Felicity O’Mahony, 133–143. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1994.
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Compares evangelist and Christ portraits with script and decorative elements to show a surprising relationship between “Tiberius Group” manuscripts, such as the Book of Cerne, and the Irish Book of Armagh and the Book of Kells. She considers the comparisons against the historical background to suggest continued cultural exchange.
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Brown, Michelle P. The Book of Cerne: Prayer, Patronage and Power in Ninth-Century England. British Library Studies in Medieval Culture. London: British Library, 1996.
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The only modern comprehensive study of this important manuscript. Considers historical background, codicology, scripts, interpretative decoration, charter evidence, and text to establish the book’s date and place of origin and set it within its context.
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Brown, Michelle P. “Mercian Manuscripts? The ‘Tiberius Group’ and Its Historical Context.” In Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe. Edited by Michelle P. Brown and Carol A. Farr, 278–292. Studies in the Early History of Europe. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press, 2001.
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The key study for “Tiberius Group” manuscripts. Discusses the historiography of the major examples, analyzes scripts, and sets out groupings of late-8th- to early-9th-century manuscripts within the “Tiberius Group.” Stylistic comparisons further define the larger group and its influences against the historical background.
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Brown, Michelle P. “The Barberini Gospels: Context and Intertextual Relationships.” In Text, Image, Interpretation: Studies in Anglo-Saxon Literature and Its Insular Context in Honour of Éamonn Ó Carragáin. Edited by Alastair Minnis and Jane Roberts, 89–116. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2007.
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Analyzes and interprets the style and iconography of the canon tables, incipits, and evangelist portraits. Discusses the “Wigbald” of the colophon and theories on his identity. Argues the identity as Wigbald cited as a priest in a late-8th-century charter of Peterborough and places the manuscript’s origin there.
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Bruno, Victoria. “The St. Petersburg Gospels and the Sources of Southumbrian Art.” In Pattern and Purpose in Insular Art. Edited by Mark Redknap, Nancy Edwards, Alan Lane, and Susan Youngs, 179–190. Oxford: Oxbow, 2001.
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Makes textual and stylistic comparisons with other Insular manuscripts to argue an origin in Southumbria (south of the Humber River). The comparisons of decoration focus on the canon tables. See also Brown 2001.
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Budny, Mildred O. “London, British Library MS. Royal 1.E.vi: The Anatomy of an Anglo-Saxon Bible Fragment.” PhD diss., London University, 1985.
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A full analysis showing origin at Canterbury in the early 9th century. Discussion of the original Bible manuscript and its decoration, relating stylistically to Carolingian art but also showing its original features. Digitized copy available from the British Library’s catalogue Explore the British Library.
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Pigments

Accurate identification of pigments used in Insular manuscript illumination has progressed significantly, beginning in the 1990s with the use of Raman microscopy, a highly sensitive and nondestructive technique. This has aided conservation: care must be taken not to use conservation materials that will interact with the pigments. Moreover, the improved accuracy has revised some earlier ideas about the sources of pigments. It was thought that blue pigments in some manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, were made with lapis lazuli (lazurite), which would have been brought from Afghanistan through trade networks. The improved technology has shown that lazurite was not used in the Insular period and that nearly all the pigments would have been available close to home, casting doubt on such far-flung pigment trading. Three studies that report on the analyses are listed (Bioletti, et al. 2009; Brown and Clark 2004; Brown, et al. 2003). These recent studies heavily revise the earlier ones published in, for example, the older facsimiles of Insular manuscripts. Essays by art historians on pigments are included. Henderson 1999 examines the color purple from several angles, bringing a fuller understanding of its significance in the Insular world. Meehan 2007 presents detailed findings of the analysis of the Book of Kells in an essay on the figure of the devil in the Temptation of Christ picture in the Book of Kells (202v) and gives the spectacular photographs taken of the figure during the study, along with reconstruction images. All the studies will be of interest to students, art historians, and anyone interested in medieval painting techniques.

Bioletti, Susan, Rory Leahy, John Fields, Bernard Meehan, and Werner Blau. “The Examination of the Book of Kells Using Micro-Raman Spectroscopy.” Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 40.8 (August 2009): 1043–1049.
DOI: 10.1002/jrs.2231Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Raman microscopy pigment analysis of 681 sites over the manuscript’s four volumes, using two separate laser wavelengths (632.8 and 532 nm). The most extensive Raman spectroscopic investigation of a medieval manuscript to date. Several pigments identified. Previous studies have used less precise techniques. See also Meehan 2007. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Brown, Katherine, Michelle P. Brown, and David Jacobs. “Analysis of Pigments Used in the Lindisfarne Gospels.” In The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality and the Scribe. Edited by Michelle P. Brown, 430–451. London: British Library, 2003.
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Report on the British Library and University of London Raman Microscopy Project and its scope, progress, and aims. Gives detailed results of analysis of five pages of Lindisfarne Gospels. Established the pigments used in the manuscripts; found that blue was indigo and not lapis lazuli. All pigments available locally to Lindisfarne.
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Brown, Katherine L., and Robin J. H. Clark. “Analysis of Key Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (8–11th Centuries) in the British Library: Pigment Identification by Raman Microscopy.” Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 35.3 (2004): 181–189.
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Analysis by Raman microscopy of pigments in seven of the British Library’s Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, including Vespasian Psalter (Cotton Vespasian A.i), Royal Prayerbook (Royal 2.A. xx), and Royal Bible (Royal 1.E. vi). Two general findings: lazurite (lapis lazuli) apparently not used until 920; vermillion, not until the 12th century. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Henderson, George. “The Colour Purple: A Late Antique Phenomenon and Its Anglo-Saxon Reflexes.” In Vision and Image in Early Christian England. By George Henderson, 122–135. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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Discussion of classical, Late Antique, and early medieval literary texts on varieties of purple and their names in Greek and Latin, social significance, and sources, including the whelk murex. Relates much of this to colors in Insular manuscript illumination and gives account of the author’s own experiments with British whelk.
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Meehan, Bernard. “Looking the Devil in the Eye: The Figure of Satan in the Book of Kells Folio 202v.” In Making and Meaning in Insular Art. Edited by Rachel Moss, 268–274. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts, 2007.
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Presents some of the findings of the technical examination conducted at Trinity College Library to reveal some extraordinary features of this figure: decoration on the body, prominent tongue, stab marks, and others. Gives a much more precise idea of the figure’s original appearance. See also Bioletti, et al. 2009.