Canaanites (Biblical Studies)

Introduction

The Canaanites are best known from the biblical accounts that portray them as a hostile, pre-Israelite indigenous population residing in the “promised land” who were conquered by the tribes of Israel under the leadership of Joshua following their Exodus from Egypt. Earlier references to the “Canaanites” and “Canaan” first appear in 2nd millennium BCE Near Eastern and Egyptian texts, a time span defined archaeologically as the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze, and Iron I Ages (c. 2000–1000 BCE). These written sources provide place names and details relating to geographical borders of a region referred to as Canaan, which can best be described as a political-territorial term that encompasses much of the Levant, or the modern countries of Syria (mainly southwestern Syria), Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip). All contemporary 2nd millennium BCE references to Canaanites and their land originate outside of the boundaries of Canaan, as defined by these texts. Thus there is no written evidence regarding how the Middle and Late Bronze Age populaces of the Levant referred to themselves or to their region, raising questions with respect to the applicability of the general term “Canaanite” to 2nd millennium BCE Levantine peoples that comprised numerous different groups. Though who is a Canaanite remains ambiguous, most recent scholarship understands Canaanites not as an ethnic designation but employs it to refer to the 2nd millennium BCE inhabitants of diverse identities residing in a region that contemporary Akkadian, Egyptian, and Ugaritic texts and later Phoenician/Punic and Hebrew accounts refer to as Canaan. These populations were organized into territorially based, politically independent city-states each with its own associated hinterland; they shared a West Semitic language, often termed “Canaanite” in modern scholarship, and a similar material culture. A large body of literature regards the Israelites, contra the biblical account, as emerging out of Canaan. Later ancient writers and many scholars today consider the northern coastal Canaanites to be the precursors or ancestors of the 1st millennium Phoenicians.

General Overviews

General treatments, noteworthy encyclopedia entries and collected essays dealing with various aspects of the Canaanites are included in this category. With the exception of Lemche 1991 and Tubb 2006, most of the general overviews were published a half-century ago and today are somewhat dated. However, due to the paucity of monographs devoted to this topic, two older treatments, Gray 1964 and Kenyon 1966, are included here. Na’aman 2005 comprises a selection of this noted historian’s most important scholarly contributions to the topic. The most comprehensive, yet concise, encyclopedia entry is Hackett 1997, which is a recommended starting point for a summary of research on the Canaanites. Schoville 1994 is an accessible summary of the Canaanites with a focus on their significance in biblical studies. Killebrew 2005 is a detailed summary of Late Bronze Age material culture in Canaan at the dawn of the emergence of Israel.

Gray, John. The Canaanites. Ancient Peoples and Places. London: Thames and Hudson, 1964.
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Survey of textual and archaeological evidence for 2nd millennium inhabitants of the Levant aimed at a general audience. A useful general introduction that includes chapters on daily life, society, religion, and art but is now largely out of date.
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Hackett, Jo Ann. “Canaanites.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Vol. 1. Edited by Eric M. Meyers, 409–414. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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Excellent summary and concise overview of the primary sources, both textual and archaeological, relating to the Canaanites.
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Kenyon, Kathleen. Amorites and Canaanites. The Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.
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Based on a series of influential lectures delivered in 1963, Kenyon explores the identity of the biblical Amorites and Canaanites. She concludes that they are related to the Amurru of Syria. Although later archaeological discoveries challenge some of Kenyon’s interpretations and conclusions, this book represents the state of research in the mid-20th century.
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Killebrew, Ann E. Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Canaanites, Egyptians, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 BCE. Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies 9. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
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A reader-friendly and detailed account, suitable for the specialist and informed general audience, of the archaeology of the southern Levant during the 13th and 12th centuries BCE. Chapter 3 is devoted to a study of the Canaanites, a summary of the relevant primary sources, and an analysis of their material culture.
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Lemche, Niels Peter. The Canaanites and Their Land: The Tradition of the Canaanites. JSOTSup 110. Sheffield, UK: JSOT, 1991.
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A leading biblical scholar who effectively challenges the notion of an ethnic group or “people” that can be defined as Canaanites. Lemche’s volume, reprinted in 1999, is an excellent compilation and analysis of the relevant primary written sources and critique of the biblical texts. Suitable for advanced students and as a reference work.
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Na’aman, Nadav. Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E. Collected Essays. Vol. 2. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005.
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A collection of twenty-three previously published essays on 2nd millennium BCE Canaan by the noted historian Na’aman. They include specialized studies, geared toward a scholarly audience, of the Egyptians in Canaan, the Amarna Letters, the Canaanite city-states, and the neighbors of Canaan such as the Hurrians and the city of Alalakh.
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Schoville, Kenneth N. “Canaanites and Amorites.” In Peoples of the Old Testament World. Edited by Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, 157–182. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1994.
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A fine review of the evidence regarding Canaanites and Amorites, with a focus on the biblical evidence and significance for a general audience. A paperback edition appeared in 1998.
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Tubb, Jonathan N. Canaanites. Peoples of the Past 2. Rev. ed. London: British Museum, 2006.
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An updated version of the author’s 1998 publication of the same name. This popular book promotes the view of long-term cultural continuity in the southern Levant and broadens the definition of Canaanites to include indigenous populations of southern Syria and ancient Palestine spanning the Neolithic period through the Iron Age, a view not accepted by most scholars.
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Introductory Works

A number of excellent general introductory surveys and textbooks that summarize and contextualize the history and archaeology of the Levant have been published in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Most of these have tended to focus on the southern Levant due to this region’s long association with the Hebrew Bible’s account. Noll 2013 is a recently updated and revised textbook that integrates historical, biblical, and archaeological sources relevant to the study of Canaan and Israel, including 2nd millennium Canaan. Several chronologically arranged standard treatments of the archaeology of the southern Levant (Cisjordan [Israel and the Palestinian territories] and Transjordan [Jordan]) in Ben-Tor 1992, Mazar 1992, and Adams 2008 include chapters devoted to the Middle and Late Bronze periods. Levy 1998 incorporates a sociological and anthropological approach to the archaeological record, which is lacking in the other textbooks. Golden 2009 presents the material topically. Fewer introductory survey publications exist for Syria. Akkermans and Schwartz 2003 is the most thorough monograph devoted to the archaeology of Syria. Steiner and Killebrew 2014 is the most recent, and the only detailed and up-to-date survey of the archaeology of the northern and southern Levant. It includes separate chapters on the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze and Iron I periods of Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, Cisjordan, and Cyprus.

Adams, Russell, ed. Jordan: An Archaeological Reader. London: Equinox, 2008.
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One of the few general surveys of the archaeology of Transjordan, it includes a collection of chapters by leading archaeologists spanning the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.
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Akkermans, Peter M. M. G., and Glenn M. Schwartz. The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC). Cambridge World Archaeology Series. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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An excellent overview of the archaeology of Syria, spanning sixteen centuries of history. Chapters 9 and 10 address the historical and material aspects.
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Ben-Tor, Amnon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. Translated by R. Greenberg. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
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This edited volume, with a focus on Cisjordan, features chapters by well-known archaeologists, beginning with the Neolithic through the end of the Iron Age. Now somewhat dated.
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Golden, Jonathan M. Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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A single-authored monograph, it is one of the more recent introductions to the archaeology of the southern Levant, mainly Cisjordan. It is arranged thematically, organized under topics such as social organization, economics and politics, with the information arranged chronologically within each theme.
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Levy, Thomas E., ed. The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. New Approaches to Anthropological Archaeology. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press, 1998.
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This edited volume, including chapters by an impressive array of scholars and ranging chronologically from prehistoric periods to the modern era, employs an anthropologically based approach, with an emphasis on the archaeology of society.
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Mazar, Amihai. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 B.C.E. Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
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A single-authored textbook, with several reprints, that presents a detailed culture-historically based approach to the archaeology of the southern Levant focused on Cisjordan. The scope of this well-organized treatment of the archaeology of the region encompasses the Neolithic through Iron Ages. Now somewhat dated.
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Noll, Kurt L. Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion. 2d ed. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
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A textbook that explores the history of the southern Levant through an analysis of social, political, economic, religious, and ecological change spanning the Palaeolithic through Roman periods. Designed with the beginner in mind, this publication also addresses the differences between historical and theological scholarship as well as genres of history writing.
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Steiner, Margreet L., and Ann E. Killebrew, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000–332 BCE. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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This edited volume, with contributions by leading international scholars, is unique in its coverage of the entire region of the Levant. Each chapter provides a comprehensive overview, analysis, and detailed bibliography, situating the archaeology of a specific period and sub-region of the Levant within its larger cultural, historical, and socioeconomic contexts.
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Primary Sources

In addition to the numerous general publications on the Canaanites, a significant body of specialized studies and analyses has been published. These more specialized works, divided into Textual Evidence and Archaeological Evidence categories below, are geared toward a scholarly audience.

Textual Evidence

Several of the general works cited under Introductory Works or General Overviews also discuss in detail the textual evidence (see especially Lemche 1991, cited under General Overviews). Publications appearing below specifically address the relevant textual evidence, including treatments of contemporary 2nd millennium ancient Near Eastern and New Kingdom documents and later accounts, most notably biblical references (see e.g., Astour 1965 and Mazar 1992). Following in the footsteps of Lemche 1991 (see General Overviews), Grabbe 1994 offers an analysis of the appearance of Canaan and Canaanites in the later biblical record and discourages the use of the term “Canaanite.” The relationship between the inhabitants of the region of Ugarit and the Canaanites has been of scholarly interest especially in light of the Ugaritic texts. They remain a key resource regarding Canaanite religion and cult (see Cult and Religion) in spite of the fact that contemporary primary sources indicate that Late Bronze Age Ugarit did not consider itself Canaanite (see e.g., Hess 1998 and Rainey 1996).

Astour, Michael C. “The Origin of the Terms ‘Canaan,’ ‘Phoenician,’ and ‘Purple.’” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24 (1965): 346–350.
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Though published a half century ago, Astour’s article remains a useful discussion regarding the origins of these terms.
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Grabbe, Lester L. “‘Canaan’: Some Methodological Observations in Relation to Biblical Study.” In Ugarit and the Bible: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ugarit and the Bible, Manchester 1992. Edited by George J. Brooke, Adrian H. W. Curtis, and John F. Healey, 113–122. Ugaritisch-biblische Literatur 11. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 1994.
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Grabbe’s conclusions emphasize the problematic nature of the biblical portrayal of Canaan and Canaanites in the Bible. He proposes to replace the word “Canaanite” with the more neutral designation “West Semitic” and considers early Israel as a subset of “Canaanites” (see Canaan and the Emergence of Israel for additional bibliography).
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Hess, Richard S. “Occurrences of ‘Canaan’ in Late Bronze Age Archives of the West Semitic World.” In Past Links: Studies in the Languages and Cultures of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Shlomo Isre’el, Itamar Singer, and Ran Zadok, 365–372. Israel Oriental Studies 18. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1998.
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A concise overview of the West Semitic textual evidence, with a focus on the Mari archival evidence. Dedicated to Anson Rainey, this survey supports Rainey’s view that Canaanites are a definable group of people.
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Mazar, Benjamin. “Canaan and the Canaanites.” In Benjamin Mazar. Biblical Israel: State and People. Edited by Shmuel Ahituv, 16–21. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1992.
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Originally appearing in 1946 (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 102) and republished in a 1992 volume of collected articles edited by Shmuel Ahituv, this contribution by the noted biblical scholar Benjamin Mazar remains a useful resource regarding the textual evidence (especially biblical) that mentions Canaan and the Canaanites.
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Rainey, Anson F. “Who Is a Canaanite? A Review of the Textual Evidence.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 304 (1996): 1–15.
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A detailed summary of the primary sources in response to Lemche 1991 (see General Overviews), which questions the existence of Canaan and the Canaanites. Rainey also discusses in some detail the evidence that Ugarit was not Canaanite.
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Archaeological Evidence

Although most scholars agree that the designation Canaanite does not indicate a definable ethnic entity, material culture dating to the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze and early Iron I periods (c. 2000–1000 BCE) excavated in regions associated with Canaan is often termed “Canaanite” in publications. Excellent summaries of the archaeological evidence appear under Introductory Works and General Overviews in the relevant chapters of Ben-Tor 1992 (see under Introductory Works), Mazar 1992 (see Cult and Religion: Archaeological Evidence), Killebrew 2007, and especially Steiner and Killebrew 2014 (see under Introductory Works). In this subcategory, more specialized regional or topical publications are noted. Cohen 2002, Burke 2008, Maeir 2010, and Ziffer 1990 are especially useful publications regarding the material culture of the first half of the 2nd millennium. Daviau 1993, on 2nd millennium BCE domestic architecture and artifacts, spans the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Ceramic studies, such as the relevant chapters in the largely out-of-date but still utilized handbook of pottery typology in Amiran 1969, or specialized ceramic publications such as Killebrew 2007, form a major component of material culture studies relevant to the Canaanites. A select number of publications, such as Gonen 1992, deal with other specific aspects of Canaanite material culture including burials. Regarding archaeological evidence for Canaanite cult and religion, see Cult and Religion. For site-specific Canaanite material culture studies, readers should consult the plethora of relevant final excavation reports.

Amiran, Ruth. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land, from Its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End of the Iron Age. Jerusalem: Massada, 1969.
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Originally published in Hebrew in 1963 and still used as an important reference book for ceramic typology spanning the Neolithic through Iron Ages, it is now dated. The chapters on the Middle and Late Bronze Ages still serve as a good introduction to the period but should be used with caution.
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Burke, Aaron A. “Walled Up to Heaven”: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2008.
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This volume is the most detailed and current treatment of fortification systems and Middle Bronze Age warfare available. It contextualizes the massive earthen-work fortifications, which characterize Middle Bronze Age urban city-states of the early 2nd millennium BCE Levant, within their social, political, and cultural milieu.
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Cohen, Susan L. Canaanites, Chronologies, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze IIA Canaan to Middle Kingdom Egypt. Studies in the Archaeology and History of the Levant 3. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002.
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A book for advanced students and specialists that examines urbanization during the Middle Bronze IIA period (c. 1950–1740 BCE) in Canaan utilizing the archaeological and textual evidence and anthropological theory. A central theme of this volume is the relationship between Canaan and Egypt, particularly chronological connections between the two regions and cultures.
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Daviau, P. M. Michèle. Houses and their Furnishings in Bronze Age Palestine: Domestic Activity Areas and Artifact Distribution in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. JSOT/ASOR Monographs 8. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993.
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One of the rare synthetic treatments of household archaeology in the Levant that spans the 2nd millennium. In this ambitious study, Daviau attempts to identify and analyze domestic activities such as food preparation and consumption, pottery production, textile manufacture and storage, though much of the evidence is inconclusive.
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Gonen, Rivka. Burial Patterns and Cultural Diversity in Late Bronze Age Canaan. Dissertation Series 7/American Schools of Oriental Research. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1992.
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This book remains a useful summary of the various burial customs of the Late Bronze Age. The diversity of burial types most likely reflects the diversity of population groups that inhabited Canaan during this period.
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Killebrew, Ann E. “The Canaanite Storage Jar Revisited.” In “Up to the Gates of Ekron”: Essays on the Archaeology and History of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour Gitin. Edited by Sidnie White Crawford, Amnon Ben-Tor, J. P. Dessel, William G. Dever, Amihai Mazar, and Joseph Aviram, 166–188. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2007.
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A summary and analysis of a specific ceramic transport storage jar produced mainly in Canaan and dubbed the “Canaanite Jar.” This transport container is ubiquitous in the eastern Mediterranean region, reflecting the international trade relations between the various regions, especially during the Late Bronze Age. See also Rutter 2014, cited under Society, Economy, and Trade.
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Maeir, Aren M. “In the Midst of the Jordan”: The Jordan Valley during the Middle Bronze Age (circa 2000–1500 BCE); Archaeological and Historical Correlates. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2010.
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A regional study for advanced students and specialists of settlement patterns and processes in the Jordan Valley within their broader material culture and historical context.
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Ziffer, Irit. At that Time the Canaanites Were in the Land: Daily Life in Canaan in the Middle Bronze Age 2, 2000–1550 BCE. Tel Aviv: Eretz Israel Museum, 1990.
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A museum catalogue published as part of an exhibition in the Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv, highlighting the Middle Bronze Age. It is a richly illustrated publication that provides an excellent and accessible overview of Middle Bronze Age material culture for both the specialist and non-specialist.
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Language and Writing

The language spoken by inhabitants of the second millennium Levant is usually referred to as Canaanite. It is generally defined as a group of Northwest Semitic languages encompassing Hebrew, Phoenician, Ammonite, Edomite, and Moabite (see Woodard 2008 for a description of the various ancient languages of the Levant). Canaanite used several different writing systems including Akkadian syllabic cuneiform, Canaanite cuneiform and, most significantly, the first linear alphabet usually termed Proto-Sinaitic (inscriptions from Sinai) or Proto-Canaanite (inscriptions from Canaan). As the earliest alphabetic script and the precursor to the Phoenician and Greek alphabets, it has been of special interest to scholars, forming the focus of the majority of publications on the language of 2nd millennium Canaan. One of the first synthetic treatments of the development of the alphabet is by the noted epigrapher Naveh 1997 (first published in 1982, with a revised edition appearing in 1987), followed by Sass 1988. More specialized studies include Hamilton 2006, a tome that traces the origins of this alphabet in Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Current debates concern: (1) the date and origin of the earliest linear alphabetic scripts and (2) the socioeconomic status and identity of those who wrote them. Sass 2004–2005 proposes a later 2nd millennium date for the scripts’ beginnings contra Hamilton 2006, Lemaire 2008, and others who follow the traditional view of an earlier 2nd millennium BCE date. In terms of social considerations, Goldwasser 2012 argues that the alphabet was invented by illiterate Levantine peoples on the fringes of society for “spiritual” purposes, contra Rollston 2010 and others who maintain the alphabet was developed by highly trained Northwest Semitic administrative elites.

Goldwasser, Orly. “The Miners Who Invented the Alphabet—A Response to Christopher Rollston.” Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 4.3 (2012): 9–22.
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Goldwasser’s most recent article presents her theory, originally published in 2006 (Ägypten und Levante 16: 121–160), that the inventors of the alphabet were illiterate Semites. It also includes a rebuttal to critics of her controversial proposal regarding the inventors of Proto-Sinaitic script and alphabet.
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Hamilton, Gordon J. The Origins of the West Semitic Alphabet in Egyptian Scripts. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 40. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2006.
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A comprehensive corpus and typology of known Proto-Canaanite letters and their possible hieroglyphic and hieratic precursors. This specialized study is written for scholars of West Semitic languages.
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Lemaire, André. “The Spread of Alphabetic Scripts (c. 1700–500 BCE).” Diogenes 218 (2008): 44–57.
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A concise and accessible review of the topic and current debates.
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Naveh, Joseph. Early History of the Alphabet: An Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Paleography. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1997.
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A reprint of the 1987 revised 2nd edition, one of the first synthetic studies of the history and development of the alphabet that is suitable for both the general reader and the specialist.
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Rollston, Christopher. “The Probable Inventors of the First Alphabet: Semites Functioning as rather High Status Personnel in a Component of the Egyptian Apparatus.” Asor. 2010.
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An insightful and accessible review of the relevant primary sources regarding the appearance of Proto-Sinaitic and Proto-Canaanite scripts. Rollston challenges Goldwasser’s interpretation that illiterate Semites invented the alphabet, contending instead that it was an “elite venture” by northwest Semitic speakers.
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Sass, Benjamin. The Genesis of the Alphabet and its Development in the Second Millennium BC. Ägypten und Altes Testament 13. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1988.
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A comprehensive corpus and analysis of Proto-Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite, and early Phoenician inscriptions, written with the specialist in mind.
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Sass, Benjamin. “The Genesis of the Alphabet and Its Development in the Second Millennium BC: Twenty Years Later.” De Kêmi à Birît Nâri. Revue internationale de l’Orient ancien 2 (2004–2005): 147–166.
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A revision of traditional paleographic research conventions and approaches, Sass proposes to re-date the development of Proto-Canaanite script from the early 2nd millennium BCE (Middle Kingdom/Middle Bronze Age) to the Late Bronze Age (c. 1300 BCE). This reinterpretation remains a minority view.
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Woodard, Roger D., ed. The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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An edited volume of essays compiled with both the student and scholar in mind, it examines the ancient languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia within their linguistic and historical context. Of special interest is the chapter by Dennis Pardee on Canaanite dialects.
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Cult and Religion

Canaanite cultic practices and religion have attracted scholarly interest for well over a century. Much of the interest is a result of descriptions in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and its relationship with the worship of the Israelite god referred to as either Yahweh or El. Most studies fall into two main categories: publications that approach Canaanite religion via the textual evidence, especially in light of the literature uncovered at Ugarit and the biblical account, or studies of Canaanite cult material culture, as reflected in the archaeological record (see Cult and Religion: Archaeological Evidence). For a general introduction to the topic of Canaanite cult and religion, including summaries of Canaanite cult and religion, see Introduction and General Overviews and the separate Oxford Bibliographies article on Ugarit. Noteworthy summaries of Canaanite religion include Cooper 2005 and Noll 2007.

Cooper, Alan M. “Canaanite Religion: An Overview.” In Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 3. 2d ed. Edited by Lindsay Jones, 1380–1390. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit: Macmillan Reference, 2005.
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A concise summary of Canaanite religion with an annotated bibliography, it provides the reader with an excellent introduction to the topic.
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Noll, Kurt L. “Canaanite Religion.” Religion Compass 1.1 (2007): 61–92.
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This well-written and accessible review of Canaanite religion, with a focus on the literary sources, is especially suitable for a general audience. It includes a comprehensive bibliography of references cited and an additional bibliography of recommended reference works.
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Textual Evidence

An especially rich body of literature from Ugarit, considered together with the biblical record, is the primary textual source for our understanding of ancient Canaanite cultic practices and the Canaanite pantheon (see Coogan 2005 for a detailed overview and bibliography). One of the more influential studies of the mid-20th century is Albright 1968, which examined the impact of Canaanite mythology on the religion of early Israel, a seminal work for its time on this topic. Although Ugarit is often regarded as being outside the land of Canaan proper, the texts recovered from this maritime center remain the most important source for our understanding of 2nd millennium BCE religion in the Levant (for a detailed discussion of the relevant literature, see Oxford Bibliographies article Ugarit. Key synthetic studies include Day 2000, Smith 2001, Pardee 2002, Coogan and Smith 2012, and Olmo Lete 2014. In the late 20th and 21st centuries, there has been an increased interest in Canaanite goddesses mentioned in the Ugaritic texts. These include studies devoted to their later portrayal in the Hebrew Bible and 1st millennium inscriptions, which suggest that Yahweh originally had a female consort, Asherah (see e.g., Wiggens 2007 for an analysis of the various views regarding Asherah and a critique of this association).

Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths. London: Athlone, 1968.
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Authored by the “father of American biblical archaeology,” this classic publication on Canaanite religion and the Bible was especially influential on a generation of 20th-century American biblical scholars. Albright’s proposal regarding the essential otherness of Yahweh from the Canaanite gods is now dated and has been challenged, but it remains an important contribution to the history of research on this topic.
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Coogan, Michael D. “Canaanite Religion: The Literature.” In Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 3. 2d ed. Edited by Lindsay Jones, 1390–1401. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit: Macmillan Reference, 2005.
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An excellent overview, including an annotated bibliography, of the contemporary 2nd millennium BCE literature from Ugarit most relevant for our understanding of Canaanite religious beliefs and practices.
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Coogan, Michael D., and Mark S. Smith. Stories from Ancient Canaan. 2d ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2012.
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A co-authored and fully revised edition of Coogan’s original 1978 book, this publication by two of the leading experts on the Ugaritic texts presents an accessible translation of the major myths and legends associated with the 2nd millennium BCE Levant. This volume is recommended for both a professional and non-professional audience and is especially suitable as a college textbook.
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Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. JSOTSup 265. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
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A well-organized examination of the various Canaanite deities mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in light of 2nd millennium BCE textual evidence, especially with regard to the Ugaritic literature.
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Olmo Lete, Gregorio del. Canaanite Religion According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit. AOAT 408. Translated by Wilfred G. E. Watson. Rev. ed. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014.
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A revised edition of the 1999 translation of Olmo Lete’s 1992 text La religión Cananea: Según la liturgia de Ugarit; estudio textual, this study approaches the topic of Canaanite religion with a focus on the role of kings in Canaanite cult as revealed in the texts from Ugarit.
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Pardee, Dennis. Ritual and Cult at Ugarit. Edited by Theodore J. Lewis. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002.
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The only American member of a French team working on the cuneiform texts from Ugarit, Pardee offers an especially noteworthy addition to our understanding of 2nd millennium BCE Levantine cultic practices. This 2002 publication is an abridged version in English of Pardee’s 2000 publication entitled: Ras Shamra-Ougarit 12: Les textes rituels. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations.
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Smith, Mark S. The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Written with the specialist in mind, Smith examines the development of Israelite religion within the context of the Ugaritic pantheon and cultural milieu. In his view, monotheism should be understood as an inner-community discourse in reaction to Judah’s declining political status and exile. See also Smith’s influential and more accessible The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel (2nd rev. ed., Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002).
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Wiggens, Steve A. A Reassessment of Asherah with Further Considerations of the Goddess. 2d ed. Gorgias Ugaritic Studies 2. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2007.
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An updated edition of Wiggens’s original 1993 publication in light of the Ugaritic, biblical, and epigraphic evidence for Asherah. This volume, for a specialist audience, represents the most thorough examination of the topic.
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Archaeological Evidence

There is a wide range of publications devoted to archaeological discoveries associated with Middle Bronze–early Iron Age (c. 2000–1000 BCE) cultic practices, though many of these are site-specific in their treatment. In the recommended bibliography below, the emphasis is placed on non-site specific studies and those offering a broader synthetic analysis of how religious practices are reflected in the material culture. Burke 2011 presents a general overview of the topic from largely an archaeological perspective. Chapters 3 and 4 in Nakhai 2001 summarize the most important archaeological discoveries relevant to Canaanite cult during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Zwickel 1994, devoted to Middle Bronze–Iron Age temple architecture, remains the most detailed description of cult structures associated with the Canaanites. Mazar 1992 is a concise and useful summary of 2nd millennium BCE temples for both the scholar and non-specialist. Figurines, especially male and female images, have garnered particular interest. Negbi 1976 and Tadmor 1982, though several decades old, are still among the best typologies available for this class of artifacts often associated with Canaanite deities known from the textual evidence. Keel and Uehlinger 2010 represents the most thorough discussion and analysis of 2nd-millennium iconographic depictions and is considered a landmark publication. Specialized studies include Brody 1998, which examines the religion of Canaanite seafarers. Numerous publications, including Keel and Uehlinger 2010 and Zwickel 1994, address the question of the relationship between Canaanite and Israelite religion.

Brody, Aaron J. “Each Man Cried Out to His God”: The Specialized Religion of Canaanite and Phoenician Seafarers. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 58. Atlanta: Scholars, 1998.
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Brody’s monograph examines the specialized beliefs and practices of ancient Eastern Mediterranean seafarers based on a study of the archaeological evidence in light of the textual sources. A summary for the non-specialist of the results of this book appeared in: “The Specialized Religions of Ancient Mediterranean Seafarers,” Religion Compass 2 (2008): 444–454.
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Burke, Aaron A. “The Archaeology of Ritual and Religion in Ancient Israel and the Levant, and the Origins of Judaism.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Edited by Timothy Insoll, 895–907. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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A broad overview of religion in the Levant, spanning the Middle Bronze–Iron Ages (c. 1900–586 BCE), tracing the development of Amorite, Canaanite, and Israelite religion. Burke examines both the archaeological evidence for centralized state cults as well as local and personal or “popular” expressions of religious practices.
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Keel, Othmar, and Christoph Uehlinger. Göttinnen, Götter und Gottessymbole. Neue Erkenntnisse zur Religionsgeschichte Kanaans und Israels aufgrund bislang unerschlossener ikonographischer Quellen. 6th ed. Fribourg, Switzerland: Academic Press Fribourg, 2010.
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This impressive collection of pictorial art arranged chronologically and covering the Middle Bronze–Iron Ages, represents the most complete compilation of artifacts relevant to the study of Canaanite and Israelite religion. An English translation of this book appeared in 1998 (Gods, Goddesses, And Images of God, Fortress Press). The sixth edition is digitized by Florian Lippke and can be accessed online.
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Mazar, Amihai. “Temples of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages and the Iron Age.” In The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods. Edited by Aharon Kempinski and Ronny Reich, 161–187. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1992.
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A useful survey of Middle Bronze, Late Bronze, and Iron Age temples, including an analysis of their architectural plans.
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Nakhai, Beth Alpert. Archaeology and the Religions of Canaan and Israel. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research, 2001.
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A useful compilation and discussion of the archaeological and textual evidence relating to cultic practices of the Middle Bronze through Iron Ages in the Levant. This book is especially suitable as a textbook for undergraduate students.
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Negbi, Ora. Canaanite Gods in Metal: An Archaeological Study of Ancient Syro-Palestinian Figurines. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology, 1976.
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A detailed description and analysis of 2nd-millennium metal human figurines, generally interpreted as representing deities. The publication, which includes a well-organized catalogue arranged typologically and chronologically, is especially valuable because it is based on excavated figurines from datable archaeological contexts. Although written four decades ago, this book remains a relevant reference work for professionals researching Canaanite cult.
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Tadmor, Miriam. “Female Cult Figurines in Late Canaan and Early Israel: Archaeological Evidence.” In Studies in the Period of David and Solomon and Other Essays. Edited by Tomoo Ishida, 139–173. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1982.
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Although published more than three decades ago, Tadmor’s investigation of female figurines and their possible association with various Canaanite goddesses remains the accepted typology for any publication devoted to Late Bronze and Early Iron Age female figurines.
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Zwickel, Wolfgang. Der Tempelkult in Kanaan und Israel. Ein Beitrag zur Kultgeschichte Palästinas von der Mittelbronzezeit bis zum Untergang Judas. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 10. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1994.
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A detailed and useful academic handbook that catalogues and analyzes Middle Bronze through Iron Age temples in the southern Levant with the biblical scholar in mind.
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Society, Economy, and Trade

More contemporary approaches relevant to the study of the Canaanites are attempts to reconstruct sociopolitical and socioeconomic structures of the 2nd millennium BCE Levant. One of the most characteristic features of this period in the Levant, and eastern Mediterranean region in general, is the development of international trade connections, which reaches its peak during the Late Bronze Age, a period often dubbed the “Age of Internationalism.” Canaan, located at the crossroads connecting the imperial powers in Egypt, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia, played a pivotal role in regional societal and economic interconnections. Due to Canaan’s extensive Mediterranean coastline, Canaanites were one of the dominant groups involved in 2nd millennium maritime trade. Several of the recent publications mentioned among the Introductory Works also incorporate discussions relevant to socioeconomic and exchange systems in their overviews of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (see, e.g., Levy 1998 [under Introductory Works]; Golden 2009 and Steiner and Killebrew 2014 [both under Introductory Works]). This section is subdivided into two categories: Canaanite society, economy and trade in its broader eastern Mediterranean context, including evidence of Levantine objects of trade in the Aegean, and more specialized studies that focus on the region of the Levant.

Evidence from the Eastern Mediterranean

Among the most influential scholarly publications devoted to eastern Mediterranean economic networks is the seminal work by Sherratt and Sherratt 1991, which pioneered the study of Late Bronze Age commodity exchange systems, including their impact on the Levant. Monroe 2009, devoted to the connection between social relations and the means of exchange during the Late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean, is the most comprehensive, analytical, and synthetic study of Late Bronze Age society and economy. Among the major external factors impacting the Canaanite economy were New Kingdom Egypt’s imperialistic ambitions in the region (see Na’aman 1981 and see Canaan and Egypt). Material culture, most notably pottery, has played an especially important role in reconstructing 2nd millennium trade relations. Several of Bell’s publications also examine later 2nd millennium BCE northern Levantine exchange networks highlighting the trade in ceramics and metals, especially bronze (see e.g., Bell 2006). Cline 2009 is an updated version of the author’s 1994 volume and presents a detailed catalogue of Late Bronze Age Aegean objects found in the Levant, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, including a discussion of trade contacts in the region. Specialized pottery-based studies of Late Bronze Age exchange systems include Rutter 2014, which provides an analysis of Levantine Canaanite Jars in the Aegean (see also Killebrew 2007, cited under Primary Sources: Archaeological Evidence). The late 14th century BCE Uluburun shipwreck, discovered off the southeastern coast of Turkey, with its nearly intact cargo including large quantities of oxhide copper ingots, provides an invaluable snapshot of Late Bronze Age trade relations between the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Levant (see e.g., Pulak 2008). A recent addition to this rich body of research devoted to 2nd millennium BCE eastern Mediterranean exchange systems, including the Levant, is Eder and Pruzsinszky 2015.

Bell, Carol. The Evolution of Long Distance Trading Relationships across the LBA/Iron Age Transition on the Northern Levantine Coast: Crisis, Continuity and Change. BAR International Series 1574. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006.
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Bell’s monograph reconstructs the regional economic structure and trading networks of the northern Levantine littoral at the end of the Late Bronze and early Iron Ages, considering them in their broader eastern Mediterranean context. She concludes that because of their decentralized economies, Levantine communities such as Tyre and Sarepta, along with Cyprus, were able to survive the crisis that struck at the end of the Late Bronze Age.
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Cline, Eric H. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late-Bronze Age Aegean. BAR International Series 591. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2009.
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This book, an updated version of Cline’s original 1994 publication, examines Late Bronze Age trade networks through an analysis of nearly 1,000 objects from the Levant, Anatolia, Cyprus, Egypt, Italy, and Mesopotamia uncovered in the west Aegean region. This monograph is a useful reference work for both scholars and students alike.
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Eder, Birgitta, and Regine Pruzsinszky, eds. Policies of Exchange: Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., Proceedings of the International Symposium at the University of Freiburg, Institute for Archaeological Studies, 30th May-2nd June 2012. OREA: Oriental and European Archaeology 2. Vienna: Verlag der Österriechischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2015.
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Building on previous interpretations of eastern Mediterranean culture contacts and exchanges, this collection of essays examines specific mechanisms and routes of exchange in light of the archaeological and textual evidence. Contributors to this volume attempt to reconstruct exchange systems and their interaction with political and economic forces in the region.
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Monroe, Christopher M. Scales of Fate: Trade, Tradition, and Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean ca. 1350–1175 BCE. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 357. Münster, Germany: Ugarit Verlag, 2009.
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A sophisticated analysis of the role of Late Bronze Age entrepreneurs in the eastern Mediterranean integrating the fields of historiography, sociology, and economic anthropology. Writing for scholars and advanced students, Monroe considers the socioeconomic relationships of groups involved in long-distance trade and highlights the pivotal role of entrepreneurs in Late Bronze Age economic activity and trade networks.
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Na’aman, Nadav. “Economic Aspects of the Egyptian Occupation of Canaan.” Israel Exploration Journal 31 (1981): 172–185.
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This classic study explores Egyptian economic interests and the impact of New Kingdom domination of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age.
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Pulak, Cemal. “The Uluburun Shipwreck and Late Bronze Age Trade.” In Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Edited by Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans, 289–310. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2008.
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A recent overview of the over 15,000 finds excavated from this remarkable shipwreck, the article analyzes this discovery’s implications for our understanding of Late Bronze Age exchange and trade routes. Pulak concludes that this ship probably originated in the Levant and was on its way to the Aegean. This museum catalogue publication was written with both the public and the professional reader in mind.
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Rutter, Jeremy B. “The Canaanite Transport Amphora within the Late Bronze Age Aegean: A 2013 Perspective on a Frequently Changing Situation.” In KE-RA-ME-JA: Studies Presented to Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Edited by Dimitri Nakassis, Joann Gulizio, and Sarah A. James, 53–69. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic, 2014.
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Rutter tracks the distribution of Canaanite transport jars in Cretan and mainland Greece contexts. He concludes that the Canaanite Jar reaches its peak on the mainland during the 13th century and witnesses a dramatic decline after the collapse of the palace system, suggesting that its distribution was palace-controlled and involved Cypriot middlemen.
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Sherratt, Andrew, and Susan Sherratt. “From Luxuries to Commodities: The Nature of Mediterranean Bronze Age Trading Systems.” In Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean: Papers Presented at the Conference Held at Rewley House, Oxford, in December 1989. Edited by Noël H. Gale, 351–386. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90. Jonsered, Sweden: Åström, 1991.
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A key publication for a scholarly audience that investigates the nature of Late Bronze Age market systems and trade, an economy the Sherratts portray as both redistributive and market-based.
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Evidence from Canaan

A number of publications, written with the specialist in mind, consider the Canaanite economy and its role in eastern Mediterranean exchange systems from the Levantine perspective. Cornelius 1988 explores the literary evidence, consisting of cuneiform tablets recovered from Mari and Ugarit, for Canaan’s commercial relations. He convincingly demonstrates Canaan’s prominent role in the region’s economic systems. Of these second millennium texts, the Ugaritic archives provide the most comprehensive information regarding commodities, prices, and economic structures (see e.g., Heltzer 1999 for his most recent overview and McGeough 2007). Stager 2001 approaches this topic via the concept of maritime “port power” and its relationship with hinterland production during the first half of the second millennium. Two of his students, Cohen 2009 and Sugerman 2009, further develop this concept of “port power” in the Levant during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Specialized studies of Late Bronze Age exchange systems from the Levantine perspective include Artzy 2006, an article devoted to the role of the Carmel coast in eastern Mediterranean trade, and the significance of the appearance of Cretan transport stirrup jars in the southern Levant (Ben-Shlomo, et al. 2011).

Artzy, Michal. “The Carmel Coast During the Second Part of the Late Bronze Age: A Center for Eastern Mediterranean Transshipping.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 343 (2006): 45–64.
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An analysis of the archaeological evidence from the anchorage sites of Tell Abu Hawam, Tel Akko, and Tel Nami and their role in Late Bronze Age land and sea trade.
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Ben-Shlomo, David, Eleni Nodarou, and Jeremy B. Rutter. “Transport Stirrup Jars from the Southern Levant: New Light on Commodity Exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean.” American Journal of Archaeology 115 (2011): 329–353.
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Based on archaeometric and petrographic studies, the authors conclude that transport stirrup jars found in the Levant were produced on Crete. Taken together with the discovery of Canaanite Jars at Kommos on Crete (see Rutter 2014, cited under Evidence from the Eastern Mediterranean), these results confirm close links between Crete and Canaan, revealing the nature of bulk commodity exchange during the Late Bronze Age.
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Cohen, Susan L. “Cores, Peripheries, and Ports of Power: Theories of Canaanite Development in the Early Second Millennium B.C.E.” In Exploring the Longue Durée: Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager. Edited by J. David Schloen, 69–75. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2009.
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Cohen traces Canaanite economic participation in the region examining three spheres of interaction: the interregional level based on a core-periphery paradigm; the intra-regional economic systems and networks within Canaan; and the local, or village level.
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Cornelius, Izak. “The Commercial Relations of Canaan in the Second Millennium BC: A Discussion of the Cuneiform Texts from Mari and Ugarit.” In The Holy Land in History and Thought: Papers Submitted to the International Conference on the Relations Between the Holy Land and the World Outside It. Edited by Moshe Sharon, 14–32. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1988.
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An insightful and accessible study of the textual evidence for commercial contacts between Canaan and the major urban centers of Mari and Ugarit.
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Heltzer, Michael. “The Economy of Ugarit.” In Handbook of Ugaritic Studies. Edited by Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicholas Wyatt, 423–454. Handbuch der Orientalistik, Abteilung 1, Band 39. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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One of the leading scholars who has dealt with the economy of Ugarit in its broader context as revealed in the textual evidence. Summarizes several decades of research into the Late Bronze Age economy of this key port city and its surrounding regions.
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McGeough, Kevin M. Exchange Relationships at Ugarit. Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Supplement 26. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2007.
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McGeough applies a network-based model to the textual and archaeological evidence from Ugarit, arguing that a variety of agents were involved in economic activity at Ugarit. He concludes that the palace served as the most powerful, but not sole, “economic actor” in the region’s Late Bronze Age network of contingent exchange relationships.
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Stager, Lawrence E. “Port Power in the Early and Middle Bronze Age: The Organization of Maritime Trade and Hinterland Production.” In Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighboring Lands: In Memory of Douglas L. Esse. Edited by Samuel R. Wolff, 625–638. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 59. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2001.
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Examining the archaeological evidence and building on the work of B. Bronson’s “port power” model, Stager proposes that the development of long-distance international trade in the Levant was the result of the integration of diverse networks. These included coastal and interior regions, as well as secondary arteries such as natural drainage, wadis, and transport systems.
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Sugerman, Michael. “Trade and Power in Late Bronze Age Canaan.” In Exploring the Longue Durée: Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager. Edited by J. David Schloen, 439–448. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2009.
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Sugerman reviews and critiques various approaches to reconstructing the economic models of Levantine Late Bronze Age city-states and concludes that the “power port” model is most appropriate.
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Canaan and Egypt

During much of the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, Egypt’s imperialistic ambitions played a central role in Canaan’s affairs as documented in New Kingdom Egyptian texts (for a discussion of Canaanite and Egyptian connections during the early 2nd millennium see Cohen 2002, cited under Primary Sources: Archaeological Evidence; for a recent overview of 2nd millennium BCE Canaanite and Egyptian relations see Mumford in Steiner and Killebrew 2014, cited under Introductory Works). For the early New Kingdom, the 18-Dynasty Amarna Letters provide the most insightful view into 14th-century BCE Egyptian-Canaanite relations (see e.g., Na’aman 2000). With the advent of the 19th Dynasty, there is a marked increase in Egyptian-style material culture, suggesting a more interventionist Egyptian policy in Canaan during the 13th through mid-12th centuries. Among scholars, there is no clear consensus regarding the nature and extent of New Kingdom Egyptian involvement in the Levant. Egyptologists such as Redford 1990 and Higginbotham 2000 have proposed a more limited and indirect Egyptian involvement in the affairs of Canaan, with Higginbotham arguing that Egyptian-style material culture in the southern Levant represents “elite emulation” by local Canaanites. In contrast, based on an analysis of administrative and military structures in Canaan, Morris 2005 claims that direct Egyptian involvement in the southern Levant is evident already in the 18th Dynasty and continues through the early-20th Dynasty. Archaeologists working in the Levant, such as (Killebrew 2005, see General Overviews) and Martin 2011, interpret the archaeological record as indicating a relationship that developed and changed over time (see also Weinstein 1981). They conclude that direct Egyptian administrative and military intervention in Canaan increased at key sites such as Beth Shean, Tell es-Sa’idiyeh, Aphek, and Deir el-Balah during the 19th and 20th Dynasties. Hasel 1998 explores the relationship between Canaan and 19th-Dynasty Egypt from the vantage point of Egyptian military activities in the southern Levant. More specialized studies include detailed ceramic analyses of Egyptian-style pottery in the Levant in Martin 2011, as well as Ben-Tor 2011 who examines 2nd millennium BCE Egyptian-Canaanite relations via a study of scarabs found in the Levant.

Ben-Tor, Daphna. “Egyptian-Canaanite Relations in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages as Reflected by Scarabs.” In Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa, 3–7 May 2009. Edited by Shay Bar, Dan’el Kahn, and J. J Shirley, 23–43. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 52. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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A comprehensive review and analysis of the distribution of scarabs in Canaan and its implications for reconstructing the relationship between Canaanites and Egyptians during the 2nd millennium BCE.
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Hasel, Michael G. Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant ca. 1300–1185 B.C. Probleme der Ägyptologie 11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
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This monograph examines the destructions at Late Bronze Age Canaanite sites in light of Egyptian military activity in the Levant, combining textual and archaeological evidence.
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Higginbotham, Carolyn R. Egyptianization and Elite Emulation in Ramesside Palestine: Governance and Accommodation on the Imperial Periphery. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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Higginbotham considers two competing models, Egyptian military occupation of Canaan and elite emulation, for Egyptian interaction with Canaan during the 19th and early 20th Dynasties. She concludes that the increase in Egyptian-style material culture in the southern Levant represents a voluntary adoption of elite Egyptian culture by Canaanites.
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Martin, Mario A. S. Egyptian-Type Pottery in the Late Bronze Age Southern Levant. Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 29, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 69. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2011.
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The most comprehensive study of Egyptian-style pottery excavated in Late Bronze Age Canaan. Martin concludes that Egyptian-type pottery excavated in the southern Levant was produced locally and indicates the physical presence of Egyptians at key strongholds in Canaan.
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Morris, Ellen F. The Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom. Probleme der Ägyptologie 22. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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Morris reconstructs New Kingdom Egyptian foreign policy and its imperialistic priorities offering a comprehensive synthesis of the textual and archaeological sources of fortresses and administrative structures in Canaan and Nubia.
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Na’aman, Nadav. “The Egyptian – Canaanite Correspondence.” In Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. Edited by Raymond Cohen and Raymond Westbrook, 125–140. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
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An in-depth analysis of 14th-century BCE Canaanite-Egyptian relations on the basis of the Amarna Letters.
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Redford, Donald B. Egypt and Canaan in the New Kingdom. Edited by Shmuel Aḥituv. Beer-sheva, Israel: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press, 1990.
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A detailed monograph devoted to the topic of New Kingdom Egypt and Canaan during the later 2nd millennium by one of Egyptology’s leading scholars. Redford considers the political, economic, and cultural impact of Egyptian imperialism on Canaan and Nubia.
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Weinstein, James M. “The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: A Reassessment.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 241 (1981): 1–28.
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Weinstein traces the increasing Egyptian influence and military presence in Late Bronze Age Canaan. This study remains a useful summary and analysis of the textual and archaeological evidence.
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Canaan and the Emergence of Israel

As reflected in numerous citations in this entry on the Canaanites, their depiction as enemies of biblical Israel played an influential role in much of the 20th century’s scholarly and popular fascination with the topic. Early research tended to accept the biblical accounts as historically accurate regarding the emergence of Israel and its relationship with the inhabitants of Late Bronze Age Canaan (see e.g., Albright 1939 and Alt 1967). Among the first scholars to challenge this view and explore the Canaanite origins of Israel are Mendenhall 1973, from the biblical point of view, and Finkelstein 1994, from the archaeological perspective (see also Cult and Religion where this relationship has been thoroughly explored). Based on more nuanced analyses of the Hebrew Bible text and the results of archaeological excavations from the mid-20th century to the early 21st century, most now acknowledge the Canaanite origins of early Israel (for a history of research and discussion of the various schools of thought with respect to the emergence of Israel see, e.g., Dever 1987 and Dever 2003, Faust 2006, and Killebrew 2006).

Albright, William F. “The Israelite Conquest of Canaan in the Light of Archaeology.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 74 (1939): 11–23.
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Influential publication by the “father of biblical archaeology” and a main proponent of the historicity of the conquest of Canaan based on the account in the Book of Joshua. His work influenced a generation of American biblical scholars and archaeologists though few would accept this theory today.
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Alt, Albrecht. “The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine.” In Essays on Old Testament History and Religion. By Albrecht Alt, 172–221. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967.
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German biblical scholar and a main proponent of the historicity of the infiltration of Canaan by outside tribes based on the account in the Book of Judges. Most today would agree that the emergence of Israel was gradual and complex, a process that is reflected in Judges.
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Dever, William G. “The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Canaanite and Early Israelite Religion.” In Ancient Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross. Edited by Patrick D. Miller Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dean McBride, 209–247. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987.
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One of several important studies by Dever of the Canaanite roots of Israelite religion, with a focus on the archaeological evidence.
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Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003.
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A book for both a popular and scholarly audience by one of the most influential American archaeologists working in the Levant. Dever highlights Israel’s Canaanite origins, which likely also included escaped slaves from Egypt, and offers a convincing response to the so-called “Minimalist” school of thought (see e.g., Lemche 1991, cited under General Overviews) that discounts the historicity of the Hebrew Bible.
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Faust, Avraham. Israel’s Ethnogenesis: Settlement, Interaction, Expansion and Resistance. London: Equinox, 2006.
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One of the more recent scholarly treatments of the emergence of Israel, which utilizes anthropological approaches and proposes that the longer-term process of ethnogenesis best explains Israel’s evolution of self-identification and ethnicity.
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Finkelstein, Israel. “The Emergence of Israel: A Phase in the Cyclic History of Canaan in the Third and Second Millennia BCE.” In From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel. Edited by Israel Finkelstein and Nadav Na’aman, 150–178. Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1994.
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Key scholarly publication that explores the Canaanite roots of 12th and 11th century hill country culture often associated with the emergence of Israel.
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Killebrew, Ann E. “The Emergence of Ancient Israel: The Social Boundaries of a ‘Mixed Multitude’ in Canaan.” In “I Will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Times”: Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Vol. 2. Edited by Aren M. Maeir and Pierre de Miroschedji, 555–572. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006.
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In a critique of the various interpretations regarding the emergence of Israel, Killebrew proposes a “mixed multitude” theory that highlights the influence of Canaan and the role of ideology in the formation of early Israel.
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Mendenhall, George. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
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One of the early publications that proposes early Israel emerged from a cultural-religious egalitarian revolution within Canaanite society.