St. Francis Xavier (Renaissance and Reformation)

Introduction

St. Francis Xavier (Francisco de Jasso y Javier) (b. 1506–d. 1552) was one of the most influential missionaries in the history of Christianity and became known as the “Apostle of the Indies and Japan.” He was born into the Spanish Basque nobility at the family’s ancestral castle in Navarre. His family was caught up in the struggle between the Spanish and French Crowns over control of Navarre, and the Xavier family suffered from its support of the losing (French) side. In 1525 Francis went to the University of Paris, where he spent the next eleven years studying philosophy and theology as well as teaching. One of his roommates was Ignatius of Loyola, also from a Basque noble family, but who, at least initially, was far too pious for Francis. Eventually, however, Xavier succumbed to his countryman’s charisma and spiritual vision. Several other students joined this group of “friends in the Lord,” and on 15 August 1534 at Montmartre these seven companions took vows of poverty and chastity, as well as planned a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. By 1537 they gathered in Venice, but when warfare thwarted their plans, they made their way to Rome and put themselves at the service of the Catholic Church and the papacy. Pope Paul III formally approved the Society of Jesus in September 1540. In the meantime, King John III of Portugal had requested some Jesuits to minister to his subjects in the expansive Portuguese Empire in Asia. Xavier arrived in Lisbon and ministered there before finally setting sail on 7 April 1541, his thirty-fifth birthday. After a winter’s layover in Mozambique, he arrived in Goa in May 1542. He spent the next several years working among both the Portuguese settlers and the native peoples of southern India. Contrary to legend, he did not have the gift of tongues and used music, images, and interpreters to teach, heal, and baptize as many as possible. In 1545 he arrived in Malacca and spent several years evangelizing across much of the East Indies. Having heard of Japan, Xavier arrived there in August 1549 with a Japanese convert and companion, Anjiro. After limited initial success, Xavier made some changes with respect to local customs. This anticipated the long-term Jesuit missionary strategy of cultural accommodation (inculturation). Xavier left Japan in late 1551 and returned to Goa to resolve pressing administrative issues. Intrigued that the Japanese and others looked to China as a cultural beacon, he arrived at the island of Shangchuan, just off the coast, in August 1552. Unable to gain entrance to the Chinese mainland, he died in the early morning hours of 3 December 1552. A burgeoning cult led to his canonization in 1622.

General Overviews

Due to its breadth, this general overview is divided into three subsections covering in turn: the Early Modern Iberian Context, Early Modern Catholicism, and the Early Society of Jesus. Regarding the first, Xavier was from the Basque Country of northern Iberia, specifically Navarre, which in his youth was annexed to Spain. In addition to his Spanish connections, Xavier eventually sailed to the Indies in the service of the king of Portugal—as well as that of the Catholic Church and his own religious order. Therefore, the histories of Spain and Portugal in their “Golden Age” during the 16th century provide an important context to Xavier’s life and missions. This period also witnessed fundamental changes in Western Christianity, as the Reformation(s) fractured as well as revitalized Christianity, both Protestantism and Catholicism. Early modern Catholicism constituted a complex response to contemporary challenges and opportunities. In addition to the Council of Trent, the Inquisition, and numerous other institutions and mechanisms of renewal and repression, many new and reformed religious orders, of both men and women, arose to address the spiritual aspirations and needs of the time. Particularly influential in terms of its spirituality, ministries, and rapid growth, the Society of Jesus was formed by the close bond and spiritual insights of Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, and the other first companions. In addition to their schools, which began to open in large numbers from the late 1540s, the Jesuits became most famous for their overseas missions in this age of discovery and expansion. Xavier was the Society’s proto-missionary, spending the last decade of his life (1542–1552) in Asia and setting a standard of evangelization and spiritual fervor that many fellow Jesuits and others would try to emulate.

The Early Modern Iberian Context

Francis Xavier was a son of the Basque Country, which straddled the border between Spain and France. Its history is discussed in Kurlansky 1999. Culturally connected to the Basque Country, the Kingdom of Navarre was eventually annexed to Spain, which was an ascendant European and world power, the reasons for which Elliott 1963, Kamen 2003 and Kamen 2014 explore in their important studies. Even smaller than neighboring Spain, Portugal was first to launch extensive overseas explorations, which eventually led to the ascendancy and “Golden Age” of both the Portuguese and the Spanish Empires in the 16th century. It was at the behest of John III of Portugal that Xavier sailed from Europe in 1541 and spent the last ten years of his life traversing and evangelizing much of Portugal’s empire in maritime Asia, the history of which is examined in a classic study, Boxer 1969. Disney 2009 is a more recent work that covers both Portugal and its empire in great detail.

Boxer, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825. London: Hutchinson, 1969.
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This classic study of European overseas expansion explains how Portugal was the first and in some ways the most tenacious of the European powers to establish and maintain much of its “shoestring empire” in Asia, Africa, and South America.
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Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From Beginnings to 1807. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Volume 1 focuses on Portugal and Volume 2 covers the Portuguese Empire. A scholarly study that examines how this small country developed such an extensive overseas empire, including its expansive padroado (royal patronage of, including considerable control over, the Church) in maritime Asia.
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Elliott, J. H. Imperial Spain, 1469–1716. New York: St. Martin’s, 1963.
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Though an older work, this is probably the best single-volume overview of early modern Spain and el siglo de oro (the Golden Age). Xavier grew up in Spain, then an ascendant world power, which surely influenced his life and missionary work, perhaps especially posthumously, during the union of the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns in the late 16th and early 17th centuries (1580–1640).
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Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
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This study by one of the premier historians of early modern Spain explores Spain’s somewhat surprising but spectacular expansion in Europe and overseas, creating what was, in essence, a great world power: the Spanish Habsburg Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries.
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Kamen, Henry. Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. 4th ed. New York: Routledge, 2014.
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In this update of his insightful study of early modern Spain, Kamen examines both domestic and foreign policies, and reveals the relatively fragile foundations upon which Spanish power at home and abroad were built.
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Kurlansky, Mark. The Basque History of the World. New York: Walker, 1999.
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While a popular account of the Basque Country, this is an intriguing study of this diminutive but important nation and culture, including comments on the two native sons who were arguably the most influential of all: Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier.
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Early Modern Catholicism

The Roman Catholic Church both impacted and was impacted by the numerous transformations of the Early Modern era, with the 16th century being, in many ways, the pivot point. Especially important developments were the Renaissance, the Reformation, and overseas expansion. The best surveys of this century include Pettegree 2002, a compact and comprehensive overview, and Mackenney 1993, which stresses the interlocking themes of expansion and conflict. The subject of the Reformation has produced a vast historiography. Two of the more recent and in some ways revisionist studies are Lindberg 2010, centered on the theme of not one but many Reformations, and Eire 2016, which stresses that the Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation) was at least as significant in the long run as the Protestant Reformation. One of the best studies that concentrates on the latter is Cameron 2012. Two insightful surveys that focus on the Catholic Reformation are Dickens 1969, a richly illustrated volume, and Hsia 2005, which incorporates much later research. Another revisionist approach to the revitalization of Catholicism is Ditchfield 2015, which shifts the focus to the worldwide missionary outreach of Catholicism in the Early Modern era. DeMolen 1994 is a more specific study of the new religious orders that emerged during the Catholic Reformation, including the Jesuits. Pastor 1923–1924 is in a category by itself, being two volumes of a multivolume study of the Catholic Church viewed through the lens of the papacy. It is an older but unique collection that should not be overlooked.

Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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The great strength of this work is that it is one of the best surveys of the Protestant Reformation in its many aspects, including commonalities and differences among the major reformers and churches. On the other hand, it gives relatively short shrift to the Catholic Reformation and its impact.
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DeMolen, Richard L. Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation. New York: Fordham University Press, 1994.
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A collection of nine essays on new and reformed religious orders of men and women in the 16th and early 17th centuries. In this context, the chapter on the Society of Jesus indicates that the Jesuits were but a part, though a fundamental part, of the widespread spirit of religious fervor and reform in early modern Christianity and Catholicism.
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Dickens, A. G. The Counter Reformation. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969.
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An older but still valuable account of Catholicism in the Early Modern Era, it gives due attention to the new religious orders, especially the Jesuits, and it highlights Xavier’s missionary work and impact. Its extensive illustrations complement the narrative.
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Ditchfield, Simon. “Catholic Reformation and Renewal.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation. Edited by Peter Marshall, 152–185. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
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Rather than concentrating on Trent and developments within Europe, Ditchfield sets his gaze more universally on “the global circulation of the sacred.” The work of missionaries, Xavier and many others, arguably had a far greater impact, not only across the globe, but also across the centuries, on the long-term shape and vitality of Catholicism.
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Eire, Carlos M. N. Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450–1650. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016.
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In sync with and encouraging newer trends in Reformation historiography, this volume gives roughly equal coverage to both the Protestant and the Catholic reforms and reformations. In the latter case, it integrates Catholic revitalization and outreach in Europe with that of the overseas missions, including Xavier’s central role in launching Christian evangelization efforts in the East.
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Hsia, R. Po-chia. The World of Catholic Renewal, 1540–1770. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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This is a relatively recent account of the Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation), with some emphases that differ from Dickens 1969. In beginning his study in 1540, the year of the founding of the Jesuits, the author signals how significant he believes the Society of Jesus was to Catholic renewal. He also stresses the importance of the Iberian Church and empires, Catholic missions in Asia, and Xavier’s significant influence as missionary and saint.
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Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations. 2d ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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A good example of the newer historiography that emphasizes that there was not just one Reformation movement but, in fact, many Reformations, sometimes overlapping and sometimes in conflict with each other. Although the 2nd edition gives a bit more coverage to the Catholic Reformation, it is still lop-sided in giving far more coverage to Protestantism in its many manifestations.
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Mackenney, Richard. Sixteenth Century Europe: Expansion and Conflict. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.
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This wide-ranging study of 16th-century Europe places contemporary Catholicism in context. Its twin themes of expansion (colonial and missionary) and conflict (religious, political, and cultural) were both animating and divisive forces for the Church and its missions.
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Pastor, Ludwig Freiherr von. The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages. Vols. 12 and 13. Edited by Ralph Francis Kerr. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder, 1923–1924.
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Although dated in some respects, these two volumes are part of the monumental forty-volume magnum opus of Pastor, who made extensive use of the Vatican archives. The volumes listed here cover the period from 1534 to 1555 and, within a larger Catholic and papal context, give extensive coverage—somewhat traditional but also incisive—to the founding and early years of the Society of Jesus, including the full sweep of Xavier’s missions.
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Pettegree, Andrew. Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002.
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A comprehensive narrative history of the 16th century, this survey offers a combination of a chronological and thematic approach to the major issues of this period. There is particular emphasis on the Reformation and how that transformative religious movement played out in political and dynastic conflicts, especially in Europe, but overseas as well.
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The Early Society of Jesus

In recent years interest in and publications on the Society of Jesus have greatly grown, especially concerning its early, seminal years. A pivotal monograph that initiated and encouraged this trend is O’Malley 1993. García de Castro Valdés 2014 is an important article within a significant edited collection on the Jesuit founder(s). Rodrigues 2004 is a key primary source on Jesuit beginnings. The companion volumes Brodrick 1997 and Brodrick 1986 are older but still valuable studies on the first several decades of Jesuit history. Bangert 1986 remains the best single-volume history of the Society worldwide. With a more specific focus, Alden 1996 is an impressive study of the first two centuries of the Jesuit order in Portugal and its overseas territories, where Xavier spent most of his life within the Society. O’Malley, et al. 1999 and O’Malley, et al. 2006 are large companion volumes based on conferences of international scholars held at Boston College on numerous aspects of the “new” Jesuit history, especially of the early Society (1540–1773). McCoog 2010 is a collection of papers from two European conferences centered on anniversaries of the three Jesuit saints of the founding generation: Ignatius, Xavier, and Peter Faber.

Alden, Dauril. The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire, and Beyond, 1540–1750. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
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A good example of the significant increase, as well as newer trends, in the historiography of the Society during roughly its first two centuries. The Portuguese Assistancy played a major role in early Jesuit history, both in Portugal and overseas, where Xavier’s presence and policies interacted with those of Church and state.
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Bangert, William V. A History of the Society of Jesus. 2d ed. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1986.
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A detailed study of the international Jesuit order up to the late 20th century, this is the most comprehensive one-volume history of the Society in English. Xavier’s life and work are well highlighted within the context of the early, expanding Society.
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Brodrick, James. The Progress of the Jesuits, 1556–79. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1986.
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Originally published in 1947 (New York: Longmans, Green). This continuation of the history of the early Society has numerous references to Xavier’s significant impact on the Jesuits and their missions long after his death, especially through his heroic example and impactful letters.
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Brodrick, James. The Origin of the Jesuits. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1997.
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Originally published in 1940 (New York: Longmans, Green). This study by a skilled Jesuit historian, first published on the 4th centenary of the Society’s founding, covers the establishment and first years of the Jesuit order up to 1556, the year of Ignatius’s death. Within that context he gives extensive coverage to the far-flung missionary work of Xavier. In terms of historiographical developments and emphases, it is instructive to compare Brodrick’s approach with that of Bangert 1986 and, even more so, O’Malley 1993, O’Malley, et al. 1999, and O’Malley, et al. 2006.
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García de Castro Valdés, José. “Ignatius of Loyola and His First Companions.” In A Companion to Ignatius of Loyola: Life, Writings, Spirituality, Influence. Edited by Robert Aleksander Maryks, 66–83. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014.
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While not denying the seminal influence of Ignatius, this essay is a significant example of the newer historiography, which views the foundation of the Society of Jesus as a group effort, especially concerning the first companions from their Paris days forward. It also stresses the importance, for greater historical understanding, of their letters, of which Loyola’s and Xavier’s missives were the most influential.
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McCoog, Thomas M., S. J. Ite Inflammate Omnia: Selected Historical Papers from Conferences Held at Loyola and Rome in 2006. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2010.
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These two conferences on the Jesuit order were held in commemoration of a triple jubilee in 2006: the 500th anniversary of the births of Francis Xavier and Peter Faber and the 450th anniversary of the death of Ignatius Loyola, who were, in essence, the first three Jesuits. Most of the essays here focus on these three “founders” and related aspects of early Jesuit history.
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O’Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
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A groundbreaking monograph that examines in detail the founding and first twenty-five years of the Society of Jesus (1540–1565). While the primary focus is on Europe, the wider narrative incorporates the beginnings of Jesuit overseas missionary activity, especially that of Francis Xavier.
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O’Malley, John W., S. J., Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Steven J. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy, S. J., eds. The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
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A wide-ranging compilation of essays on Jesuit history from the founding of the Society until its suppression in 1773. Based on an international conference in 1997 at Boston College, many of these essays engage with the newer historiography, which examines Jesuit influence not only in the religious sphere, but also on the wider culture. Many references to Xavier’s life and work are found throughout the volume.
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O’Malley, John W., S. J., Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Steven J. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy, S. J., eds. The Jesuits II: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006.
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Following the first Boston College conference and volume based on new trends in Jesuit historiography, a second conference was held there in 2002, leading to this second collection of essays. Building on its predecessor, this volume focuses on geographic areas and themes previously underrepresented, including greater coverage of 18th-century developments. Considerable attention is given to Xavier’s posthumous impact and cult.
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Rodrigues, Simão. A Brief and Exact Account: The Recollections of Simão Rodrigues on the Origin and Progress of the Society of Jesus. Edited by Joseph F. Conwell. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2004.
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Written in 1577, this is an account by one of the first Jesuit companions on the background and developments leading up to the establishment of the Society in 1540. Since Rodrigues knew Xavier well, the latter’s prominent role in the events of the 1530s is amply described. Among other Jesuit chroniclers of the early Society, Juan de Polanco’s Chronicon covered the background and early years of the order, while the 17th-century Jesuit Daniello Bartoli wrote a monumental history of the Jesuits: Dell’istoria della Compagnia di Giesu.
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Reference Works

The two most important foundational writings of the Society of Jesus are The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus and Their Complementary Norms (Padberg 1996) and The Spiritual Exercises (Ganss 1992), the first of which reflected the spirit of the founders (Ignatius, Xavier, etc.), and the second of which animated Xavier’s spiritual and missionary life. With regard to the writings by and about Xavier, Schurhammer and Wicki 1944–1945 contains the official edition of his writings, especially his letters, while Monumenta Xaveriana (Xavier, et al. 1899–1912) includes his writings as well as many contemporaneous and later writings and testimonies about him; both of these collections are in the original languages. As part of a lifetime of work by the author on Xavier, Schurhammer 1963 is an extensive collection of essays. The best available English translation of Xavier’s writings is Costelloe 1992. For translations of Xavier’s writings in other languages, Didier 1987 is a French source and Zubillaga 1953 is a Spanish translation. Among the great number of documents relating to the early Jesuit and Catholic missions in Asia, in the original languages, Wicki 1948–1988 are numerous volumes on the East Indies, and Ruiz-de-Medina 1990–1995 treat the early years of the Japanese mission.

Costelloe, M. Joseph, trans. and ed. The Letters and Instructions of Francis Xavier. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992.
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This single-volume collection in English contains all of Xavier’s extant writings: the 138 letters and instructions that he produced during his lifetime, ranging from a letter from Paris in 1535 to one from Shangchuan, China, in 1552.
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Didier, Hugues, ed. Saint François Xavier: Correspondance, 1535–1552; Lettres et documents. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1987.
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This is a compact French edition of the complete letters and various documents of Francis Xavier.
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Ganss, George, trans. and ed. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992.
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This is a foundational spiritual text for the Jesuits. It developed out of Ignatius’s personal spiritual journey and growth, and clearly played a significant role in the life and transformation of Xavier, who himself underwent the Spiritual Exercises in 1534 with Ignatius as his guide.
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Padberg, John W., ed. The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus and Their Complementary Norms: A Complete English Translation of the Official Latin Texts. Translated by George E. Ganss. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1996.
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Although Ignatius worked on and revised the Constitutions until his death in 1556 (Xavier having died in 1552), the spirit of Ignatius, Xavier, and the other first companions animated the formation, writing, and interpretation of this seminal document.
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Ruiz-de-Medina, Juan. Documentos del Japón. 2 vols. Rome: Instituto Histórico de la Compañía de Jesús, 1990–1995.
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Documents in the original languages relating to the early years of the Jesuit mission to Japan in 1547–1557 and 1558–1562, respectively. Correspondingly these are Volumes 137 and 148 of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu series.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J. Orientalia. Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos, 1963.
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See also Georg Schurhammer, Xaveriana (Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Historicos Ultramarinos, 1964). These works are companion volumes of essays, in several languages, on myriad aspects of Francis Xavier’s life and afterlife by the leading 20th-century expert on almost all things Xavier: Georg Schurhammer, S. J. These books include coverage of both Xavier and the broader Jesuit missions, and they encompass Europe, Africa, and Asia.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J., and Joseph Wicki, S. J., eds. Epistolae S. Francisci Xaverii aliaque eius Scripta: Nova editio ex integro refecta textibus, introductionibus, notis, appendicibus acta. 2 vols. Rome: Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1944–1945.
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The official edition of Xavier’s writings contains an extensive introduction in Latin, followed by the letters and instructions in their original language. The breakdown is as follows: Vol. 1 (1535–1548), Vol. 2 (1549–1552). These are Volumes 67 and 68 of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu series.
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Wicki, Joseph, S. J. Documenta Indica. 18 vols. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1948–1988.
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A wide range of original documents relating to the East Indies missions. The first three of these volumes cover the years 1540–1557, the years of, and immediately following, Xavier’s missionary activities. These are correspondingly Volumes 70, 72, and 74 of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu series.
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Xavier, Francis, Alessandro Valignano, Manuel Teixeira, et al. Monumenta Xaveriana. 2 vols. Madrid: Typis Augustini Avrial, 1899–1912.
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A fundamental collection of documents in Latin, Portuguese, and Spanish, especially the definitive texts of the letters and writings of Xavier. There are also early accounts of Xavier, including that of Manuel Teixeira and the “Life” of Xavier by Alessandro Valignano, S. J. (the first part of his History of the Origin and Progress of the Society of Jesus in the East Indies—in Latin). Finally, there is a valuable collection of testimonies as to Xavier’s sanctity. These are Volumes 16 and 43 of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu series.
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Zubillaga, P. Félix, ed. Cartas y escritos de San Francisco Javier. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1953.
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Based on the critical edition of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (1944–1945), this is a Spanish translation of the complete collection of Xavier’s writings.
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Biographies and Biographical Studies

This topic is divided into two subsections: Early Modern Lives and Modern Works. The first includes several Lives of Xavier produced in the late 16th and 17th centuries, which laid the foundation for much of the subsequent historiography. The second subsection contains a range of biographies and related studies of Xavier written in the 20th and early 21st centuries.

Early Modern Lives

Francis Xavier was a very charismatic figure during his life, and, after his death in 1552, his fame continued to spread as he took on the persona, not only as the proto-missionary of the Society of Jesus, but also as a model of evangelization and sanctity for his fellow Jesuits, and even for the worldwide Catholic community. Not surprisingly, a number of members of his order wrote accounts of his life, which tended to become increasingly hagiographical over time. Torsellino 1632 is one of the first and most influential of these Lives. This was soon followed by Lucena 1952, which is both a biography and a travelogue of Xavier’s Asian missions. In the later 17th century, Bartoli 1865 (originally written in 1666) grew out of the author’s more expansive history of the order. Bouhours 1688 is a good example of the increasingly hagiographical trend in writings about Xavier in the 17th century, both leading up to his canonization in 1622 and even more so thereafter.

Bartoli, Daniello. The Life of St. Francis Xavier: Apostle of the Indies and Japan. Translated by Frederick William Faber. Baltimore: John Murphy, 1865.
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Originally written in 1666. Bartoli was a professor of rhetoric and master of Italian prose. This life of Xavier was initially part of the author’s monumental history of the Society, much of which was focused on Jesuit missions in Asia.
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Bouhours, Dominique. The Life of St. Francis Xavier, of the Society of Jesus, Apostle of the Indies, and of Japan. Translated by John Dryden. London: Jacob Tonson, 1688.
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Originally published in 1682. Building on the biography of Xavier by Torsellino, Bouhours painted a far more hagiographical portrait, in particular by expanding upon and emphasizing the many miracles purportedly associated with Xavier. This work soon became a classic of the genre and was translated into English by the man of letters and Catholic convert John Dryden.
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Lucena, João de. História da vida do padre Francisco de Xavier. Lisbon: Agênica Geral do Ultramar, Divisão de Publicações e Biblioteca, 1952.
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Originally published in 1600. This was one of the earliest comprehensive biographies of Xavier. The author combined his account of the famous missionary’s exploits with a travel guide of the many lands through which Xavier traveled. It also had a decidedly Portuguese as well as Catholic slant, linking the life of Xavier with that of another trailblazer, Vasco da Gama.
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Torsellino, Orazio. The Admirable Life of S. Francis Xavier, Divided into VI Bookes. Translated by Thomas Fitzherbert. Paris: English College Press, 1632.
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Originally published in 1596. One of the first major biographies of Francis Xavier, this became something of a prototype, combining both a scholarly and a hagiographical approach. Torsellino devoted considerable time and effort to the study of Xavier, including not only his writing of this volume, but also in editing mission reports as well as a volume of Xavier’s letters.
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Modern Works

Bar none, the most exhaustive study of the life of Francis Xavier is Schurhammer 1973–1982, the life’s work of this German Jesuit scholar. The best overall single-volume, English-language biography is Brodrick 1952, clearly sympathetic in tone, while also scholarly in much of its approach. Among the many other accounts in English, McGratty 1952 and Maynard 1950 combine to varying degrees scholarly with popular or hagiographic elements. Recondo 1988 is probably the best life of Xavier in Spanish. On the 450th anniversary of Xavier’s death in 2002, a volume of the Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu appeared largely devoted to Xavier, with a range of essays and illustrations. Two of these essays are, in significant ways, biographical: Oswald 2002 on Xavier and Ignatius (in English) and Lopez-Gay 2002 on Xavier and Ignatian spirituality (in Spanish). Note: A scholarly, readable, and up-to-date life of Xavier in English still awaits its author.

Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002).
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In commemoration of the 450th anniversary of the death of Francis Xavier, most of the essays in this volume (English or Spanish) are devoted to aspects of his life and its impact, both before and after his death. In addition to “An Introductory Life,” the volume includes two essays concerning Xavier and Ignatius/Ignatian spirituality as well as three essays relating to Xavier’s cult and iconography. There are also a wide range of related illustrations.
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Brodrick, James. Saint Francis Xavier. New York: Wicklow Press, 1952.
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One of a number of biographies published on the 400th anniversary of the death of Xavier, this is probably the best one-volume life of the “Apostle of the Indies” in English. While certainly sympathetic to Xavier and confessional in its assumptions, it is also a scholarly study and makes extensive use of Xavier’s letters throughout. Though skeptical regarding some of the miraculous accounts, the sanctity of the protagonist shines through.
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Lopez-Gay, Jesus, S. J. “La vida y misión de Francisco Javier a la Luz de la Espiritualidad Ignaciana.” Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002): 249–257.
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This essay in Spanish argues that Xavier looked to Ignatius as his spiritual father, having been particularly influenced by the Spiritual Exercises. Most notably, we can see echoes of the Exercises and of Ignatius’s ongoing spiritual influence in their correspondence.
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Maynard, Theodore. The Odyssey of Francis Xavier. Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1950.
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This life by a popular and talented writer employs some of the important scholarly sources. As is evident from the title, the author focuses primarily on Xavier’s missionary “odyssey.”
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McGratty, Arthur R. The Fire of Francis Xavier: The Story of an Apostle. Milwaukee, WI: Bruce, 1952.
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Another biography published on the fourth centenary of Xavier’s death, this work carries a scholarly tone, but the author tends to give more credence to the missionary’s purported miracles than, for example, Brodrick. This account also stresses the importance and ongoing impact of Ignatian spirituality on Xavier’s life and apostolate.
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Oswald, Julius. “Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier.” Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002): 231–247.
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These two Basque noblemen with very different personalities eventually formed an indissoluble bond, which, despite vast distances between them, seemed to grow only stronger—as seen most clearly and poignantly in their letters.
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Recondo, José Maria. San Francisco Javier: Vida y obra. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1988.
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This Spanish-language life of Xavier is a significant scholarly undertaking. Comprehensive and extensively footnoted, the text runs to more than one thousand pages.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J. Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times. 4 vols. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe, S. J. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1973–1982.
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This is the authorized English translation of Schurhammer’s original German edition of Franz Xaver: Sein Leben und seine Zeit (Freiburg im Breisgau, West Germany: Verlag Herder, 1955–1973). This monumental work of scholarship runs to a total of over 3000 pages and is as close to a “definitive” life of Xavier as is likely to be produced, though it is not an easy read. The four volumes cover respectively: Europe; India; Indonesia and India; and Japan and China.
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Missiology: Xavier and Early Jesuit Missions

Alberts 2013 is a good place to start for an overview of scholarly works and trends concerning Catholic missions in Asia. Forrestal and Smith 2016 is a collection of essays with fresh perspectives on worldwide Catholic missions in the Early Modern era, whereas Clossey 2008 focuses specifically on Jesuit missions in this same period, while using a global approach. Brockey 2014 explores Jesuit missions in the late 16th and early 17th centuries in Asia, where Xavier’s impact was long-lasting. Even more precisely, Brockey 2007 studies the Jesuits in China, where, as elsewhere, especially with regard to the Jesuit missions, Xavier was the model, being the first and arguably the most influential of all Jesuit missionaries. Concerning more specific studies on or related to Xavier, Mormando and Thomas 2006 is a catalogue collection of works on Xavier and the Far Eastern missions. In terms of cultural history, O’Malley 2013 sees Xavier as a cultural agent, in addition to being a spiritual one, between East and West. Kolvenbach 2002 is an address by a recent Jesuit superior general on how Xavier, on the missions in Asia, was in certain ways both ahead of and limited by the age in which he lived. A work of impressive German scholarship, Haub and Oswald 2002 contains an array of essays on the theme of Xavier as missionary and patron of the missions. Lastly, Sievernich 2010 is a Spanish-language essay on how the Jesuits gave an expansive meaning and understanding to the concept of “mission.”

Alberts, Tara. “Catholic Missions to Asia.” In The Ashgate Research Companion to the Counter-Reformation. Edited by Alexandra Bamji, Geert H. Janssen, and Mary Laven, 127–145. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2013.
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With numerous references to recent scholarship and scholarly trends, this essay on early modern missiology in Asia stresses that there was not a monolithic “Catholic” identity, and that the agency of Asian Christians needs to be considered as much as that of European missionaries, along with the efforts of laity as well as clergy.
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Brockey, Liam Matthew. Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
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Although this monograph investigates the Jesuit mission in a country that Xavier never quite entered, having died on an island just offshore, and beginning with the generation after Xavier, it demonstrates how important he remained as a missionary model, especially for the Jesuits who trod the path that he had walked or, in the case of China, envisaged.
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Brockey, Liam Matthew. The Visitor: André Palmeiro and the Jesuits in Asia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2014.
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More limited in its timeframe than Brockey 2007, this study is more expansive in its geographical breadth, focusing on the efforts of one Jesuit “visitor” (superior), but encompassing most of the areas where Xavier had launched Christian (and Jesuit) evangelization efforts. Xavier’s ongoing impact, whether in terms of certain missionary methods or in terms of his relics, was quite significant.
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Clossey, Luke. Salvation and Globalization in the Early Jesuit Missions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Contrary to traditional mission studies focused on limited times and places, this is a truly global study of early Jesuit missions. The author views the Jesuit missions as an integrated worldwide enterprise with many connections often unmediated by Rome. In lieu of other terms for this period, he proposes the construct of “Global Salvific Catholicism.”
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Forrestal, Alison, and Sean Alexander Smith, eds. The Frontiers of Mission: Perspectives on Early Modern Missionary Catholicism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2016.
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This collection of essays on Catholic missionary frontiers moves away from an older model, which tended to stress uniformity among the missions, to newer perspectives, which emphasize the realities and effects of distance and de-centering on a range of missions and religious orders. As some essays highlight, Xavier remained a model missionary, especially for those traveling great distances, and his heroic example was a boon to missionary vocations.
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Haub, Rita, and Julius Oswald, S. J., eds. Franz Xaver: Patron der Missionen; Festschrift zum 450 Todestag. Regensburg, Germany: Schnell & Steiner, 2002.
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This festschrift commemorating the 450th anniversary of Xavier’s death contains sixteen essays in German centered on his role as “Patron of the Missions.” The essays range from the 16th to the 18th centuries and cover aspects of his own missionary efforts, his cult, and his role as a patron saint and object of devotion in various locales in Europe, especially in German-speaking areas.
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Kolvenbach, Peter-Hans. “Francis Xavier and the Asian Jesuits.” Vidyajyoti 66 (2002): 716–724.
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The Superior General of the Society of Jesus, on the 450th anniversary of Xavier’s death, addressed the superiors of the Jesuit Assistancies of South and East Asia. Kolvenbach lauded Xavier for introducing aspects of inculturation into the Jesuits’ missionary efforts. Still, he acknowledged that Xavier was in some ways a man limited by his times, who believed that baptism was essential for salvation and who discredited Asian religions.
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Mormando, Franco, and Jill G. Thomas, eds. Francis Xavier and the Jesuit Missions in the Far East. Chestnut Hill, MA: Jesuit Institute of Boston College, 2006.
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On the triple anniversary of the death of Loyola and the births of Xavier and Faber, Boston College hosted “An Anniversary Exhibition of Early Printed Works from the Jesuitana Collection of the John J. Burns Library.” This catalogue describes the Collection and then discusses each of the works in turn, as well as containing a profusion of illustrations.
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O’Malley, John W. “Saint Ignatius and the Cultural Mission of the Society of Jesus.” In Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History. By John W. O’Malley, 225–255. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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One of the significant trends in recent Jesuit historiography is to emphasize the Society’s cultural impact as much as its religious mission. With regard to Xavier, the engravings, paintings, and statuettes that he brought to the East in 1542 played a role in the larger process of bringing Europe to Asia. In terms of a reverse impact, Xavier’s letters from the Indies, the first of which were published in 1545, aroused great interest in Europe, both spiritual and ethnographical.
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Sievernich, Michael. “La misión y las misiones en la primitiva Compañía de Jesús.” In Ite Inflammate Omnia: Selected Historical Papers from Conferences Held at Loyola and Rome in 2006. Edited by Thomas M. McCoog, S. J., 255–273. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2010.
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This essay in Spanish posits that the Jesuits gave new meaning(s) to the word “mission,” including: a personal commission from a superior, a practical dimension of the Society and its role in evangelization, and a reference to a particular region where missionary efforts were undertaken. This more expansive Jesuit understanding of mission was subsequently adopted by the universal Catholic Church.
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Missions in India and Indonesia (East Indies)

Both the first year and part of the last year of Xavier’s itinerant decade in Asia (1542–1552) found him in India, and he spent about half of his entire Asian decade in the subcontinent. His impact in India was arguably quite significant, as is clear from the many volumes on this theme. Schurhammer 1977 covers in depth the first several years of Xavier’s missionary efforts in India. In terms of the long-standing influence of Xavier and the Jesuits who followed him, Correia-Afonso 1997 studies the Society in India from the 16th to the 18th centuries. With a longer gaze, Mendonça 2003 is a collection of essays on the significance and influence of Xavier and the Jesuits in India up to the early 21st century. A much more focused historical study is Mendonça 2002, which centers on the important city of Goa over the course of a century (1510–1610), and investigates the complex issue of conversion to Christianity (or not). After his time in India, Xavier spent several years traversing much of the East Indies, including many parts of modern-day Indonesia, before returning again to his missionary starting point. This is covered in the exhaustive detail characteristic of the author in Schurhammer 1980.

Correia-Afonso, John. The Jesuits in India, 1542–1773. Anand, India: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, 1997.
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This survey of more than two hundred years of Jesuit missionary efforts in India begins with “The Xaverian Decade (1542–1552).” While acknowledging Xavier’s limitations of time and culture, the author presents the missionary as a “pathfinder” who opened many doors and who, due to his charity and sanctity, was widely lauded as “the Great Father.”
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Mendonça, Délio de. Conversions and Citizenry: Goa under Portugal, 1510–1610. New Delhi: Concept Publishing, 2002.
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A study of the first one hundred years of Portuguese rule in Goa, capital of the Estado da India, this analysis problematizes the issue of conversion. The interactions between Portuguese/Christian culture and Indian/Hindu culture were complex, sometimes fraught and sometimes cordial. Motives for conversion varied, and the author uses the insightful term “Historiography of Silence” to refer to conscious omissions in the historical record.
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Mendonça, Délio de. Jesuits in India: Vision and Challenges. Goa, India: Xavier Centre of Historical Research, 2003.
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This collection of seminar papers commemorating the 450th anniversary of the death of Xavier contains in its first section six essays on Xavier’s historical and contemporary significance. This is followed by twenty-one essays on the historical and contemporary impact of Jesuits in a multiplicity of areas of Indian life, spirituality, and culture.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J. Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times. Vol. 2, India, 1541–1545. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe, S. J. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1977.
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Xavier left Europe in 1541 (permanently as it turned out), arrived in Goa in 1542, and spent the next ten years crisscrossing the Indian Ocean and the Far East. About half of his ten years in Asia found him evangelizing in India. This volume of the Schurhammer biography focuses on his year-long journey eastward and his first three years in India, primarily on the southwestern and southeastern coasts.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J. Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times. Vol. 3, Indonesia and India, 1545–1549. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe, S. J. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1980.
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Schurhammer’s third volume on Xavier’s life focuses initially on the missionary’s two years of expansive travel and evangelization in many of the cities and islands of the East Indies. Xavier then returned to the important crossroads city of Malacca for six months in 1547 before returning to India, where he was active as the Jesuit superior as well as evangelist, healer, and preacher.
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Missions in Japan and East Asia (Far East)

In 1549 Xavier began the Christian evangelization of Japan, which was to witness significant initial growth, followed by severe and debilitating persecutions, over the course of a century, as narrated to great effect in Boxer 1951. The course of Xavier’s two-plus years in Japan, down to his death off the coast of China at the end of 1552, is detailed in Schurhammer 1982, the fourth and final volume of Schurhammer’s work. Another biographical account, concentrating on Xavier’s time in Japan and the beginnings there of “acculturation,” is found in Lacouture 1995. Among the more significant and specialized articles on Xavier and Japan is Ellis 2003, which describes how the missionary developed a growing respect for the Japanese people, as expressed through his descriptive letters. At the same time, the complex and problematic issue of religious terminology, especially regarding Buddhist versus Christian concepts of, and terms for, God, as discussed in Hisashi 2009, reveals how Xavier and subsequent missionaries came to this realization and adjusted their preaching accordingly. Some lacunae exist and debates are ongoing as to Xavier’s missionary routes and destinations. Pacheco 1974 offers a revised interpretation concerning the missionary’s return trip from Japan, including a stop at Tanegashima. Yuuki 1988 is a succinct look at Xavier’s “Way,” containing localized descriptions of his various missions, enriched with lavish illustrations, and that give somewhat greater emphasis to his evangelization of Japan.

Boxer, C. R. The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951.
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This classic account by a gifted historian traces the one hundred-year rapid rise of Christianity in Japan, beginning with Xavier’s arrival there in 1549, through to its tragic demise under fearful persecution in the early to mid-17th century.
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Ellis, Robert Richmond. “‘The Best Thus Far Discovered’: The Japanese in the Letters of Francisco Xavier.” Hispanic Review 71.2 (Spring 2003): 155–169.
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The quote in the title comes from one of Xavier’s letters in which he expressed his love and admiration for Japan and its people. This article explores how Xavier lauded much about Japanese culture, while condemning other aspects such as Buddhist monasticism. Though it became clear to both sides that fundamental divisions existed between Christianity and Buddhism, Xavier sought only a “spiritual conquest,” not an imperialistic one.
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Hisashi, Kishino. “From Dainichi to Deus: The Early Christian Missionaries’ Discovery and Understanding of Buddhism.” In Christianity and Cultures: Japan & China in Comparison, 1543–1644. Edited by M. Antoni J. Ucerler, S. J., 45–60. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2009.
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Xavier and other missionaries ran into problems regarding religious terminology, especially the best or correct term for, and concept of, God. Two differing views of Buddhism are that it is either pantheistic or atheistic. Xavier began a process, pursued by other missionaries, especially in the decade after his departure, to understand and refute Buddhist doctrines on a more sophisticated level.
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Lacouture, Jean. “Francis Xavier, Orientalist.” In Jesuits: A Multibiography. By Jean Lacouture, 98–135. Translated by Jeremy Leggatt. Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 1995.
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Among the many portraits sketched in this biographical history of the Jesuits, the author focuses on Xavier’s time in Japan and views this as an encounter “between a generous man and a great culture.” In these tentative moves toward “acculturation,” or cultural symbiosis, each influenced the other. Thus, Xavier is presented as a harbinger of cross-culturalism. Xavier became a model for other great missionaries, like Matteo Ricci and Roberto de Nobili, who went far beyond what Xavier may have conceived.
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Pacheco, Diego. “Xavier and Tanegashima.” Monumenta Nipponica 29.4 (Winter 1974): 477–480.
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This brief article is a good illustration of how historians, using new evidence or interpretations, can advance our knowledge. The question here is whether Xavier ever visited the island of Tanegashima? The consensus, including the authoritative voice of Schurhammer, held that he had not. Based on two letters and an alternative view, the author concludes that Xavier did, in fact, visit the island on his departing voyage from Japan.
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Schurhammer, Georg, S. J. Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times, Vol. IV: Japan and China, 1549–1552. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe, S. J. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1982.
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In this final volume of his massive biography, Schurhammer concentrates on Xavier’s relatively long stay in Japan (August 1549 to November 1551), with its successes and failures, his brief return to India, and his final journey—to China—where he hoped to begin the conversion of the Celestial Empire and thus of the Far East. Unfortunately, he died on the island of Shangchuan in December 1552, within sight but just out of reach of his heart’s desire.
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Yuuki, Diego R., S. J. The Way of Xavier. Translated by Brian Burke-Gaffney. Nagasaki, Japan: Nagasaki Photo Service, 1988.
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A survey of the life, travels, and evangelization efforts of Francis Xavier, in Japanese and English, in which special emphasis is given to his time in Japan. A particularly helpful feature of this publication is that it is profusely illustrated (in color) with the places and iconography associated with Xavier’s life and legacy.
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Xavier’s Afterlife

It could be argued that, as influential as Xavier’s life was, his “afterlife” was even more so. This final topic is subdivided into two areas of research. The first deals with His Canonization, including the complex mix of cultural, political, and spiritual currents that led to his formal entry into the Catholic communion of saints in 1622. The second and closely related topic highlights His Cult and Iconography. Leading up to and especially after his canonization, belief in Xavier’s intercessory power increased considerably, as did reports of miracles connected with his cult, relics, and shrine. Through various mediums, he was presented not only as a healing and model missionary saint, but also, in some ways, as a bridge between East and West.

His Canonization

It should not be too surprising that canonizations can be influenced by various religious as well as political realities and pressures, as was true to a considerable extent in the case of Francis Xavier. The Society of Jesus promoted the canonization of its most famous missionary, but it was also concerned that Xavier not be canonized before his fellow Jesuit and primary founder of the Society—Ignatius of Loyola—who at the time was not as renowned as the world-traveling Xavier. Ribadeneira 2014 is the translation of the first official biography of Ignatius, a clear motive for which was the canonization of Ignatius as well as Xavier—highlighted here as a miracle-working missionary. Padberg, et al. 1994 contains decrees of two of the General Congregations of the Society in which the canonizations of both Ignatius and Xavier were strongly encouraged. O’Malley 2013 describes how the Society addressed these concerns through the interrelated processes by which it promoted these two causes for sainthood. The Spanish Crown also pushed for the canonizations of these two native sons, along with those of two other Spaniards: Teresa of Avila and Isidore of Madrid. Dandelet 2001 discusses how the preponderance of Spanish power in early modern Italy, including Rome, influenced the campaigns for the canonizations of these four Spaniards (along with the Italian Philip Neri) in the early 17th century. Mormando 2006 looks at the whole promotion process, and how religious (especially the Jesuits) and secular (the Portuguese as well as the Spanish Crowns) pressure groups moved toward their desired, and ultimately successful, goal. Although the public acclamation of certain individuals as saints went back to the early Catholic Church, the Tridentine Church desired to bring greater control and dignity to the procedure, by which seemingly holy men and women were beatified and canonized. Ditchfield 2010 explains how the Church in the years after Trent formalized these processes, although doing so by no means eliminated other influences, whether from royal courts or from religious orders.

Dandelet, Thomas James. Spanish Rome, 1500–1700. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
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In the context of his larger discussion of Spanish predominance in Rome in the 16th and 17th centuries, the author discusses the campaigns for the canonization of four Spaniards (Xavier, Ignatius, Teresa of Avila, and Isidore of Madrid) and one Italian (Philip Neri) in 1622. This intersection of religion and politics witnessed the apogee of Spanish and Catholic (Baroque) triumphalism.
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Ditchfield, Simon. “‘Coping with the Beati Moderni’: Canonization Procedure in the Aftermath of the Council of Trent.” In Ite Inflammate Omnia: Selected Historical Papers from Conferences Held at Loyola and Rome in 2006. Edited by Thomas M. McCoog, S. J., 413–439. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2010.
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To prevent the growth of local cults without Rome’s approval, the Tridentine Church instituted a more complex process for both beatifications and canonizations. Still, secular and religious influences could be significant, especially that of royal crowns and religious orders. John III of Portugal launched investigations into Xavier’s sanctity immediately after his death, and the Jesuits sought the dual canonizations of Ignatius and Xavier to strengthen and unify the Society.
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Mormando, Franco. “The Making of the Second Jesuit Saint: The Campaign for the Canonization of Francis Xavier, 1555–1622.” In Francis Xavier and the Jesuit Missions in the Far East. Edited by Franco Mormando and Jill G. Thomas, 9–23. Chestnut Hill, MA: Jesuit Institute of Boston College, 2006.
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A combination of forces of church and state pushed for Xavier’s canonization. These included the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns as well as the Society of Jesus, spearheaded by the Jesuit Curia in Rome. Several biographies/hagiographies, along with an array of visual representations, especially paintings and engravings, promoted Xavier’s sanctity and thereby his cause for sainthood.
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O’Malley, John W. “The Many Lives of Ignatius of Loyola: Future Saint.” In Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History. By John W. O’Malley, 257–297. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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While focusing on Ignatius, this essay also discusses the interrelated processes that promoted the canonizations of both Ignatius and Xavier, the latter of whom was more universally known, largely through his letters. The two “saints” were linked in the minds of Jesuits, and there was particular concern that Xavier should not be canonized before Ignatius—the primary founder. Therefore, the Society sought their mutual canonizations.
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Padberg, John W., S. J., Martin D. O’Keefe, S. J., and John L. McCarthy, S. J., eds. For Matters of Greater Moment: The First Thirty Jesuit General Congregations; A Brief History and a Translation of the Decrees. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1994.
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See pp. 212 and 218. The Fifth General Congregation (November 1593–January 1594) in its Decree 71 proposed that the Society petition the Holy See for the canonization of Ignatius and then urged the same for Xavier. The Sixth General Congregation (February–March 1608) in Decree 3 again called for these canonizations, this time naming both Ignatius and Xavier together, perhaps suggesting a dual ceremony.
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Ribadeneira, Pedro de, S. J. The Life of Ignatius of Loyola. Translated by Claude N. Pavur, S. J. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2014.
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This was the first official Vita of Ignatius, the initial draft of which Ribadeneira, who knew Ignatius well, wrote in 1572. More than a biography, it is a history of the early Society and its spirituality. An important motive here, at least implicitly, was to lay the groundwork for the canonization, not only of Ignatius, but also of Xavier. Ribadeneira stressed the latter’s miracles, both before and after his death, including his incorrupt body.
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His Cult and Iconography

Writings, relics, and art were among the many manifestations of the cult that developed around Francis Xavier, beginning almost from the moment of his death. Not only did this cult promote his canonization in 1622, it continued to spread his fame and role as patron saint long after his official elevation. Osswald 2002 focuses on Xavier’s spreading cult, and its many manifestations, from his death to the first centenary of the Society’s founding (1640). The famous missionary saint became a favorite subject for painters, especially in the 17th century. Boeckl 1996 shows how, in one of Rubens’s famous portraits, Xavier is engaged in the healing of both plague and (metaphorically) heresy. More broadly, Bailey 1999 looks at a number of hagiographical portraits of Xavier’s death, demonstrating his prominence in Baroque art and spirituality. Even more dramatically than paintings, Xavier’s “incorrupt” body was central to his cult and reputation for sanctity, as Pinch 2011 demonstrates in the period from Xavier’s death to his canonization. Brockey 2015 examines the cult and corpse of Xavier over time from the perspective of material history. Over the long course of Catholic evangelization and Portuguese hegemony in India (Goa), a series of rituals, centered on Xavier’s remains, intertwined religious culture and political power, according to Gupta 2014. Zupanov 2005 examines how Xavier’s “sacred body” was understood from the often divergent views of Portuguese and Indians, as well as Catholics and Hindus. Several studies of the cult and iconography of Xavier focus on particular areas. Begheyn 2002 is an intriguing discussion of the popularity of Xavier’s cult in the 17th century in the officially Protestant (Calvinist) and iconoclastic Dutch Republic. Gutierrez 2002 examines the significance of a wide gamut of Xaverian iconography in the East over the centuries. The cult of Xavier has been centered above all at his shrine in Goa. As part of the author’s study of the saint, Rayanna 1989 discusses in depth the shrine as well as other aspects of Xavier’s cult. A particular manifestation of that cult is the novena that developed and spread from the 17th century onward.

Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. “The Jesuits and Painting in Italy, 1550–1690: The Art of Catholic Reform.” In Saints & Sinners: Caravaggio & the Baroque Image. Edited by Franco Mormando, 151–178. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, 1999.
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In this article, the subsection on “Jesuit Saints” focuses heavily on five paintings on the same theme: the “Death of St. Francis Xavier.” These hagiographical portraits of the death of Xavier, ranging in date from the early 17th to possibly the early 18th centuries, demonstrate how popular this great missionary saint became in the art and culture of the Catholic Reformation.
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Begheyn, Paul, S. J. “The Cult of Saint Francis Xavier in the Dutch Republic.” Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002): 303–320.
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In the 17th century Xavier’s popularity and cult spread widely, even in the officially Protestant Dutch Republic, as attested in the proliferation of publications and relics related to him. He became a sought-after intercessor against diseases, and he was believed to be a powerful healer of both plague and heresy. In 1658 Xavier was named patron saint of the Dutch Jesuit mission.
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Boeckl, Christine M. “Plague Imagery as Metaphor for Heresy in Rubens’ The Miracles of Saint Francis Xavier.” Sixteenth Century Journal 27.4 (Winter 1996): 979–995.
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One of Peter Paul Rubens’s more famous paintings is his “Miracles of St. Francis Xavier” (a counterpart to his “Miracles of St. Ignatius Loyola.”) By comparing the Xavier painting with others by Rubens as well as with other contemporary paintings, the author argues that Xavier’s fame in curing the sick and converting non-believers come together in this painting, in which his intercession overcomes the twin evils of plague and heresy.
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Brockey, Liam Matthew. “The Cruelest Honor: The Relics of Francis Xavier in Early-Modern Asia.” Catholic Historical Review 101.1 (2015): 41–64.
DOI: 10.1353/cat.2015.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Using the increasingly popular and instructive lens of material history, Brockey examines the translation, examinations, and devotional traditions related to Xavier’s relics, especially his (relatively) incorrupt body. While his corpse has rested in Goa since 1554, parts of it were severed and sent elsewhere as desired and treasured relics, most famously the “cruelest honor,” that is, the removal of his right arm, which was sent to Rome in 1614. Through his relics, countless devotees of Xavier experienced both a physical and a spiritual connection to the missionary saint.
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Gupta, Pamila. The Relic State: St. Francis Xavier and the Politics of Ritual in Portuguese India. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2014.
DOI: 10.7228/manchester/9780719090615.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This historical ethnography of Catholic and Portuguese culture and power in India (1510–1961) focuses on a series of religious feasts and “solemn expositions” centered on the biography and “incorrupt” corpse of Xavier in Goa, where the saint’s remains were brought in 1554 and where his shrine became the locus for these ritualized celebrations.
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Gutierrez, Fernando Garcia, S. J. “Iconografia de San Francisco Javier en Oriente.” Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002): 279–301.
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This article, in Spanish, surveys the iconography of Xavier in India, the Philippines, China, and Japan. The author discusses select paintings, sculptures, and engravings from the 16th century to the present, with special attention to an anonymous painting, supposedly a likeness of Xavier, sent from Goa to Father General Aquaviva in 1583.
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Osswald, Maria Cristina. “The Iconography and Cult of Francis Xavier, 1552–1640.” Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 71.142 (July–December 2002): 259–277.
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As the cult of Xavier grew through the promotion of writings and relics related to the reputed saint, so too did the push for his canonization. His body (in Goa after 1554) was venerated, and his lower right arm attracted similar devotion—in the Church of the Gesù in Rome (after 1614). Paintings, engravings, and statues proliferated, and a lily, crucifix, halo, and angels were associated with his image. In life and in death, the iconography of Xavier and Ignatius were linked.
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Pinch, William R. “The Corpse and Cult of Francis Xavier, 1552–1623.” In Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances. Edited by Mathew N. Schmalz and Peter Gottschalk, 113–132. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.
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Both the hagiographic writings and the cultic veneration of Xavier were very much related to his supposed healing powers, including over death. In Hindu tradition he was seen as a holy man (swami). While humanist scholarship remained skeptical regarding many of his purported miracles, his incorrupt body was a testament to his sanctity. In all, Xavier reflects “the interpenetration of European and Indian religious imaginations.” (Note: Xavier was canonized in 1622, not 1623.)
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Rayanna, P. St. Francis Xavier and His Shrine. 2d ed. Goa, India: Rekha, 1989.
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Part 1 of this study is a basic survey of the life of Francis Xavier. Part 2 is an extensive account, among the best available, of the history and status of Xavier’s “Incorrupt Body and Bom Jesus Shrine.” Part 3 discusses his “Canonization and Other Honours,” including his role as “Patron of All Missions.” An appendix describes the origin and nature of the Novena of Grace.
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Zupanov, Ines G. Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India, 16th–17th Centuries. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
DOI: 10.3998/mpub.93538Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In chapter 1, “The Sacred Body: Francis Xavier, the Apostle, the Pilgrim, the Relic,” Zupanov discusses how Xavier, in life and in death, fulfilled various functions from the (often differing) perspectives of East and West. Thus the author employs the theme of tropicality in both a geographical and a metaphorical sense. Xavier was viewed variously as a Christian saint and an Indian deity, and his shrine incorporated aspects of both the social and the sacred body, and indigenous as well as Portuguese and Catholic Asia.