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Frontiers of the Roman Empire (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. To simplify the list of sources, all accounts postdate 1985, apart from a few key earlier works. The Roman frontiers are often referred to in the German literature as the limes. It is not practical to include specific accounts of particular sites and monuments, since there are thousands of relevant sites. The focus of the works in this list is upon period from 1st to early 5th CE, and the list does not address the frontiers of the Byzantine Empire. The works are divided into themes that address the history of research, the meaning of frontiers, the physical character of these works, the complex nature of the populations living along and beyond their lines, late Roman frontiers and the 21st-century move to develop approaches to the heritage of the Roman frontiers. This list deliberately emphasizes works that aim to bring a broader range of interpretations that move beyond the dominant focus of Roman frontier studies on the material remains of the Roman military units.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. There are a number of general accounts of the Roman frontiers but no single substantial and authoritative account. The best overall summary is Breeze 2011, while Breeze, et al. 2005 also provides a concise and well-illustrated study. Wells 1995 is one of the few general accounts of the Roman Empire that explores the frontier regions. Other books in this list provide articles that discuss specific topics or sections of the frontier, including Breeze, et al. 2015 and Hanson 2009. Moschek 2011 and Klose and Nünnerich-Asmus 2005 provide well-informed summaries in German. Whittaker 1994 is a highly important study of the social and economic function of the Roman frontier. Heckster and Kaizer 2011 and Hoyos 2013 contain collections of papers relating to frontiers and borders.
  8.  
  9. Breeze, David J. 2011. The Frontiers of Imperial Rome. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword.
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  11. An excellent short introduction to the monument written by the leading expert, with sections on the archaeological remains and the strategy of the Roman army. This book also has a useful bibliography of relevant works, including a variety of additional sources to those listed here for the limes in Germany.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Breeze, David J., Rebecca H. Jones, and Ioana A. Oltean, eds. 2015. Understanding Roman frontiers: A celebration for Professor Bill Hanson. Edinburgh: John Donald.
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  15. This book focuses on how to understand the operation and functioning of Roman frontiers and the impact of these frontiers on the people who lived along their lines.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Breeze, David J., Sonja Jilek, and Andreas Thiel. 2005. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Edinburgh: Historic Scotland.
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  19. A short general book that introduced the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative and gives a general description of the archaeological and historical sources, with text in English, German, French, and Arabic.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Hanson, William S., ed. 2009. The army and frontiers of Rome: Papers offered to David J. Breeze on the occasion of his Sixty-fifth birthday. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 74. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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  23. A collection of twenty-two papers presented to the preeminent Roman frontier scholar, including papers on army organization, frontiers, military history, military and logistic supply, and Roman and “native” interaction.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Heckster, Olivier, and Ted Kaizer, eds. 2011. Frontiers in the Roman World: Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  27. A wide-ranging series of articles arising from a conference held in Durham (UK) in 2009, addressing ancient historical and archaeological accounts of Roman frontiers and frontier societies.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Hoyos, Dexter, ed. 2013. A companion to Roman imperialism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  31. An edited book containing a number of articles on imperialism, frontiers and Roman contacts with frontier peoples.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Klose, Gerhild, and Annette Nünnerich-Asmus, eds. 2005. Grenzen des römischen Imperiums. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Phillip von Labern.
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  35. A colorful and authoritative book with a range of papers by academic experts on the limits (or frontiers) of the Roman Empire. The text is in German, and there is no comparable volume currently published in English.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Moschek, Wolfgang. 2011. Der Römische Limes. eine Kultur- und Mentalitätsgeschichte. Speyer, Germany: Kartoffeldruck-Verlag.
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  39. A thoughtful account of the Roman frontiers that explores their character and the historical context in which knowledge has developed.
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  41. Wells, Colin. 1995. The Roman empire. 2d ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  43. Written by a scholar who is both a historian of Rome and archaeologist whose own research focused in part on the imperial Roman frontiers and who covers the frontiers in greater detail than most accounts of the Roman Empire.
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  45. Whittaker, C. R. 1994. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A social and economic study. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  47. An important account of the social and economic landscapes created at the frontier of Roman imperial control, which remains required reading.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Woolf, Greg. 2012. Rome: An empire’s story. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  51. An accessible introduction to the Roman Empire but with rather limited discussion of the frontiers. Accounts of the Roman frontiers perhaps need to be integrated more fully into general works that address the Roman Empire.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Congress of Roman Frontiers Proceedings
  54.  
  55. The Congress of Roman Frontier Studies was first established by Eric Birley in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1949. It has now met on twenty-three occasions in various parts of the frontier lands of the former Roman Empire. The six volumes listed below contain a wealth of papers that address the structure and history of the Roman frontiers and provide a key source of information.
  56.  
  57. Freeman, Philip, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, eds. 2002. Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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  59. An immense double volume of almost a thousand pages with a variety of papers covering the Roman frontiers. Themes covered include the eastern Frontiers, Rome and Parthia, the Anatolian Provinces and the Black Sea region, North Africa, the Germanies, the Danubian and Balkan provinces, Dacia, Iberia, Britain, the Roman army, fortifications, fleets and frontiers, and documents and archives.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Groenman-van Waateringe, W., B. L. van Beek, W. J. H. Willems, and S. L. Wynia, eds. 1997. Roman frontier studies 1995: Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  63. A substantial collection of articles on the Roman frontiers, including papers on military deployment, river frontiers versus artificial frontiers, problems of late frontiers, the excavations at Alésia (France), forts and vici, social and economic connections across the frontiers, and the resourcing and supplying of the Roman army.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Maxfield, Valerie A., and Michael J. Dobson, eds. 1991. Roman frontier studies 1989: Proceedings of the XVth Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Exeter, UK: Univ. of Exeter Press.
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  67. An edited volume with a collection of papers covering regions and various thematic issues. Many of these papers have subsequently been updated as the result of further research.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Morillo, Ángel, Norbert Hanel, and Esperanza Martín, eds. 2009. Limes XX: Estudios sobre la Frontera Romana/Roman Frontier Studies, León (España), Septiembre, 2006. 3 vols. Madrid: CSIC.
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  71. Another immense collection of articles on a variety of topics, including the internal frontier, the end of frontiers, walled towns and military fortifications, soldiers on the move, the development of early frontiers, and regional studies from a range of provinces.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Vagalinski, Lyudmil, and Nicolay Sharankov, eds. 2015. Limes XXII: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012. Sofia: National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of Science.
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  75. An immense edited volume of almost a thousand pages with a variety of papers covering the Roman frontiers. Themes covered include fortifications and soldiers, veterans on the frontiers, families and dependents of soldiers, civil settlements, religion and burial, Rome and barbaricum, interdisciplinary researches, remote sensing, and heritage. This gives a good account of the 21st-century state of Roman frontier studies.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Visy, Zsolt, ed. 2005. Limes XIX: Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Pécs, Hungary: Univ. of Pécs.
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  79. A substantial collection of articles focusing on epigraphy, how frontiers worked, relationships with “barbarians” on the frontiers, civilians on frontiers, supply and consumption of food and drink, soldiers and religion, and material culture.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Histories of Research
  82.  
  83. There is a growing literature on the history of the study of the Roman frontiers, including a number of volumes that explore research on particular geographical sections. Much of this research is focused, however, on the frontier works in the UK and additional research and publications required for the Germany and the south and east of the Mediterranean.
  84.  
  85. The Congress of Roman Frontier Studies
  86.  
  87. Birley 2002 describes the history of this Congress. An update of this article is now required to address the four congresses that have occurred since.
  88.  
  89. Birley, Anthony R. 2002. Fifty years of Roman Frontier studies. In Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 1–11. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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  91. A survey of the history of this congress from its foundation by Eric Birley in 1949 to 2000.
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  93. Antonine Wall
  94.  
  95. Two accounts have recently been published. Keppie 2012 is a thorough study while Maldonado 2015 explores a specific period in the monument’s history.
  96.  
  97. Keppie, Lawrence. 2012. The antiquarian rediscovery of the Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
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  99. A thorough and well-illustrated account of the history of the rediscovery of the monument from the 17th century to the 19th century.
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  101. Maldonado, Adrián. 2015. The early medieval Antonine Wall. Britannia 46:225–245.
  102. DOI: 10.1017/S0068113X15000124Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. An account of the meaning and history of the monument in medieval times.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Hadrian’s Wall
  106.  
  107. Hingley 2012 and Breeze 2014 provide details of the history of this famous monument.
  108.  
  109. Breeze, David J. 2014. Hadrian’s Wall: A history of Archaeological Thought. Carlisle, UK: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society.
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  111. An account of how antiquaries and archaeologists have explored the wall through the ages including a thorough study of work since the late 19th century.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Hingley, Richard. 2012. Hadrian’s Wall: A Life. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  114. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199641413.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. A survey of the history of the rediscovery of the monument and its landscape from the 6th century to the modern-day heritage landscape, including studies of antiquarian and archaeological research and of artistic renditions of the wall in literature and art.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. The Limes on the Rhine and Danube
  118.  
  119. Additional accounts of the history of research on the limes would be helpful but Moschek 2011 provides a useful source.
  120.  
  121. Moschek, Wolfgang. 2011. Der Römische Limes: Eine Kultur- und Mentalitätsgeschichte. Speyer, Germany: Kartoffeldruck-Verlag.
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  123. This thoughtful account contains a discussion of the history of research since the Renaissance.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. North Africa
  126.  
  127. Additional accounts on the history of research in North Africa and the East are required to supplement Mattingly 2011.
  128.  
  129. Mattingly, David. 2011. From one colonialism to another: Imperialism and the Maghreb. In Imperialism, Power and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. By David Mattingly, 43–72. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  131. A key text on the impact of modern colonialism on Roman frontier research in the 19th and 20th centuries, originally published in 1996 and republished in this volume.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Frontier Concepts
  134.  
  135. Some of these works address the meaning of the Latin terms used to identify the limits of the Roman Empire (including in particular Isaac 1988 but also Edwell 2013, Elton 1996, and Richardson 2011). One problem is that classical writers had comparatively little to say on this topic. The references by Hanson 2002, Hodgson 2005, Rankov 2005, and Vizy 2015 discuss the functioning of frontiers and elements of the frontier. Drummond and Nelson 1994 seeks to develop a comparative approach.
  136.  
  137. Drummond, Stephen K., and Lynn H. Nelson. 1994. The western frontiers of Imperial Rome. New York and London: Sharpe.
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  139. A general account of all aspects of the Roman frontier which aims to take a comparative approach.
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  141. Edwell, Peter M. 2013. Definitions of Roman imperialism. In A companion to Roman Imperialism. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 39–52. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  143. An article that assesses a number of key concepts, including imperium, provincia and limes. Including an assessment of how understandings of the marginal lands of the empire may have changed through the centuries.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Elton, Hugh. 1996. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
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  147. A book that addresses the concept of frontiers in the Roman Empire, assessing how these works are thought to have operated. Part of the attempt to move away from interpreting Roman frontiers as physical fortifications, this contains some comparative work addressing frontiers in other times and places.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Hanson, William S. 2002. Why did the Roman Empire cease to expand? In Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 25–34. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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  151. Addresses the expansionist policy of Rome and the reasons that led to a cessation in expansion during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Hodgson, Nick. 2005. Gates and passages across the frontiers. In Limes XIX: Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Edited by Zsolt Vizy, 183–188. Pécs, Hungary: Univ. of Pécs.
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  155. An exploration of the character and potential role of gates and passages through Roman frontier works in Britain, Germany, and Raetia, pointing out the difficulty of assessing how permeable these works may have been.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Isaac, Benjamin. 1988. The meaning of “Limes” and “Limitanei” in ancient sources. Journal of Roman Studies 78:125–147.
  158. DOI: 10.2307/301454Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. A key discussion of the meaning of the two terms in the classical accounts, arguing that the term limes was used in the 1st century CE to describe the construction of a military road and came from the later 1st century to indicate the demarcation of the borders of the empire but that it does not refer to military structures or frontier organization. It also describes how the term limes became accepted during the 19th century by the Germans to address Roman frontier research.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Lintott, Andrew. 1993. Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration. London: Routledge.
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  163. An account of the administrative organization of the Roman Empire with a brief review of the available information for the character and development of the limes.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Rankov, Boris. 2005. Do rivers make good frontiers? In Limes XIX: Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Edited by Zsolt Vizy, 175–182. Pécs, Hungary: Univ. of Pécs.
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  167. A consideration of the role of rivers in the definition of Roman frontiers, making the point that there were logical limits to the empire because they were well defended.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Richardson, John. 2011. Fines Provinciae. In Frontiers in the Roman world: Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Edited by Olivier Heckster and Ted Kaizer, 1–11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  171. An account of ideas about how provincial boundaries might have been conceptualized in the Roman world from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD, with connotations for meanings of the frontiers that defined the Roman world.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Vizy, Zsolt. 2015. The River Line frontiers of the Roman Empire. In Understanding Roman frontiers: A celebration for Professor Bill Hanson. Edited by David J. Breeze, Rebecca H. Jones, and Ioana A. Oltean, 27–36. Edinburgh: John Donald.
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  175. An account of the shifting frontiers of the Roman Empire and the role of rivers in defining these boundaries.
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  177. Roman Frontier Strategy
  178.  
  179. These accounts explore the thorny topic of the extent to which the Roman Empire may be thought to have had some form of coordinated strategy on the frontiers, as argued by Luttwak 1976. The overall conclusion appears to be that it did not, as argued by Millar 1982 and Whittaker 2004. Greatrex 2007 and Gambash 2015 appear more supportive of the idea of a general strategy, while Potter 2013 also addresses the gradual development of Roman ideas about frontiers.
  180.  
  181. Gambash, Gil. 2015. Rome and provincial Resistance. London: Routledge.
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  183. An account of Roman responses to insurrection on the frontiers. This does not explore the establishment of the physical works that formed Roman frontiers but does address the political or strategic contexts in which imperial officials made decisions about the creation and management of frontiers.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Greatrex, Geoffrey. 2007. Roman frontiers and foreign policy in the East. In Aspects of the Roman East: Papers in honour of Professor Fergus Millar. Edited by Richard Alston and Samuel Lieu, 103–173. Brussels: Brepols.
  186. DOI: 10.1484/M.SAA-EB.4.00061Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Argues that the Romans had a clear concept of the frontier during the late empire and also clear frontiers, at least in some regions. This also includes a discussion of the meaning of the words limes and fines.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Luttwak, Edward N. 1976. The grand strategy of the Roman Empire. London and Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  191. A controversial account of Roman frontier strategy that has led to heated debates about the purpose of these works and the degree to which the Romans had a coordinated strategy.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Millar, Fergus. 1982. Emperors, frontiers and foreign relations, 31 BC to AD 378. Britannia 13:1–23.
  194. DOI: 10.2307/526487Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. A consideration of Roman policy for the frontiers during a lengthy period of time. Tries to establish whether there was a conceptual framework for policy on and beyond the frontiers. This article was a response to Luttwak’s book, and the topic is still subject to considerable debate.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Potter, David. 2013. The limits of power. In A companion to Roman imperialism. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 319–332. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  199. An article on the power of the Roman Empire and constraints to its expansion, which also explores gradual formation of frontier after Augustus.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Whittaker, C. R. 2004. Rome and its frontiers: The dynamics of empire. London: Routledge.
  202. DOI: 10.4324/9780203476314Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Ten essays that address topics of frontiers and migration across the Roman world, including a number of significant contributions on the character of the Roman frontiers and the relevance of these works in the 21st century.
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  205. Frontier Theory
  206.  
  207. There is relatively little published work that explicitly addresses the theme of theory and much of this literature derives from the UK (e.g., Hingley 2008 and Witcher, et al. 2010). Dyson 1985 was an important early study, and Totten and Lafrenz Samuels 2012 and Janković, et al. 2014 show that a broader focus is developing. Mattingly 2011 sets frontier policy in the broader area of Roman imperialism.
  208.  
  209. Dyson, Stephen. 1985. The creation of the Roman frontier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  211. A key theoretical study of the origins of frontier policy in Republican Rome that explores how Roman society, like the United States, was shaped by its own frontier.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Hingley, Richard. 2008. Hadrian’s Wall in theory: Pursuing new agendas? In Understanding Hadrian’s Wall: Papers from a conference held at South Shields, 3rd–5th November 2006. Edited by Paul Bidwell, 25–28. Kendal, UK: Arbeia Society.
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  215. Argues for the need to adopt a theoretical and comparative approach to the study of the Roman frontiers, with a particular focus on Hadrian’s Wall.
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  217. Janković, Marko A., Vladimir D. Mihajlović, and Staša Babić, eds. 2014. The edges of the Roman World. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. A collection of papers with a theoretical slant that explores range of topics related to the edges of the Roman world. This is from a conference held in Serbia in 2012.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Mattingly, David J. 2011. Imperialism, power and identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Oxford: Princeton.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. A book that addresses the colonial legacy of Roman imperial archaeology, with important lessons for Roman frontier studies throughout the margins of the empire.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Totten, Darian Marie, and Kathryn Lafrenz Samuels, eds. 2012. Making Roman places, past and present: Papers presented at the first critical Roman archaeology conference held at Stanford University in March, 2008. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 89 Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. A collection of papers with a theoretical slant from a conference held in the United States. Focuses mainly on the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Witcher, R., D. Tolia Kelly, and R. Hingley. 2010. Archaeologies of landscape: Excavating the Materialities of Hadrian’s Wall. Journal of Material Culture 15.1: 105–128.
  230. DOI: 10.1177/1359183510355228Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. An article that explores Hadrian’s Wall as a material landscape deriving from a major cross-disciplinary project undertaken in the UK.
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  233. Frontier Comparison
  234.  
  235. Comparative work that addresses the Roman frontiers in relation to later fortification and border works is rather rare but examples are included. Chaichian 2014 is a broadly comparative work, while Mullin 2011 contains a number of examples that set the Roman frontiers in context. Graf 2005 and Moschek 2010 provide direct comparisons between the Roman frontiers and other frontier works, while Hingley and Hartis 2011 use modern borders to help to re-conceptualize Hadrian’s Wall. Bienkowski 2006 is an interesting cross-temporal work that draws a section of the Roman frontier into a discussion of a contested frontier region.
  236.  
  237. Bienkowski, Piotr. 2006. The Wadi Arabah: Meanings in a contested landscape. In Crossing the rift: Resources, routes, settlement patterns and interactions in the Wadi Arabah. Edited by Piotr Bienkowski and Katharina Galor, 7–28. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  239. An introduction to a volume that addresses the archaeological evidence for this contested frontier zone through time, including brief comments on Roman frontier works. This major geological feature now forms the frontier between Jordan and Israel.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Chaichian, Mohammed A. 2014. Empires and walls: Globalization, migration and colonial domination. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  243. A comparative volume by a sociologist that contrasts and compares frontiers and fortifications in nine colonial contexts. The first two case studies involve Hadrian’s Wall and the Gorgan Wall in Iran, although all the other examples are from the modern world.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Graf, D. 2005. Rome and China: some frontier comparisons. In Limes XIX: Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Edited by Zsolt Vizy, 157–166. Pécs, Hungary: Univ. of Pécs.
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  247. An attempt to compare the Roman frontiers with the Han dynasty military frontiers in China. This is an example of the type of comparative work that might well be developed further.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Hingley, Richard, and Rich Hartis. 2011. Contextualising Hadrian’s Wall: The Wall as “Debatable Lands.” In Frontiers in the Roman world: Proceedings of the ninth workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Edited by Olivier Heckster and Ted Kaizer, 79–95. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  251. An article that aims to apply some concepts deriving from the study of modern borderlands to the interpretation of the Roman frontiers. It argues that new approaches might enliven the study of the Roman frontiers.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Moschek, Wolfgang. 2010. Hitler’s Limes: der Westwall zwischen Aachen und Freiburg. Der Limes: Nachrichtenblatt der Deutschen Limeskommission 4:28–31.
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  255. A fascinating account in German of how Adolf Hitler drew on the Roman frontiers to plan and build a Western wall to defend Germany during the late 1930s.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Mullin, David, ed. 2011. Places in between: The archaeology of social, cultural and geographical borders and borderlands. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  259. An interesting collection of articles on archaeological approaches to borders and borderlands. This does not contain a discussion of the Roman frontiers but includes a variety of comparative approaches that could help to inform now accounts of the Roman Empire.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Regional Accounts
  262.  
  263. A series of small books arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative give short summaries of particular sections of the monument. A few of the many additional accounts of regional sections of the Roman frontiers are also listed.
  264.  
  265. Antonine Wall
  266.  
  267. This list contains 21st-century works only. Breeze 2009 provides handy accounts and Graafstal, et al. 2015 considers the planning of the monument.
  268.  
  269. Breeze, David J. 2009. Edge of empire: The Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Birlinn.
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  271. A well-illustrated introduction to the wall and its surviving remains.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Breeze, David J. 2009. The frontiers of the Roman Empire: The Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Historic Scotland.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A succinct account of the wall arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English and German.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Graafstal, Eric, David J. Breeze, Rebecca H. Jones, and Matthew F. A. Symonds. 2015. Sacred cows un the landscape: Rethinking the planning of the Antonine Wall. In Understanding Roman frontiers: A celebration for Professor Bill Hanson. Edited by David J. Breeze, Rebecca H. Jones, and Ioana A. Oltean, 54–69. Edinburgh: John Donald.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. An up-to-date account of the planning and structure of the Antonine Wall, including its forts and fortlets.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Hadrian’s Wall
  282.  
  283. It is only possible to give a selection of the many published works here. Breeze and Dobson 2000 is the standard account, and Breeze 2006 provides a detailed structure account of the monument. Breeze 2011 provides a brief but well-illustrated account. Bidwell 2008 and Collin and Symonds 2013 provides selections of articles that address the monument.
  284.  
  285. Bidwell, Paul, ed. 2008. Understanding Hadrian’s Wall: Papers from a conference held at South Shields, 3rd–5th November 2006. Kendal, UK: Arbeia Society.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A collection of papers containing studies of the function of the wall, supplies along the frontier, and the contemporary value of the monument.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Breeze, David J. 2006. J. Collingwood Bruce’s handbook to the Roman Wall 14th edition. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. The latest edition of the long-running handbook, with accounts of all the archaeological remains and a summary of the history and context of the wall.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Breeze, David J. 2011. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: Hadrian’s Wall. Hexham, UK: Hadrian’s Wall Trust.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A succinct account of the wall arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English, German, and French.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Breeze, David, and Brian Dobson. 2000. Hadrian’s Wall. 3d ed. London: Penguin.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. A handy and influential account that will warrant a further reprint.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Collin, Rob, and Matthew Symonds, eds. 2013. Breaking down boundaries: Hadrian’s Wall in the 21st century. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 93. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. An edited volume of papers that addresses new approaches to Hadrian’s Wall, aiming to challenge previous preconceptions of the monument and its landscape.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. The Limes on the Danube and Rhine
  306.  
  307. Books in English are rare, but a selection of sources are listed, including accounts that address particular areas. Baatz 2000 is a standard account, while Dyczek 2008; Harmadyová, et al. 2008; Jilek, et al. 2011; Lendering and Bosman 2012; Matešić and Sommer 2015; Thiel 2008; and Zsolt 2008 contain information about particular sections of the limes. There are many other accounts and only a selection is given here.
  308.  
  309. Baatz, Dietwulf. 2000. Der Römische Limes: Archäeloigische Ausflüge zwischen Rhein and Donau. Berlin: Verlag.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. An authoritative book on the limes that has been republished on a number of occasions since its first publication in 1974.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Dyczek, Piotr. 2008. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: The lower Danube Limes in Bulgaria. Warsaw: Univ. of Warsaw Press.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. A succinct account of the limes in Bulgaria arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English and Bulgarian.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Harmadyová, Katrína, Ján Rajtár, and Jaroslava Schmidtová. 2008. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: Slovakia. Nitra, Slovakia: Múzeum mesta Bratislavy.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A succinct account of the limes in Slovakia arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English and German and Slovak.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Jilek, Sonja, Eva Kuttner, and Andreas Schwarcz. 2011. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: The Danube Limes in Austria. Vienna: Austrian Institute for Historical Research.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. A succinct account of the limes in Austria arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English and German.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Lendering, Jona, and Arjen Bosman. 2012. Edge of empire: Rome’s frontier on the lower Rhine. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Karwansaray.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A colorful and well-illustrated guide to the Roman frontiers on the lower Rhine (the Netherlands), addressing the Roman conquest of the area, the indigenous peoples and the establishment of the Roman frontiers. This volume draws upon extensive excavations undertaken over the past few decades.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Matešić, Suzanna, and Sebastian Sommer, eds. 2015. At the edge of the Roman Empire: Tours along the limes in southern Germany. Munich: Deutsche Limeskommission.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A collection of articles and detailed catalogue of sites, aimed at visitors but also scholarly and informative. Including articles on the history, structure and researching of this section of the limes.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Thiel, Andreas. 2008. Innovation and perfection: Antoninus Pius’ frontier in Germany. In Understanding Hadrian’s Wall: Papers from a conference held at South Shields, 3rd–5th November 2006. Edited by Paul Bidwell, 83–90. Kendal, UK: Arbeia Society.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A handy summary of the evidence for the second century Roman frontiers along the Rhine and Danube in Germany.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Zsolt, Visy. 2008. A Római Limes Magyarországon. Pécs, Hungary: Pécsi Tudmányegyetem Régészeti Szeminárium.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A succinct account of the limes in Hungary arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English, German, and Hungarian.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Dacia/Romania
  342.  
  343. Studies of the Roman frontiers in Dacia include Hanson and Haynes 2002, Hanson and Oltean 2015, and Zsolt 2009.
  344.  
  345. Hanson, William, and Ian Haynes, eds. 2002. Roman Dacia: The making of a provincial society. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 56. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. A collection of papers examining Roman Dacia, with articles on the Iron Age background, the Dacians, forts, towns, and religious beliefs.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Hanson, William, and Ioana A. Oltean. 2015. The “Valu lui Traian”: A Roman frontier rehabilitated. Journal of Roman Archaeology 25:297–318.
  350. DOI: 10.1017/S1047759400001227Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. An account of frontier works in Romania that have been assumed since the 1950s to date to the C10 to C11 but have been identified through archaeological survey as probably representing a Roman frontier work.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Zsolt, Visy. 2009. Mapping the SW limes of Dacia. In The army and frontiers of Rome: Papers offered to David J. Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday. Edited by William Hanson, 115–126. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 74. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. An account of the Roman frontiers in the province of Dacia, assessing the location and available information.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. The East
  358.  
  359. A number of accounts describe and analyze the eastern frontier works and are listed in this section. Isaac 2000 is a key work on the eastern limits of the empire. Parker 2006 and Parker 2009 explore recent research in Jordan and Arabia, while Kennedy 2004 addresses Jordan; Maxfield 2005 discusses Egypt. The edited volumes French and Lightfoot 1989 and Kennedy 1996 address the Roman army and the eastern frontiers.
  360.  
  361. French, D. H., and C. S. Lightfoot. 1989. The eastern frontier of the Roman Empire: Proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988. 2 vols. British Archaeological Reports International 553. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. A substantial collection of articles that addresses the Roman frontiers in the east, perhaps now slightly dated. This includes papers on specific sites and regions and also more conceptual papers that set the eastern frontiers in context.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Isaac, Benjamin. 2000. The limits of empire: The Roman army in the east. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A highly important study of the eastern frontiers based on fieldwork by one of the main scholars working on the interpretation of Roman frontiers. This also contains an interesting discussion of the impact of “current affairs” on the contemplation of the frontier and a consideration of whether imperial Rome had a “grand strategy.”
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Kennedy, David. 1996. The Roman army in the East. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Volume 18. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. A collection of papers written in response to Isaac’s major study The Limits of Empire, with a number of papers that focus on the frontiers and military topics.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Kennedy, David. 2004. The Roman army in Jordan. London: Council for British Research in the Levant.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A summary of the Roman frontiers in Jordan, produced for the XVIIIth Congress of Roman Frontier Studies in Amman. This contains a summary of Roman Jordan and a detailed illustrated account of the remains.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Maxfield, Valery. 2005. Organisation of a desert limes: The case of Egypt. In Limes XIX: Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Edited by Visy Zsolt, 201–210. Pécs, Hungary: Univ. of Pécs.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. An account of how climatic and topographic factors in this desert environment impacted on the organization of the Roman frontier.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Parker, S. Thomas. 2006. The Roman frontier in central Jordan: Final report of the limes Arabicus Project, 1980–1989. 2 vols. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. The substantial report on a major archaeological survey project that explores the frontier works and also the finds from the project, including a summary of the history and character of the Roman frontiers in Jordan.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Parker, S. Thomas. 2009. The Roman frontier in southern Arabia: A synthesis of recent research. In The army and frontiers of Rome: Papers offered to David J. Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday. Edited by William Hanson, 142–152. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 74. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. An up-to-date summary of knowledge for the Roman frontier in southern Arabia with an assessment of these works, assessing the relationship between Romans and Nabateans.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. North Africa
  390.  
  391. A number of accounts describe and analyze these works: Jackson 2002, and Mattingly, et al. 2013 provide summaries. Mattingly 1995 is a key work that addresses the African frontier and its context, while Trousset 2004 contains a detailed summary of the Roman frontiers in Tunisia.
  392.  
  393. Cherry, David. 1998. Frontier and society in Roman North Africa. Oxford: Clarendon.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An account of Roman frontier society that explores the character of the frontier system and the evidence for people living in these landscapes in what is now Algeria during the Roman period.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Jackson, Robert B. 2002. At empire’s edge: Exploring Rome’s Egyptian frontier. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  398. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300088564.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. An account of the Roman frontier in Egypt including a history of these works and a gazetteer of sites to visit, with copious illustrations.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Mattingly, David. 1995. Tripolitania. London: Batsford.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A key account of the Roman province of Tripolitania in North Africa with a detailed summary of the Roman frontiers through time.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Mattingly, David, Alan Rushworth, Martin Sterry, and Victoria Leitch. 2013. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: The African frontiers. Edinburgh: Hussar.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. A succinct account of the African limes arising from the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site initiative in English, German, and French. This has a helpful biography of relevant works and stresses the relative absence of archaeological research in this region.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Trousset, Pol. 2004. Pénétration romaine et organisation de la zone frontière dans le prédésert tunisien. L’Africa romana 15.1: 59–88.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. A synthesis of the information for the Roman frontier in Tunisia by a scholar who has undertaken extensive work in this region.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Frontier Peoples
  414.  
  415. Only a few sources out of an extensive literature are listed below. The Limes Congress volumes also contain numerous relevant papers.
  416.  
  417. The Roman Army
  418.  
  419. There are many accounts of the Roman army. Gilliver 1999 and Goldsworthy 1996 provide summaries of the evidence for Roman warfare. Bowman 2006 considers the evidence for common Latin literacy in frontier regions. Allison 2013, Birley 2013, and Carroll 2015 discuss military communities, developing arguments outlined in James 1999 in an important contribution to the debate about the Roman army as community.
  420.  
  421. Allison, Penelope M. 2013. People and spaces in Roman military bases. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  422. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139600248Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. An important attempt to understand more of the lives of military communities living in Roman military forts and fortresses. This explores the distribution of artifacts, focusing especially on non-combatants and contains a study of a number of military sites in Germany.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Birley, Andrew. 2013. The fort wall: A great divide? In Breaking down boundaries: Hadrian’s Wall in the 21st century. Edited by Rob Collins and Matthew Symonds, 85–104. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 93. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. An article that seeks to challenge the idea that there was a strict division between people living in Roman forts and vici (civil settlements) on the basis on the lengthy excavations at Vindolanda (Northumberland, UK).
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Bowman, Alan K. 2006. Outposts of empire: Vindolanda, Egypt, and the empire of Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 19:75–93.
  430. DOI: 10.1017/S1047759400006279Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. An article arguing that evidence for literacy in northern Britannia and Egypt illustrates inclusivity as a key aspect of imperial order and also argues for the importance of the evidence for local literacies derived from these frontier regions.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Carroll, Maureen. 2015. Projecting self-perception on the Roman frontiers: The evidence of dress and funerary portraits. In Understanding Roman frontiers: A celebration for Professor Bill Hanson. Edited by David J. Breeze, Rebecca H. Jones, and Ioana A. Oltean, 154–166. Edinburgh: John Donald.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. An account of how depictions of people in the frontier regions assist with the understanding of the way these peoples thought about themselves.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Gilliver, Kate. 1999. The Roman art of war. Stroud, UK: Tempus.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. An account of the Roman army in the late Republic and early empire, focusing on organization and fighting.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. 1996. The Roman army at war, 100 BC–AD 200. Oxford: Clarendon.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. An account of how the Roman army operated when it was at war, including the flexible ways that it operated on campaign.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Green, Elizabeth M. 2015. Conubium cum uxoribus: Wives and children in the Roman military diplomas. Journal of Roman Archaeology 28:125–159.
  446. DOI: 10.1017/S1047759415002433Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. An important study of evidence for women and children in military communities on the German and British frontiers, addressing in particular the information from military diplomas.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. James, Simon. 1999. The community of soldiers. In TRAC 98: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. Edited by Patricia Baker, Sophia Jundi, and Colin Forcey, 14–25. Oxford: Oxbow.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Argues that the Roman army should be addressed as a community rather than a military machine.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Peoples on and Beyond the Frontiers
  454.  
  455. The relevant literature on this topic is growing and a section of sources is given here. Hunter 2002 and Wells 2008 provide summaries of people beyond the imperial frontier. Wells 2013 includes a number of articles addressing people beyond the northern frontiers. Janković, et al. 2014 includes a variety of papers that take different directions.
  456.  
  457. Hunter, Fraser. 2002. Problems in the study of Roman and native. In Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 43–50. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Addresses the impact of Rome beyond its northern frontiers by addressing imported materials, with a particular focus on Scotland and Ireland.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Janković, Marko A., Vladimir D. Mihajlović, and Staša Babić, eds. 2014. The edges of the Roman world. 19–32. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A collection of papers that explores peoples in the marginal areas of the empire, including papers by a number of early career researchers.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Wells, Peter. 2008. People beyond the Roman imperial frontiers. In Roman Europe: Short Oxford history of Europe. Edited by Edward Bispham, 299–328. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. A synthetic summary of the impact of the creation of the Roman frontier on the people beyond it, focusing primarily on the northern parts of the empire.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Wells, Peter, ed. 2013. Rome beyond its frontiers: Imports, attitudes and practices. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A collection of articles that explores trading across the Roman frontiers to areas outside the borders, particularly to the north and northwest.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Britain and Ireland
  474.  
  475. Birley 2002 and Pearce 2002 consider evidence from the Vindolanda letters for communities and economies on the frontier, Hunter addresses an art style that spread across the northern part of the province. Hingley 2010 considers the multicultural communities of the frontier and Cahill Wilson 2014 addresses evidence for interaction between Ireland and the Roman empire.
  476.  
  477. Birley, Anthony R. 2002. The Roman army in the Vindolanda tablets. In Limes XVIII: proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 925–930. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. A summary of the information provided by the important discovery of writing tablets at the Roman fort of Vindolanda (Northumberland).
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Cahill Wilson, Jacqueline, ed. 2014. Romans and Roman material in Ireland: A wider social perspective. In Late Iron Age and “Roman” Ireland. By Jacqueline Cahill Wilson, 11–58. Discovery Programme Report 8. Dublin: Wordwell.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A thorough survey of Roman contact with and Roman materials from Ireland, resulting from a major project run by The Discover Programme in Dublin.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hingley, Richard. 2010. Tales of the frontier: Diasporas on Hadrian’s Wall. In Roman diasporas: Archaeological approaches to mobility and diversity in the Roman empire. Edited by Hella Eckardt, 227–234. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series No. 78. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. An account of the far-flung origins of the Roman communities living along Hadrian’s Wall and the consequences for the marketing of the World Heritage Site.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Hunter, Fraser. 2015. Interpreting Celtic art on the Roman frontier: The development of a frontier culture in Britain? In Limes XXII: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012. Edited by Lyudmil Vagalinski and Nicolay Sharankov, 721–728. Sofia: National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of Science.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Innovative article on how a composite form of decorated metalwork may have spanned military and civilian communities in the frontier regions of Britannia.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Pearce, John. 2002. Food as subsistence and symbol in the Roman army: A case study from Vindolanda. In Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, held in Amman, September 2000. 2 vols. Edited by Philip Freeman, Julian Bennett, Zbigniew T. Fiema, and Birgitta Hoffmann, 931–944. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A case study of food and diet, drawing in particular on information derived from the Roman fort at Vindolanda (Northumberland).
  496. Find this resource:
  497. The Rhine and Danube
  498.  
  499. Selected sources are included. Carroll 2001, Creighton and Wilson 1999, and De Sena and Dobrzanska 2011 contain articles on frontier peoples. Vrba 2008 and Roymans 2004 contain innovative studies of particular peoples. Mattern 2013 summarizes relationships between Romans and “barbarians.”
  500.  
  501. Bridger, Clive. 2006. Veteran settlement in the lower Rhineland: The evidence from the civitas Traianensis. Journal of Roman Archaeology 19:137–149.
  502. DOI: 10.1017/S1047759400006309Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Suggests that the settlement of veterans on the Rhine frontier was part of a strategy that arose from potential belligerent threats from Germanic tribes beyond the frontier.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Carroll, Maureen. 2001. Romans, Celts and Germans: The German provinces of Rome. Stroud, UK: Tempus.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. An account of Roman Germany with a chapter on conquest and the frontiers and also accounts of native communities and their responses to Roman conquest and incorporation.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Creighton, John, and Roger Wilson, eds. 1999. Roman Germany: Studies in cultural interaction. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series No. 32. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. A collection of articles derived from a conference session that addressed the relationship between the Roman army and administration and the native peoples of Germany.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. De Sena, Eric C., and Halina Dobrzanska, eds. 2011. The Roman Empire and beyond: Archaeological and historical research on the Romans and native cultures in central Europe. British Archaeological Reports International 2236. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. A collection of articles derived from a session at the European Archaeological Association that addresses the relationships between native cultures and the Roman army in central and eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Mattern, Susan. 2013. Barbarian friends and foes: Hegemony beyond the Rhine and Danube, AD 14–98. In A companion to Roman imperialism. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 213–224. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. An account of relationships between the Romans and native peoples on the northern frontiers during the 1st century, before the limes were clearly defined.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Roymans, Nico. 2004. Ethnic identity and imperial power: The Batavians in the early Roman Empire. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ. Press.
  522. DOI: 10.5117/9789053567050Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Detailed study of the relationship of the tribe or civitas of the Batavi in the Lower Rhine Valley and their relationship to the establishment of the Roman frontier.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Vrba, Eric Michael. 2008. Ancient German identity in the shadow of the Roman Empire: The Impact of Roman trade and contact along the middle Danube frontier, 10 BC–AD 166. British Archaeological Reports International 1881. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. A substantial and informative volume that arose from a PhD dissertation that addresses the impact of the Roman frontier on indigenous communities in what is now southwestern Slovakia. This contains some useful discussion of concepts related to the frontiers and frontier identities.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. The East and North Africa
  530.  
  531. A selection of sources is included. Alston 1995 summarized information for frontier society in Egypt, while Hilali 2011 and Isaac 2013 summarize information for particular peoples. Mattingly and Sterry 2013 explores the evidence for the reaction of a particular people to contact with the Roman Empire, and Langerwerf 2014 addresses correspondences between ancient and contemporary policies on the borders of empire.
  532.  
  533. Alston, Richard. 1995. Soldier and society in Roman Egypt: A social history. London: Routledge.
  534. DOI: 10.4324/9780203272633Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. An account of the organization and character of the Roman army in Egypt with some discussion of the relationship between soldiers and civilians.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Hilali, Arbia. 2011. Researche sur les frontières de l’afrique romanine: espaces mobiles et représentations. In Frontiers in the Roman world: Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Edited by Olivier Heckster and Ted Kaizer, 97–111. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. An article on the African frontiers as spaces for economic exchange and social dynamics between various divergent groups.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Isaac, Benjamin. 2013. Eastern hegemonies and setbacks, AD 14–96. In A companion to Roman imperialism. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 237–250. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. An account of the involvement of the Roman Empire in the east at a period of imperial annexation, including information on the reorganization of the eastern frontier.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Langerwerf, Lydia. 2014. The people’s protest: Accounts of resistance from Cassius Dio to Bashir Al-Assas. In The edges of the Roman world. Edited by Marko A. Janković, Vladimir D. Mihajlović, and Staša Babić, 19–32. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. An interesting article that draws comparisons between Roman and contemporary border/frontier policies in the Middle East.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Mattingly, David, and Martin Sterry. 2013. The first towns in central Sahara. Antiquity 87.336: 503–518.
  550. DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00049097Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. A study of the development of urban settlements in the Saharan oases well beyond the southern frontiers of the Roman Empire and the trading relationship that linked these people to Rome.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Late Roman Frontiers
  554.  
  555. This is a distinct topic that has been addressed by a variety of researchers and a selection of works is listed below. Additional papers are included in the various Congress of Roman Frontier Studies volumes, and only a few texts are listed here. Elton 1996 and Pohl 1997 address relations between Romans and “barbarians” while Graham 2006 considers the rise of frontier consciousness. Collins, et al. 2015 includes a variety of articles that address late military architecture.
  556.  
  557. Collins, Rob, Matt Simmonds, and Meike Weber. 2015. Roman military architecture on the frontiers: Armies and their architecture in late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  559. An account of the more dynamic and less predictable forces of the Roman army during the late Roman period during the 3rd century and later, focusing in particular on architecture, with an introductory article by Collins and Weber.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Elton, Hugh. 1996. Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425. Oxford: Clarendon.
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  563. An account of relationships between Rome and “barbarians” in Germanic areas and in Britain, focusing on the organization of the late Roman army, with a section on fortifications.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Graham, Mark W. 2006. News and frontier consciousness in the late Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  566. DOI: 10.3998/mpub.182583Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Argues that a new consciousness of frontiers arose in the 3rd century CE as territories and that this gradually replaced the Roman world as without limits. This is identified as “frontier consciousness” and argued to have significantly influenced ideas about Roman identity.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Pohl, Walter, ed. 1997. Kingdoms of the empire: The integration of barbarians in late Antiquity. The Transformation of the Roman World, Vol. 1. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  571. An edited book with a series of account of how barbarians were integrated into the Roman empire from the 4th century, with an introductory article by the editor.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Hadrian’s Wall
  574.  
  575. Relevant recent work has focused on this monument and the works by Collins 2012 and Collins and Allason-Jones 2010 summaries this work.
  576.  
  577. Collins, Rob. 2012. Hadrian’s Wall and the end of empire. New York and London: Routledge.
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  579. An account of late Roman Wall in the 4th and 5th centuries and the late Roman societies along its line.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Collins, Rob, and Lindsay Allason-Jones, eds. 2010. Finds from the frontier: Material culture in the 4th–5th centuries. Research Report Council for British Archaeology 162. York: Council for British Archaeology.
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  583. A collection of articles about material culture from the late phases of Hadrian’s Wall.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. The Limes on the Rhine and Danube
  586.  
  587. Additional research and publication is required on this topic but Mackensen 1999 provides a summary.
  588.  
  589. Mackensen, Michael. 1999. Later Roman fortifications and building programs in the Roman province of Raetia: The evidence of recent excavations and some new reflections. In Roman Germany: Studies in cultural interaction. Edited by John Creighton and Roger Wilson, 199–244. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 32. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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  591. An account of Roman-native interaction from 260 CE to the end of the Roman period.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. The East and North Africa
  594.  
  595. Graf 1997, Parker 1997, Lewin 2011 and Rushworth 2015 provide some case studies. Additional research and publication are required.
  596.  
  597. Graf, D. F. 1997. The via militaris and the limes Arabicus. In Roman frontier studies 1995: Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Edited by W. Groenman-van Watering, B. L. van Beek, W. J. H. Willems, and S. L. Wynia, 123–134. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  599. A contemplation of the late Roman frontier in Jordan.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Lewin, Ariel S. 2011. The new frontiers of late Antiquity in the Near East: From Diocletian to Justinian. In Frontiers in the Roman world: Proceedings of the ninth workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Edited by Olivier Heckster and Ted Kaizer, 233–263. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.
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  603. A study of the eastern frontier in late Antiquity and the consequences for those living in these regions.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Parker, S. T. 1997. Geography and strategy on the southeastern frontier in the late Roman period. In Roman frontier studies 1995: Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Edited by W. Groenman-van Watering, B. L. van Beek, W. J. H. Willems, and S. L. Wynia, 115–122. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  607. An account of the problems and opportunities for understanding late strategy in the southeastern empire.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Rushworth, Alan. 2015. Castra or Centenaria? Interpreting the later forts of the North African frontier. In Roman military architecture on the frontiers: Armies and their architecture in late Antiquity. Edited by Rob Collins, Matt Simmonds, and Meike Weber, 122–139. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  611. An informative essay on the types of Roman fortifications represented on the North African frontier in Numidia, Tripolitania, and Mauritania during the 4th century and later.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Heritage and the World Heritage Status of the Roman Frontiers
  614.  
  615. An extensive literature is developing that focuses on the Roman frontiers as a heritage resources. Part of this concerns the inscription of much of the monument as a World Heritage Site, a process that has progressed rather further in Europe than in North Africa and the Middle East. More work on the variable meanings of the Roman frontier has been undertaken in the UK, partly as an attempt to challenge the traditions of focusing on primarily tangible heritage arising from the traditions of Roman frontier studies.
  616.  
  617. The Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site
  618.  
  619. Recent attention has focused on defining and managing this transnational monument. Breeze and Jilek 2008 introduces the topic, while DCMS 2012 summarizes the values of the monument. Brough 2015, Macinnes 2015, and Sommer 2015 provide summaries of the progress of the initiative. Mills 2013 includes papers that address various aspects of the heritage of the moment while Hingley 2015 and Witcher 2011 consider aspects of the contemporary values of Roman frontiers.
  620.  
  621. Breeze, David J., and Sonja Jilek, eds. 2008. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: The European dimension of a World Heritage Site. Edinburgh: Historic Scotland.
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  623. A series of articles on the interpretation and management of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage initiative.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Brough, David. 2015. Factors Influencing the Future development of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site. In Limes XXII: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012. Edited by Lyudmil Vagalinski and Nicolay Sharankov, 933–940. Sofia: National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of Science.
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  627. An interesting account of the political and social context of the World Heritage Site, including the observation that most individuals studying the Roman frontiers come from the areas in which inscription has been taken up (e.g., Europe).
  628. Find this resource:
  629. DCMS. Statement of Outstanding Universal Value for the Frontiers of the Roman Empire and its Component Parts. 2012.
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  631. A draft document that defines the Outstanding Universal Values of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Hingley, Richard. 2015. The Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site and Transnational Heritage. In Identity and Heritage: Contemporary Challenges in a Globalized World. Edited by Peter F. Biehl, Douglas C. Cromer, Christopher Prescott, and Hilary A. Soderland, 55–64. Springer Briefs in Archaeological Heritage Management. New York: Springer.
  634. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-09689-6_6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. An article that explores the political and cultural context of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire in the context of contemporary debates about mobilities and bordering.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Macinnes, Lesley. 2015. Frontiers reunited: The making of an international World Heritage Site. In Understanding Roman Frontiers: A celebration for Professor Bill Hanson. Edited by David J. Breeze, Rebecca H. Jones, and Ioana A. Oltean, 372–384. Edinburgh: John Donald.
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  639. An account of the proposal to inscribe the Frontiers of the Roman Empire as a World Heritage Site and prospects for the future.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Mills, Nigel, ed. 2013. Presenting the Romans: Interpreting the frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell.
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  643. A collection of papers from the Limes Congress in Newcastle in 2009 that addresses the interpretation of the Roman frontiers, mainly focused on the UK but also with a number of international contributions on the Rhine and Danube limes.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Sommer, C. Sebastian. 2015. WHS FRE (Frontiers of the Roman Empire): Running and expanding the World Heritage Site. In Limes XXII: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012. Edited by Lyudmil Vagalinski and Nicolay Sharankov, 919–922. Sofia: National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of Science.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. An up-to-date summary of the successes and limitations of the proposal to extend World Heritage status to the frontiers of the Roman Empire.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Witcher, Robert. 2011. Globalisation and Roman cultural heritage. In Globalisation and the Roman world: World history, connectivity and material culture. Edited by M. Pitts and M. -J. Versluys, 198–222. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. An article that explores the cultural context and heritage of Roman frontiers and peoples.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Hadrian’s Wall
  654.  
  655. The most thorough research has focused on this monument. Stone and Brough 2014 contains a series of papers. Mills, et al. 2013 discusses interpretative strategy, while Bishop 2013 considers reenactment. Hingley 2015 proposes an ethnographic project on Hadrian’s Wall that is currently in its early stages.
  656.  
  657. Bishop, Mike. 2013. Re-enactment and living history—issues about authenticity. In Presenting the Romans: Interpreting the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site. Edited by Nigel Mills, 23–30. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell.
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  659. A study of reenactment, which is a popular pastime on the Roman frontiers.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Hingley, Richard. 2015. Working with descendant communities in the study of Roman Britain: Fragments of an ethnographic project design. In Rethinking colonialism: Comparative archaeological approaches. Edited by Craig Cipolla and Katherine H. Hayes, 161–189. Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida.
  662. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813060705.003.0009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. An article that looks at the context of Roman studies in the UK and argues for an ethnographic project on the Roman frontiers to assess how modern communities assess these monuments across Europe and beyond.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Mills, Nigel, Tim Padley, John Scott, Lucie Branczik, and Genevieve Adkins. 2013. Applying the Hadrian’s Wall interpretational framework. In Presenting the Romans: Interpreting the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site. Edited by Nigel Mills, 181–192. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell.
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  667. An article considering the development and implementation of the Interpretational Framework for Hadrian’s Wall and its use for developing visitor facilities.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Stone, Peter G., and David Brough, eds. 2014. Managing, using, and interpreting Hadrian’s Wall as World Heritage. Springer Briefs in Archaeology 2. New York: Springer.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. A collection of papers addressing the management and interpretation of Hadrian’s Wall.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. The Limes on the Rhine and Danube
  674.  
  675. Additional research and publication is required, although the articles in Flügel and Obmann 2013 indicate that important research is occurring.
  676.  
  677. Flügel, Christof, and Jürgen Obmann. 2013. Römische Wehrbauten: Befund und Rekonstruktion. Munich: Volk Verlag.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. A collection of papers from a conference held in Munich in 2010 on the reconstruction of Roman monuments at modern open air museums.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. North Africa
  682.  
  683. The near east and North Africa require additional research to explore contrasting values with the areas of the Roman frontiers in Europe, as indicated by Lafrenze Samuels 2012.
  684.  
  685. Lafrenze Samuels, Kathryn. 2012. Roman archaeology and the making of heritage citizens in Tunisia. In Making Roman places, past and present: Papers presented at the first critical Roman archaeology conference held at Stanford University in March, 2008. Edited by Darian Marie Totten and Kathryn Lafrenze Samuels, 159–170. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 89. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. An exploration of heritage, tourism, and Roman monuments in modern Tunisia (before the current troubles).
  688. Find this resource:
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