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The Principality of Transylvania

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Dec 20th, 2015
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The state called the Principality of Transylvania was formed in the eastern part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary following its partition into three parts in 1541. The Principality, which remained an Ottoman vassal state throughout its existence, was created on the order of Sultan Suleyman, who had occupied the central part of Hungary. The new state was born in 1542, when constitutional national assemblies were set up in Transylvania. At these meetings, the Transylvanian estates took the former political and administrative system of the Kingdom of Hungary as the basis of the institutions and legal system of the new state. The Principality of Transylvania existed until 1690 when a military force led by the Habsburgs occupied Transylvania during the Great Turkish Wars; the Diploma Leopoldinum, signed by Leopold I in 1690, put an end to the Principality and its land became a Habsburg territory. The Habsburg Hungarian kings retained their legal claim on Transylvania during the 16th and 17th centuries on the grounds that Transylvania was a member (membrum) of the Hungarian Holy Crown, and thus, it should have been controlled by the Hungarian kings. Several ethnic groups had lived in Transylvania since the Middle Ages: Hungarians, Hungarian-speaking Székelys, Saxons, and Romanians. The Reformation achieved widespread popularity in the area as early as the middle of the 16th century. The local Saxons preferred Lutheranism, the Hungarians mainly followed Calvinism, and the Székelys remained Roman Catholics or converted to Calvinism, while the Romanians preserved their Orthodox religion. Interestingly, Unitarianism also attracted large numbers, as in Poland or Italy. The Renaissance—slightly differently from the European chronology—flourished in Transylvania in the 16th century, and the late Renaissance style determined its visual arts, architecture and literature even in the second half of the 17th century.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. The first monographs on the history of Transylvania were written in the middle of the 19th century. However, their approach changed according to the current political situation. The Treaty of Trianon at the end of World War I gave Transylvania to Romania, which resulted in both countries in a deeper interest in the history of the area. The works written in the 19th century were dominated by positivism and were characterized by an emphasis on political history. Historians in the first half of the 20th century focused on social and ethnic history. Marxism was the dominant historical approach of the second half of the 20th century, and thus these works stressed economic and social history and mentioned only some basic data related to political history. The works cited in this bibliography should be used together with those listed in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary.
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  9. Single-Authored Works
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  11. The first monographs on the history of Transylvania were written in the 19th century. Kővári 1859–1866 is an old work, but it is based on plenty of sources and contains reliable data, so it is still used. Szilágyi 1866 mainly uses acts and legal historical sources, while Jancsó 1923 offers a typical political-historical summary. Makkai 1944 stresses the peaceful coexistence of the different ethnic groups. The works published since 1960 are mostly encyclopedic; see Reference Works and General Studies.
  12.  
  13. Jancsó, Benedek. Erdély története. Kolozsvár: Minerva, 1923.
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  15. The work describes the peaceful coexistence of the different ethnic groups living within the Hungarian state in Transylvania. It does not contain any new information, but it is a politically unbiased, short summary.
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  17. Kővári, László. Erdély történelme. 6 vols. Pest-Kolozsvár: Ráth Mór, Stein János, 1859–1866.
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  19. The first thorough summary of the history of Transylvania. As a positivist work, it is based on a large database. The writer stresses the importance of Transylvania as the eastern bulwark in the defense of medieval and early modern Europe against the Ottomans. The book offers a thorough and precise description of military and political events. It publishes the most important documents unabridged. Vols. 1–5 are available online.
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  21. Makkai, László. Erdély története. Budapest: Renaissance Könyvkiadóvállalat, 1944.
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  23. The writer’s aim was to narrate the history of Transylvania embedded in that of Hungary. It stresses the peaceful coexistence of the different ethnic groups within the Hungarian state. The author devotes lengthy chapters to church history and the history of the Transylvanian denominations, and even the parts dealing with political history lay greater emphasis on events related to the different churches and denominations.
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  25. Szilágyi, Sándor. Erdélyország története különös tekintettel mívelődésére. 2 vols. Pest: Heckenast, 1866.
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  27. The book covers the period from the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian basin (896) to the end of the Rákóczi’s war of independence (1711). It is based on a large source base, rich in data, and focuses on the history of the Transylvanian diets (parliaments). Although its title refers to intellectual history, the work concentrates on political history.
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  29. Reference Works and General Studies
  30.  
  31. For the history of the Principality of Transylvania, all the works listed in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary, can be used. Benda 1981 is replete with data, while Kosáry 2000–2008 provides information on basic sources and scholarly works. Lukinich 1918 follows the regional changes of the principality with the help of a large source base. The principal biographies in Oborni 2002 shed light on the political history of the state. Of the summaries of Transylvanian history produced in recent decades, the History of Transylvania written by Hungarian historians (Köpeczi 1986) was also published in a one-volume version (Köpeczi 1994), and then all the three volumes were translated into English (Köpeczi 2001–2002). The History of Transylvania published in Pop, et al. 2009 informs the reader about the views of Romanian historians.
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  33. Benda, Kálmán, ed. Magyarország történeti kronológiája. 2 vols. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1981.
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  35. Vol. 1 covers history to 1526; Vol. 2, 1526–1848. The historical events of the Principality of Transylvania can also be traced in this book. The “Database” and the “Inventory of Events” menus of the website of the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences contain an up-to-date and constantly enlarged Hungarian historical chronology where medieval and early modern Transylvanian events can also be found.
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  37. Köpeczi, Béla, ed. Erdély története. 3 vols. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986.
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  39. A summary by Hungarian historians of the history of Transylvania from Roman times to the present day. It is used as a textbook for university students, and it is also read by researchers. The contributions on political history contain rather little information, but it also offers economic, social and intellectual history in fair proportion. It also includes a detailed, useful bibliography.
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  41. Köpeczi, Béla, ed. History of Transylvania. Edited by Gábor Barta, István Bóna, László Makkai, and Zoltán Szász. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1994.
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  43. The short, one-volume English version of Köpeczi 1986.
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  45. Köpeczi, Béla, ed. History of Transylvania. 3 vols. Edited by László Makkai, András Mócsy, and Zoltán Szász. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2001–2002.
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  47. The unabridged translation of the three-volume history of Transylvania published in Hungarian as Köpeczi 1986.
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  49. Kosáry, Domokos. Bevezetés Magyarország történetének forrásaiba és irodalmába. 3 vols. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó, 2000–2008.
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  51. The bibliography contains some works dealing with the history of Transylvania and that of the Principality of Transylvania. Indispensable for researchers.
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  53. Lukinich, Imre. Erdély területi változásai a török hódítás korában 1540–1711. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1918.
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  55. A source-based description of the territorial changes affecting the Principality. Researchers use this thorough work as a manual. The estate system of the era was reconstructed on the basis of the data available at the time.
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  57. Oborni, Teréz. Erdély fejedelmei. Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2002.
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  59. After the battle of Mohács, Transylvania first became the “eastern Kingdom” of Hungary and later a principality under Ottoman rule. It was controlled by a prince elected from among the great landowners of Transylvania. This book contains their modern biographies.
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  61. Pop, Ioan-Aurel, Thomas Nägler, and András Magyari, eds. The History of Transylvania. Vol. 2, From 1541–1711. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Romanian Academy Center for Transylvanian Studies, 2009.
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  63. This examines the history of Transylvania in international politics, the country’s political evolution, its power structures, economy, and society. It also covers religious developments and the new denominations of the reformed church, as well as the various cultural peculiarities of the Transylvanian peoples. It is a representative overview of the history of Transylvania from the point of view of contemporary Romanian historiography.
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  65. Primary Sources
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  67. As medieval Transylvania formed a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the sources related to the medieval history of the area can be found in the basic works listed in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary. These source publication series, particularly Monumenta Hungariae Historica, are indispensable for those doing research on the Principality of Transylvania. The most important sources are published in the series Monumenta Comitialia Regni Transylvaniae (Szilágyi 1875–1898), which is a minor series within the Monumenta Hungariae Historica. The series Heritage of Transylvania (Cs Szabó and Makkai 1993) contains a selection of the most important narrative sources for the Principality. Although Bethlen 1782–1793, the Historia de rebus Transylvanicis, was written in the mid-17th-century, it gives a reliable and accurate narration of 16th-century Transylvanian history. Kraus 1994 presents the history of his age from his special point of view, since he was a notary of the Saxon town of Şighişoara (Hung. Segesvár, Ger. Schässburg) in the mid-17th- century. The pace of source publication increased in the mid-19th century, and works produced then are still useful, such as the first series of the Székely [Szekler] Inventory of Documents (Szabó and Szádeczky 1872–1897), which contains the most useful documents related to the history of the Székely nation. The new series of the Székely Inventory of Documents (Demény, et al. 1983–2004) continues publishing the main sources on Székely society, among them the lists of those persons who were able to provide military service to the prince. The volumes of historical sources published in Kemény and Nagyajtai Kovács 1837–1845 contain various types of unabridged sources, although not systematically, which is also the case with Mikó and Szabó 1855–1862.
  68.  
  69. Bethlen, Wolfgang. Historia de rebus Transilvanicis 1525–1606. Edited by József Benkő. 6 vols. Hermanstadt: Martin Hochmeister, 1782–1793.
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  71. A thorough history based on original documents and earlier narratives by a mid-17th-century historian. It contains reliable data, and some of the principal sources are published unabridged, which makes it quite usable for researchers even today. Published in Hungarian as Bethlen, Farkas, Erdély története, 5 vols. (Budapest: Enciklopédia Kiadó–Kolozsvár: Erdélyi Múzeum Egyesület, 2000–2010).
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  73. Cs Szabó, László, and László Makkai, eds. Erdély öröksége. 6 vols. Erdélyi emlékírók Erdélyről. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1993.
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  75. The editors selected Transylvanian memoirs, diaries, urban chronicles, and personal records written between 1541 and 1703 for this series. The personal writings reveal the events and political history of the era in an informal way. The work contains extraordinarily exciting sources about the personal relationships behind certain events, everyday life, and contemporary thinking. The sources are abridged; the publishers selected the most interesting parts. First published in 1942.
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  77. Demény, Lajos, and József Pataki, eds. Székely Oklevéltár: Új sorozat. 8 vols. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1983–2004.
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  79. The first volume of the series published the juridical minutes of Udvarhelyszék during 1569–1591, a substantial source for reconstruction of Székely society and everyday life in the Székely lands. The series publishes the most significant demographic, juridical, economic historical, and administrative historical sources related to Székely history and the Székely censuses from 1575 to 1692. Publication of the series is continuing. Vol. 4 and Vol. 5 available online.
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  81. Kemény, József, and István Nagyajtai Kovács, eds. Erdélyország’ történetei’ tára. 2 vols. Kolozsvár: Barra Gábor Tulajdona, 1837–1845.
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  83. A mixed-source selection from the age of the Principality. The two volumes contain unabridged charters, private letters, acts, diaries and memoranda, as well as correspondence among Transylvanian princes, nobles, and Ottoman high officials. The documents are in Hungarian and in Latin. The first volume publishes documents written from 1540 to 1600, while the second contains sources created between 1566 and 1613. It is recommended for researchers.
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  85. Kraus, Georg. Erdélyi krónika 1608–1665. Translated and edited by Sándor Vogel. Budapest: Ómagyar Kultúra Baráti Társaság, 1994.
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  87. The author was the notary of the town of Segesvár, and he put down the historical events of the age in details in a diary form, also adding his own commentary. German original, Siebenbürgische Chronik des Schässburger Stadtschreibers Georg Kraus 1608–1665 (Vienna, 1862–1864; New York: Johnson Reprint, 1969). A basic work for researchers.
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  89. Mikó, Imre, and Károly Szabó, eds. Erdélyi történelmi adatok. 4 vols. Kolozsvár: Stein János Bizottsága, 1855–1862.
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  91. A mixed selection of charters related to the history of Transylvania, acts, private letters, diary extracts, chronicle extracts, and reports of Transylvanian envoys in Constantinople, as well as letters and official documents written by Ottoman sultans and other high officials to the princes. The documents are from the 1520s to the late 17th century. It is recommended for researchers. Vol. 4 is published by Erdélyi Muzeum-Egyesület.
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  93. Szabó, Károly, and Lajos Szádeczky, eds. Székely Oklevéltár. 1st ser., vols. 1–6. Kolozsvár: n.p., 1872–1897.
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  95. The series contains the most important documents related to the medieval and early modern history of the Székelys. They were collected in Transylvanian and Hungarian archives. The materials published in the series are not selected thematically; all types of charters connected to the Székelys can be found here, so the series is useful for different kinds of research and is still an essential source publication for researchers in Székely history.
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  97. Szilágyi, Sándor, ed. Monumenta comitialia regni Transsylvaniae; Erdélyi Országgyűlési Emlékek I–XXI, 1540–1699. Monumenta Hungariae Historica III.b. Budapest: Ráth Mór, 1875–1898.
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  99. The most important database of the state formed in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary. It includes data in the fields of governance, diplomacy, and military and social history. It is recommended for researchers.
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  101. Collections of Studies
  102.  
  103. Domanovszky’s books are relevant to Transylvanian history; see detailed citations in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary as well as Domanovszky 1940. Péter 1992 contains studies on different centuries of Transylvanian history. Collective volumes usually publish the proceedings of conferences: for instance, Bárány and Györkös 2009 deals with the cultural historical significance and influence of the reign of King Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490). The Kovács and Kovács Kiss 2008 and Gábor, et al. 2009 cover the intellectual historical and cultural historical features of the late Renaissance in Transylvania on the basis of the latest research. Papp, et al. 2009 and Papp and Jeney-Tóth 2008 focus on the political, social, and intellectual history of the first decades of the 17th century and publish new research. The most recent collection (Kovács Kiss 2011) offers studies on society, culture, and everyday life of 16th- to 18th-century Transylvania.
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  105. Bárany, Attila and Attila Györkös, eds. Matthias and His Legacy: Cultural and Political Encounters between East and West. Debrecen, Hungary: Debreceni Egyetem Történeti Intézete, 2009.
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  107. The book contains studies on features of the Renaissance prevailing under the reign of Matthias Corvinus and in the late Renaissance, concentrating on intellectual and political history. It reflects the most recent research.
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  109. Domanovszky, Sándor, ed. Magyar művelődéstörténet. Vol. 2–3. Budapest: MTT, 1940.
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  111. The first large summary of the cultural history of Hungary, which gives a general overview of the political history of the country and describes the main features of cultural life and its records. It contains the basic knowledge of its time, but some of its analyses nowadays are considered obsolete. Vol. 2, Magyar Renaissance; Vol. 3, A kereszténység védőbástyája.
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  113. Gábor, Csilla, Katalin Luffy, and Gábor Sipos, eds. Erdély reneszánsza. 2 vols. Kolozsvár: Erdélyi Múzeum Egyesület, 2009.
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  115. The book contains the latest results of research on the Transylvanian Renaissance and humanism. The first volume reveals the role of the most famous humanist Transylvanian high priest, János Vitéz, the heritage of Matthias Corvinus, and the intellectual, literary, and philosophical aspects of the late Renaissance. The second volume publishes studies on the new results of research on the formation of libraries in the Renaissance and later.
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  117. Kovács, András, and Gyöngy Kovács Kiss, eds. A reneszánsz Kolozsvár. Kolozsvár: Kolozsvár Társaság, 2008.
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  119. The book reveals different aspects of the Renaissance in Cluj Napoca. The studies deal with urban constructions and buildings, Renaissance inscriptions, schools, houses, and the famous Wolphard-Kakas Library, as well as the humanist ambitions of the clergy, Renaissance traditions of the city, and the luminaries of the day.
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  121. Kovács Kiss, Gyöngy, ed. Studies in the History of Early Modern Transylvania. East European Monographs 736. Highland Lakes, NJ: Atlantic Research and Publication, 2011.
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  123. Contains studies on the 16th- to 18th-century history of Transylvania. The first section reveals the structure of the society and its interpersonal relations; in the second section are studies relating to the Transylvanian reformation, scholarly life, and Renaissance architecture in Transylvania; the third section’s studies are concerned with urban society and everyday life in the free royal town of Cluj-Napoca/Kolozsvár.
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  125. Papp, Klára, and Annamária Jeney-Tóth, eds. “Frigy és békesség legyen”: A bécsi és a zsitvatoroki béke. Debrecen, Hungary: Debreceni Egyetem Történeti Intézete–Hajdú-Bihar Megyei Önkormányzat, 2008.
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  127. The collection publishes the latest results on the history of the Bocskai uprising. It deals with the Transylvanian state under the reign of Bocskai and the society of the age. Also published in German: “Einigkeit und Frieden sollen auf seiten jeder Partei sein”: Die Friedenschlüsse von Wien (23.06.1606.) und Zsitvatorok (15.11.1606.), edited by János Barta, Manfred Jatzlauk, and Klára Papp (Debrecen, Hungary: Institut für Geschichte der Universität Debrecen 2007).
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  129. Papp, Klára, Annamária Jeney-Tóth, and Attila Ulrich, eds. Báthory Gábor és kora. Debrecen, Hungary: Debreceni Egyetem Történeti Intézete, 2009.
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  131. The book contains the latest research results of Hungarian historians on Prince Gábor Báthory (r.1608–1613), as well as the political, economic and social conditions of his age. The studies also deal with church history and religious congregations in the early 17th century.
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  133. Péter, László, ed. Historians and the History of Transylvania. East European Monographs 332. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1992.
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  135. Mixed studies on the history of Transylvania from the medieval voivodship to the modern era. Some studies discuss theoretical and conceptual difficulties relating to historical research on Transylvania.
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  137. Journals and Series
  138.  
  139. All the historical journals and serials published in Hungary contain studies on the history of Transylvania; see the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary. The volumes of the series Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek have been publishing longer studies on the history of Transylvania since 1926. Erdélyi Múzeum is a significant Hungarian journal on Transylvanian scholarly life. Erdélyi Történelmi Adatok publishes historical sources unabridged or in Hungarian summaries. The Colloquia is a prestigious annual periodical of the Babeş-Bolyai University of Cluj, published in English. The Siebenbürgen Institute of the University of Heidelberg in Germany is the center of German research on Transylvania.
  140.  
  141. Colloquia: Journal for Central European History.
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  143. Published from 1994 by the Institute of Central European Studies of the Faculty of History and Philosophy of the Babeş-Bolyai University of Cluj. The journal publishes studies written by east-central and Western European scholars as well, and includes book reviews from this region. The journal’s aim is to offer divergent opinions and facilitate communication and discussion in historical research.
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  145. Erdélyi Múzeum.
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  147. The “Transylvanian Museum” is a journal published first in 1874 by the Transylvanian Museum Society of Cluj Napoca. The first series was published until 1917, and the new series from 1930 to 1947, while the latest series started in 1990. It mainly focuses on history, literature, the arts, linguistics, ethnography, philology, law, economics, and the social sciences.
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  149. Erdélyi Történelmi Adatok. Cluj Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület.
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  151. The “Transylvanian Historical Data” is a new book series of the Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület (Transylvanian Museum Society) of Kolozsvár/Cluj Napoca. The series contains the most important sources, such as documents issued by the princely chancellery, minutes of Torda county. These are publications of a high standard. The contents of the volumes can be found at the society website.
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  153. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzetek. Cluj Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület.
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  155. “Transylvanian Scientific Notes,” published by the Transylvanian Museum Society, whose headquarters are in Cluj Napoca. The list of the published volumes can be found on the Society’s website.
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  157. Siebenbürgen Institute of the University of Heidelberg in Germany.
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  159. The institute’s website publishes the basic sources relating to the history of the Saxons in Transylvania. It also lists the studies and books published by the institute.
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  161. The Formation of the State and its Legal Status
  162.  
  163. The interpretation of the events leading to the formation of the Principality of Transylvania is a controversial issue among Romanian and Hungarian historians. The three-volume History of Transylvania (Köpeczi 1986, cited under Reference Works and General Studies) summarizes the Hungarian point of view. Barta 1979, and Barta 1988 best describe the political events of the era of state formation, while Feneşan 1997 reveals its Romanian aspect. Pécsi 1938 describes the alteration of the medieval chancellery into the most important administrative institution of the new Principality. Trócsányi 1976 is essential for the formation of the constitutional system of the Principality. Kubinyi 1988 focuses on the internal developments of the period before the battle of Mohács. Oborni 2002 investigates how the public legal and political situation of the Principality solidified after a critical period. Volkmer 2002 summarizes the foreign policy and diplomacy of the Principality on the basis of peace treaties and other agreements, also defining the legal status of Transylvania. Szabó and Erdősi 2003 reveals the ceremony and symbol system of the appointment and inauguration of princes.
  164.  
  165. Barta, Gábor. Az erdélyi fejedelemség születése. Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 1979.
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  167. The author traces political, diplomatic, and military events from the collapse of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1526. These events led to the formation of an independent state in Transylvania and the eastern areas of Hungary by the 1570s. The book thoroughly describes the early Reformation in Transylvania and certain phases of the evolution of denominations.
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  169. Barta, Gábor. Vajon kié az ország? Budapest: Helikon, 1988.
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  171. This recounts the life and assassination of George Martinuzzi, who had an important role in the formation of the Principality. The author also touches upon the papal trial following his death. Several familiar political events are shown from a new perspective. Despite its popularizing style, it is an essential work.
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  173. Feneşan, Cristina. Constituirea principatului autonom al Transilvaniei. Bucharest, Romania: Editura Enciclopedică, 1997.
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  175. The book describes the political changes in 16th-century Transylvania that led to the evolution of the Principality. It emphasizes Transylvania’s relationship with the Ottoman capital, and the political roles of the nations in the Principality.
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  177. Kubinyi, András. “Erdély a Mohács előtti évtizedekben.” In Tanulmányok Erdély történetéről. Edited by István Rácz, 65–76. Debrecen, Hungary: Csokonai Kiadó, 1988.
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  179. This chapter provides useful commentaries on the three-volume History of Transylvania (Köpeczi 1986) cited under Reference Works and General Studies, especially for the period before 1526. Kubinyi thinks this transitional period is underrepresented in that series, although it saw significant developments in social and economic history, as well as in urban development. He recommends some new research directions.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Oborni, Teréz. “Erdély közjogi helyzete a speyeri szerződés után (1571–1575).” In Tanulmányok Szakály Ferenc emlékére. Edited by Pál Fodor, Géza Pálffy, and István György Tóth, 291–306. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Történettudományi Intézet, 2002.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Under the conditions of the Treaty of Speyer, the prince of Transylvania recognized the suzerainty of the Hungarian king and accepted that his state was a member of the Holy Crown. By using the title of voyvoda, acceptable to both the Habsburgs and the Ottomans (the nominal overlords of Transylvania), Báthory solved a crisis relating to the public legal status of the country, as the Principality was the vassal of the Ottoman Empire.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Pécsi, Anna. Az erdélyi fejedelmi kancellária kialakulása és okleveles gyakorlata 1571-ig. Budapest: Balatonfüredi Nyomda, 1938.
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  187. The medieval-style chancellery was organized in the early period of the formation of the Principality, in 1557. Following the description of the preliminaries, the book describes the operation, tasks, and remit of the chancellery in the first few years. It is an essential work for researchers of administrative history.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Szabó, János B., and Péter Erdősi. “Ceremonies Marking the Transfer of Power in the Principality of Transylvania in East European Context.” Majestas 11 (2003): 111–160.
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  191. Following the election of the princes by the estates, it was essential for princely inauguration to receive a charter of appointment (ahdname) from the Ottoman central administration, together with some symbolic gifts guaranteeing the legal status of the princes and Ottoman rule over Transylvania. The study traces the history of these. It is very useful for researchers.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Trócsányi, Zsolt. Az erdélyi fejedelemség korának országgyűlései (Adalék az erdélyi rendiség történetéhez). Értekezések a történeti tudományok köréből, Új sorozat 76. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1976.
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  195. The author reconstructs the formation, operation, and composition of the Transylvanian diet (parliament) on the basis of parliamentary documents, acts and other sources. It also sheds light on the varying relationship between the princely power and the estates. It is still the most thorough treatment of the topic, indispensable for researchers.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Volkmer, Gerald. Das Fürstentum Siebenbürgens 1541–1691: Aussenpolitik und Völkerrechtliche Stellung. Kronstadt, Russia: Aldus-Verlag, 2002.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Describing the foreign policy and diplomacy of the Principality, the book shows the public legal situation of Transylvania. It chronologically discusses the peace treaties, agreements and pacts concluded with other states, and describes their major points and their effects on the Principality. It is a reliable and essential work.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Politics and Governance
  202.  
  203. Makkai 1991 investigates the legal historical and constitutional relations between the principality and the Hungarian Kingdom. Trócsányi 1980 and Trócsányi 2005 are indispensable for research on the administration and legislation of the Transylvanian state. Arens 2001 describes the policy of Habsburg in Transylvania at the beginning of the 17th century. Murdock 2003 discusses the customs and political background of the election and inauguration of princes, with the help of Gábor Bethlen’s example. Horn 2006 gives insight into the governing period of the so-called triple council operating during the Polish reign of István Báthory. Dáné 2006 describes the middle-level administration of the Principality of Transylvania and the operation of the counties. The studies of Kovács 2012 examine the operation of local administration and judicial practice.
  204.  
  205. Arens, Meinolf. Habsburg und Siebenbürgen 1600–1605: Gewaltsame Eingliederungsversuche eines ostmitteleuropäischen Fürstentums in einen frühabsolutistischen Reichsverband. Studia Transylvanica 27. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2001.
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  207. This book describes how Emperor Rudolf II made an attempt to occupy Transylvania and discusses the administrative and diplomatic methods and military actions against the principality. Examines the historical role of Giorgio Basta, the military governor of the Emperor and the activity of the Habsburg armies and the Transylvanian estates’ opposition. Useful for students and researchers.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Dáné, Veronka. “Az Őnagysága széki így deliberála”: Torda vármegye fejedelemségkori bírósági gyakorlata. Debrecen, Hungary: Debreceni Egyetem Történeti Intézete, 2006.
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  211. Although the title refers to the introduction of the jurisdictional practice of only one county, the work also covers the middle-level administration of the Principality of Transylvania, as well as the general jurisdiction of the counties. The book also describes the self-governing features of the Transylvanian counties, comparing them to those of the counties of the Kingdom of Hungary.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Horn, Ildikó. “Az erdélyi hármastanács kormányzata (1583–1585).” Századok 140.4 (2006): 883–924.
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  215. The author describes the period when a council of three members ruled the Principality on the basis of the correspondence between István Báthory, prince of Transylvania and the king of Poland and the administrative council of Transylvania. The latter faced several difficulties, mainly relating to the economy and financial management of the Principality. The prince, seated in Krakow, decided upon internal and foreign affairs, and thus the council was not independent.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Kovács, András W. ed. Special Issue: Institutional Structures and Elites in Sălaj Region and in Transylvania in the 14th–18th Centuries. Transylvanian Review 21.S2 (2012).
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  219. The supplement contains studies on the activities of the local authorities and the society of Sălaj (Szilágy) region; on the operation of the so-called places of authentication of Transylvania, as well as on the judicial practices of the town of Cluj at the end of the 16th century.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Makkai, László. “The Crown and the Diets of Hungary and Transylvania in the Sixteenth Century.” In Crown, Church and Estates: Central European Politics in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Edited by Robert J. W. Evans and V. Thomas Trevor, 80–91. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1991.
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  223. Compares the relationship between the ruler and the estates in the Kingdom of Hungary and in the Principality of Transylvania. In the latter, the political estates had greater influence.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Murdock, Graeme. “Freely Elected in Fear”: Princely Elections and Political Power in Early Modern Transylvania.” Journal of Early Modern History 7.3–4 (2003): 214–244.
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  227. Describes the conditions of Gábor Bethlen’s election, as well as the relationship between the political estates and the princely power. It also reveals the political events in details and offers basic knowledge of the topic.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Trócsányi, Zsolt. Erdély központi kormányzata 1540–1690. A Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai III; Hatóság- és hivataltörténet 6. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980.
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  231. This is the most frequently used work for researchers and is indispensable. The book presents the administrative structure of the Principality in detail on the basis of a large archival database. The most important and only government authority was the late medieval-type princely chancellery, whose remit spread from foreign to internal policy.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Trócsányi, Zsolt. Törvényalkotás az Erdélyi fejedelemségben. Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 2005.
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  235. This work was published twenty years after the author’s death, but it is still the most thorough analysis of the legislation of the Principality. It describes the complex legislation of the Principality, the legal status of the political estates, and the administrative acts, in thematic groups. It analyzes the structure of jurisdiction and the acts regulating its practice as well as legislative procedure. It is recommended for researchers.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Sources
  238.  
  239. The large source publications of the late 19th century, such as Gindely 1890 and Veress 1909, can still be used for research on the foreign and internal conditions of the Principality. Kemény and Trauschenfels 1839–1860 contains selective narrative sources written in German. Gooss 1911 publishes the authentic texts of peace treaties, agreements, and armistices, and is an essential manual. The series Fontes Rerum Transylvanicarum (Veress 1911–1921) is a comprehensive collection of the sources written by Jesuits residing in Transylvania in the 16th and 17th centuries. Endre Veress’s two large source publications (Veress 1929–1934, Veress 1944) are excellent source bases of Transylvanian church history, as well as the history of the internal conditions and foreign relationships of Transylvania.
  240.  
  241. Gindely, Antal. Okmánytár Bethlen Gábor fejedelem uralkodása történetéhez. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Bizottsága, 1890.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. The documents selected from Hungarian and Austrian archives can be used in addressing various topics from various aspects.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Gooss, Roderich. Österreichische Staatsverträge: Fürstentum Siebenbürgen (1526–1690). Vienna: Holzhausen, 1911.
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  247. This book publishes the authentic Latin texts of the peace treaties, armistices, and other agreements negotiated between the Principality of Transylvania and the Kingdom of Hungary. It also contains thorough historical introductions and explanations in German. The introductions show the process of the creation of the texts and their political and diplomatic background. It is an essential manual, mainly for researchers in political and diplomatic history.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Kemény, József and Eugen von Trauschenfels, eds. Deutsche Fundgruben zur Geschichte Siebenbürgens. 3 vols. Klausenburg: n.p., 1839–1860.
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  251. The volumes contain selected, mainly narrative sources written in German, such as diaries, political letters, and writings relating to the history of the 16th–17th century in Transylvania.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Veress, Endre, ed. Erdélyországi pápai követek jelentései VIII: Kelemen idejéből (1592–1600). Vatikáni Magyar Okirattár 2.3. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1909.
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  255. The reports and letters written during the Long Turkish War give an account of the serious political crisis of Transylvania. They are excellent political and diplomatic sources.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Veress, Endre, ed. Fontes Rerum Transilvanicarum: Erdélyi történelmi források. 5 vols. Kolozsvár and Budapest: Athenaeum, 1911–1921.
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  259. During the reign of the Roman Catholic Báthory princes, Transylvania had a strong relationship with the Vatican; it welcomed the Jesuits, and several priests traveled through the state or worked in the service of the princes. Veress collected, selected and published their letters and reports in these volumes. They are valuable documents of Transylvanian political and church history.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Veress, Endre, ed. Documente privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei şi Ţării-Romaneşti 1527–1606. 11 vols. Bucharest, Romania: M. O. Imprimeria Naţională, 1929–1934.
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  263. A long publication containing the most important sources for the history of the relationship between Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. It describes the political and diplomatic relationships of the certain princes, as well as the public legal conditions of the countries. It is recommended for researchers.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Veress, Endre, ed. Báthory István erdélyi fejedelem és lengyel király levelezése, 1556–1580. 2 vols. Kolozsvár: Dunántúl Pécsi Egyetemi Kiadó, 1944.
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  267. Hungarian and Latin sources from the reign of István Báthory, collected from Hungarian, Italian, and Polish archives. It contains essential sources of Transylvanian political history and the relationship with the Ottoman Porte and the court in Vienna. It is recommended for researchers.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Foreign Policy and Military History
  270.  
  271. Transylvanian foreign relationships, military campaigns, and participation in wider events are discussed in detail in the monographs cited under Reference Works and General Studies. The source publications of the 19th century can still be used for research on the foreign relationships of the Principality. Bíró 1921 offers some basic information about the relationship with the Ottoman Porte. Lukinich and Lepszy 1935 gives an overview of the Báthory’s rule in Poland. Kosáry 1938 describes the political situation of Transylvania between the Ottoman and Habsburg empires during the reign of Bethlen. Szabó and Somogyi 1996 summarizes the structure of the army. Felezeu 1996 offers the Romanian view on the relationship of Transylvania to the Ottoman Empire. The description of the vassal relationship of the Principality to the Ottoman Empire has recently come to the forefront (Papp 2003). Gebei 2004 and Gebei 2007 shed light on the political connections between Transylvania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th centuries, drawing from a large source base.
  272.  
  273. Bíró, Vencel. Erdély követei a Portán. Cluj-Kolozsvár: Minerva, 1921.
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  275. The Principality of Transylvania had permanent envoys in Constantinople (Istanbul) from 1561. The first overview of them describes some essential characteristics of their work and life, as well as their political and diplomatic role. This is recommended until a new overview is produced.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Felezeu, Călin. Statutul Principatului Transilvaniei în raporturile cu Poarta Ottomană 1541–1688. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Editura Presa Universitatara Clujeana, 1996.
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  279. Describes the vassal status of the Principality of Transylvania, comparing it to that of Moldavia and Wallachia on the basis of reports written at Istanbul. Felezeu suggests that the vassal situation of the three regions was almost the same. The author slightly utilized the Hungarian and Latin sources in shaping his opinion.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Gebei, Sándor. II. Rákóczy György erdélyi fejedelem külpolitikája (1648–1657). Budapest: Heraldika Kiadó, 2004.
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  283. Describes the causes of György Rákóczi II’s disastrous campaign against Poland (1657) and the foreign relationships of the Principality on the basis of Russian and Ukrainian sources. The work also places Transylvania within the eastern European political and diplomatic context.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Gebei, Sándor. Az erdélyi fejedelmek és a lengyel királyválasztások. Szeged, Hungary: Belvedere Kiadó, 2007.
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  287. After the Polish reign of István Báthory, the political aims of the Transylvanian princes often included the acquisition of the Polish throne. The book narrates the princely political maneuvers relating to the Polish-Lithuanian Rzeczpospolita and their unsatisfactory outcome, focusing on the Rákóczy dynasty. The Transylvanian ambitions are placed within an Eastern European political and diplomatic context. A thorough summary on the topic.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Kosáry, Dominik. “Gabriel Bethlen: Transylvania in the XVIIth Century.” Slavonic and East European Review 17.49 (1938): 162–173.
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  291. The author gives a short overview of the history of the principality until the reign of Prince Gábor Bethlen (r. 1613–1629), analyzes his political plans and possibilities in 17th-century Europe, and demonstrates the special geographical and strategical situation of the principality between the Ottoman and the Habsburg empires. It also reveals how Bethlen and his country became an important factor in European politics.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Lukinich, Imre, and Kazimierz Lepszy, eds. Etienne Báthory: Roi de pologne, prince de Transylvanie. Krakow: L’Université des Jagellons, 1935.
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  295. The volume contains essays on the rule of Prince of Transylvania and King of Poland, István Báthory. The emphasis of the volume is on the political and military issues of Báthory in Poland, and his war against Moscovia and its ruler Ivan the Terrible, with a survey to the relations between Transylvania and Poland of the time.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Papp, Sándor. Die Verleihungs-, Bekräftigungs- und Vertragsurkunden der Osmanen für Ungarn und Siebenbürgen: Eine quellenkritische Untersuchung. Schriften der Balkan-Kommission 42. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2003.
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  299. The book contains diplomatic and critical analysis of the various documents issued by the Ottoman Porte. It provides the charters imposed on Transylvania and Hungary, which suggest the nature of their relationships to the Porte. It is recommended for historians of the Ottoman Empire.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Szabó, János B., and Győző Somogyi. Az erdélyi fejedelemség hadserege. Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó, 1996.
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  303. The book summarizes general knowledge of the Transylvanian army in a scholarly and popularizing style. It lists the different corps of the princes’ army and offers colorful illustrations of their uniforms and weapons. Besides the military units raised by the Székelys, the Saxons, and the Hungarian counties, the book also shows the mercenary troops fighting in the area.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Sources
  306.  
  307. One of the important goals of 19th-century scholars was to publish the sources related to the foreign relationships of Transylvania. Szilágyi 1885 publishes the materials from the negotiations leading to the Peace of Linz, concluding the military campaign against the Habsburgs. Szilágyi 1873 contains the 17th-century sources of the western and northern diplomatic relationships of the Transylvanian state. Szilágyi 1890–1891 publishes the Polish-Swedish-Transylvanian correspondence of the Second Northern War (1657). Óváry 1886 describes the diplomatic relationships of Prince Gábor Bethlen on the basis of documents found in the Venetian archives. Szilágyi, et al. 1868–1874 offers primary sources relating to the relationship between Transylvania and the Ottoman Empire. Borsos 1972 writes about his experiences as a Transylvanian envoy at the Porte. Kruppa 2004 contributes sources for the political history of the Báthory era.
  308.  
  309. Borsos, Tamás. Vásárhelytől a Fényes Portáig. Edited by László Kócziány. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1972.
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  311. The book publishes the letters, memoirs, notes and reports of Tamás Borsos, who was an envoy in Constantinople in the 17th century. It is an excellent source for the Ottoman policy of the Principality.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Kruppa, Tamás. Erdély és a Szentszék a Báthory korszakban: Kiadatlan iratok (1574–1599). Adattár XVI–XVIII. Századi szellemi mozgalmaink történetéhez 37. Szeged, Hungary: Belvedere Kiadó, 2004.
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  315. The letters and reports, written in Latin and Italian, shed light on the relationship between Transylvania and the papal court. It adds to the large early 20th century source publications of Endre Veress and is used by researchers.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Óváry, Lipót, ed. Oklevéltár Bethlen Gábor diplomácziai összeköttetései történetéhez. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Történeti Bizottsága, 1886.
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  319. Contains selected letters and documents from the Venetian archives describing the foreign policy of Transylvania under the reign of Bethlen.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Szilágyi, Sándor, ed. Okmánytár I. Rákóczi György svéd és francia szövetkezéseinek történetéhez (1632–1648). Monumenta Hungariae Historica Diplomataria 21. Budapest: Eggenberger Ferdinánd Akadémiai, 1873.
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  323. In this period Transylvania was part of the anti-Habsburg alliance of western Europe. Both the French and the Swedes attempted to persuade Rákóczi into an attack in 1643. The sources show the negotiations of the alliance and certain elements of the maintenance of diplomatic relations.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Szilágyi, Sándor, ed. A linzi béke [1645] okirattára. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Történeti Bizottsága, 1885.
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  327. Publishes György Rákóczi I’s correspondence with the Habsburg Hungarian king, the archduke, and several Hungarian politicians written during the lengthy discussions before the conclusion of the peace treaty. The letters are collected from various archives.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Szilágyi, Sándor, ed. Erdély és az északkeleti háború: Levelek és okiratok. 2 vols. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Történeti Bizottsága, 1890–1891.
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  331. A collection of letters and documents related to the Polish and Swedish relationships of the Principality between 1648 and 1659, the period of the Second Northern War. Apart from the correspondence of rulers and senior officers, the book also includes the letters of merchants and citizens.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Szilágyi, Sándor, Áron Szilády, and Ferenc Salamon, eds. Török-magyarkori államokmánytár. 7 vols. Pest: Eggenberger Ferdinánd Akadémiai, 1868–1874.
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  335. A series containing essential documents related to the Transylvanian-Ottoman relationship and the political structure of the Ottoman Hungary. It includes the correspondence of Transylvanian and Ottoman officers, instructions, orders, charters appointing a new prince (ahdname), tax lists, and other important documents. It is recommended for researchers.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Economy
  338.  
  339. Source publications and the literature in the second half of the 20th century concentrated on the economic structure and operation of the greater estates and peasant farming (see Jakó 1944, Jakó 1945, and Prodan 1970–1976, all cited under Economy: Sources). Szentgyörgyi 1962 examines the various tax burdens of peasants of different nationalities in Transylvania. Imreh 1999 summarizes present knowledge of the economic heyday under the reign of Bethlen. Huszár 1995 informs us about the history of minting in the Principality and illustrates the coins used in the state. Oborni 2002 investigates the unsuccessful attempt of Ferdinand I to transform Transylvanian financial affairs. Recent decades have seen new achievements in the reconstruction of foreign and local trade (Pakucs-Willcocks 2007) as well as the publication of customs registers (see Pap 1991 and Pap 2000, the latter cited under Economy: Sources).
  340.  
  341. Huszár, Lajos. Az Erdélyi fejedelemség pénzverése. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1995.
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  343. The author collects the coins of the Principality and describes the different types chronologically, illustrating them with black-and-white photos. He summarizes scholarly achievements relating to the history of Transylvanian minting. It offers an overall picture of the field and is recommended for researchers.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Imreh, István. Erdélyi eleink emlékezete (1550–1850) társadalom- és gazdaságtörténeti tanulmányok. Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 1999.
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  347. The writer’s lengthy study describes economic conditions in Transylvania under the reign of Gábor Bethlen, as well as features of princely management and economic policy. Several studies reveal the everyday farming and life of the Székely villages on the basis of the so-called regulations of village communities.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Oborni, Teréz. Erdély pénzügyei I. Ferdinánd uralma alatt. FONS Könyvek 1. Budapest: Szentpétery Imre Történettudományi Alapítvány, 2002.
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  351. Transylvania came under the rule of Ferdinand I of Habsburg between 1551 and 1556. The ruler tried to introduce a new financial administrative system, but his attempt failed. The book also publishes a large source base relevant to the topic. With a summary of conclusions in German.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Pakucs-Willcocks, Mária. Sibiu-Hermannstadt: Oriental Trade in Sixteenth Century Transylvania. Cologne and Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2007.
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  355. The latest treatment of the volume of southern and southeastern trade routes of Transylvania, their imported and exported goods, and the 16th-century economy of the Principality, on the basis of the foreign trade customs registers of Sibiu, parliamentary decisions, and other relevant sources. It also publishes customs registers containing figures on trade volume and goods from 1537 to 1597.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Pap, Ferenc. “Kolozsvár és a királyi Magyarország kereskedelmi kapcsolatai: A kolozsvári vámnaplók tanusága 1599–1637.” Történelmi Szemle 33.3–4 (1991): 239–248.
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  359. The study describes Transylvanian exports and imports on the basis of the customs registers of Cluj Napoca. It lists various goods and suggests that importation from the Kingdom of Hungary was not significant, and the southern trade was weaker than the northern.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Szentgyörgyi, Mária. Jobbágyterhek a XVI–XVII: Századi Erdélyben. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1962.
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  363. The book sheds light on the farming and tax burdens of the peasants, as well as the social strata of the peasantry and their way of life. It is based on a huge number of sources.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Sources
  366.  
  367. The data published in Jakó 1944 and Jakó 1945 are still considered essential when speaking about the taxation and lifestyle of the peasantry. Szádeczky 1911 reveals the economic organization and life of the princely court. The sources in Makkai 1954 reconstruct the operation of the large estates from an economic standpoint, as well as their social system. Prodan, et al. 1970–1976 publishes the most important economic historical sources of the district Făgăraş/Fogaras, inhabited by Romanians. Pap 2000 focuses attention on an otherwise neglected source type, the customs list of foreign trade.
  368.  
  369. Jakó, Zsigmond, ed. A gyalui vártartomány urbáriumai. Kolozsvár: Dunántúl Pécsi Egyetemi Könyvkiadó és Nyomda, 1944.
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  371. It publishes the most interesting urbariums (a kind of record of peasants’ services to landlords) and a short introductory study. Its conclusions can still be useful.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Jakó, Zsigmond, ed. Adatok a dézsma fejedelemségkori adminisztrációjához. Kolozsvár: Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, 1945.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. The tithe is a kind of tax paid for the church, but in the Principality it was a tax levied by the treasury. This essential book describes its collection and settlement on the basis of sources.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Makkai, László, ed. I. Rákóczi György birtokainak gazdasági iratai. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1954.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A source publication with a Marxist introductory study which reveals the burdens of the peasants living on the estates, the relationship between the landlord and the villains, and the legal and living conditions of the peasantry. The sources can be used to reconstruct the everyday life and economic features of the great estates and villages of the age.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Pap, Ferenc, ed. Kolozsvári harmincadjegyzék 1599–1637. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 2000.
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  383. A series of customs posts became established along the western border of the Principality by the end of the 16th century. The preserved vectigals (the lists of the customs levied on certain goods) and the registers of the transit trade are excellent sources for economic history. The book publishes these sources.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Prodan, David, Liviu Ursuţiu, and Maria Ursuţiu, eds. Urbariile Ţării Făgăraşului. Vols. 1–2, 1601–1680. Bucharest, Romania: Editura Academiei Republici Socialiste Romania, 1970–1976.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. The area around Făgăraş was populated by the greatest number of Romanians in early modern Transylvania. The book publishes the urbariums preserved in these villages, which allows reconstruction of the farming and lifestyle of the local peasants.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Szádeczky, Béla, ed. Bornemissza Anna gazdasági naplói 1667–1690. Apafi Mihály fejedelem udvartartása 1. Budapest: A. M. Tud. Akadémia Könyvkiadóhivatala, 1911.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. The royal estates and the royal court were managed by Prince Apafi’s wife, Anna Bornemissza. Many economic diaries, instructions, letters and settlements of accounts survived from these years. It is a very usable source publication.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Society
  394.  
  395. As a result of the political and religious division of the Transylvanian society, social historical research correlates closely with investigations of the history of denominations. The second volume of the History of Transylvania offers an overall picture of the early modern society (see Köpeczi 1986, cited under Reference Works and General Studies). Gündisch 1998 gives a brief but narrow summary of the history of Transylvanian Saxons. Mitu 2001 reveals the political and constitutional position of Romanians in Transylvania and its changes from late medieval times until the 19th century. A useful summary of Székely history from a legal historical point of view is Szádeczky 1927, while Balogh 2005 describes the early modern changes in Székely society on the basis of the latest research. Szegedi 2002 is a large comprehensive study on the history of Saxons of Transylvania. Horn 2010 offers insight into the Unitarian nobility, who achieved extraordinary influence in Transylvania. Jakab 1888 is the first major summary of the history of Cluj Napoca and publishes some basic data. Roth 2009 describes the status of the Székely nation in Transylvania, the features of the Székely society and administration system.
  396.  
  397. Balogh, Judit. A székely nemesség kialakulásának folyamata a 17: Század első felében. Erdélyi Tudományos Füzeket 254. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum Egyesület, 2005.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The Székely society, which formed a unified nation and comprised people of the same legal status, became polarized in the 16th century and underwent significant changes: nobility appeared in the nation, living in village communities. The book reveals certain stages of this development and characterizes Székely noble society under Gábor Bethlen’s reign.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Gündisch, Konrad. Siebenbürgen und die Siebenbürger Sachsen. Munich: Langen-Müller, 1998.
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  403. A comprehensive survey of the history of Transylvanian Saxons from their immigration into the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in the 12th century up to the present. One chapter examines the political and intellectual roles of the Saxons in the Principality. The Saxons were a privileged group within Transylvanian society, whose Lutheran church played an important role in religious change.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Szegedi, Edit. Geschichtsbewusstsein und Gruppenidentität: Die Historiographie der Siebenbürger Sachsen zwischen Barock und Aufklärung. Studia Transylvanica 28. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag. 2002.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. This large comprehensive study on the history of the Transylvanian Saxons focuses on the political and church histories. The study emphasizes the relation between the Saxon church and the princely power, the cultural phenomena of the 17th century, and reveals the Transylvanian identity evolving at that time. It describes in details also the features of the narrative sources written by Saxon historians.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Horn, Ildikó. Hit és hatalom: Az erdélyi unitárius nemesség 16; Századi története. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2010.
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  411. The Unitarian nobility had great political influence in Transylvania in the 16th century; several important people belonged to the inner circle of the prince and thus could influence internal and foreign policy. The author describes the careers of the most prominent ones, revealing their political role and effect.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Jakab, Elek. Kolozsvár története. II. Kötet oklevéltárral: Újabb kor, nemzeti fejedelmi korszak (1540–1690). Budapest: Szab. Kir. Kolozsvár Város Közönsége, 1888.
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  415. The first major summary of the history of Cluj Napoca, which publishes some basic data. It analyzes the urban privileges and the statutes regulating life in the city in depth, but the chapters on social history are less thorough. Later research has surpassed it in many respects, but it is still considered an essential work.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Mitu, Sorin. National Identity of Romanians in Transylvania. Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2001.
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  419. The Romanian inhabitants of Transylvania, for historical reasons, had no rights of political representation in the Transylvanian Diet in the 16th and 17th centuries. This status changed only after the revolution of 1848. Mitu reveals the political and constitutional changes of the Romanian nation in Transylvania and its motives from the late medieval period up to the first half of the 19th century.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Roth, Harald, ed. Die szekler in Siebenbürgen: Von der privilegierten Sondergemeinschaft zur ethnischen Gruppe. Proceedings of a conference held at the Szekler National Museum in Sfântu Gheorghe, Romania, 16–18 June 2006. Siebenbürgisches Archiv 40. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2009.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. The essays of the book examine the history of Székelys from the Middle Ages to the 19th century, the status of the Székely nation vis-a-vis the other “nations” of Transylvania, their archeological records and the most important written sources, the features of their society, their privileges, and also their local administration.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Szádeczky Kardoss, Lajos. A székely nemzet története és alkotmánya. Budapest: “Hargitaváralja” J. Sz. K.–Franklin-Társulat, 1927.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. An overall introduction to Székely history. It traces their legal order, social classes, military organization, and taxation from the beginning to 1914. The chapters on the Middle Ages and the early modern period are especially thorough, and their claims are still relevant.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Sources
  430.  
  431. The works mentioned in Primary Sources are quite useful, especially the Székely Inventory of Charters and the 20th-century Saxon source publications such as Quellen zur Geschichte. Several magistrate and judicial minutes from the Hungarian towns (Wolf 1993 and Kovács 1998) and counties (Dáné 2009) have been published recently. Source publication for the Saxon cities has accelerated as well. Berger and Wagner 1986 and Berger, et al. 1995 mainly publish letters written to the magistrates and the mayors, as well as patents, contracts, testimonies, pleadings, and guild regulations. Wagner 1976 contains significant but previously published sources related to Saxon history. Vlaicu, et al. 2003 is a publication of the sources related to the crafts and the trade of the city of Sibiu and the seven Saxon seats. Hientz, et al. 2007 contains the indices of the council minutes of Sibiu and the minutes of the Saxon Universitas from 1420 to 1699.
  432.  
  433. Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kronstadt in Siebenbürgen. 8 vols. Kronstadt, Russia: Zeidner, 1886–1926.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. The first three volumes contain urban accounts; the latter ones publish the diary-like notes and chronicle-style writings of senior officers and citizens. The early modern sources can be found scattered in all volumes.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Berger, Albert, Ioan Dordea, Ioan Drăgan, Konrad G. Gündisch, and Ernst Wagner, eds. Urkunden-Regesten aus dem Archiv der Stadt Bistritz in Siebenbürgen. Vol. 3, 1571–1585. Cologne and Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1995.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. This volume contains short extracts from the archives of the city of Bistriţa/Beszterce, such as letters written to the magistrate and the mayor, as well as orders related to taxation, military affairs, the provisioning of the princely court, constructions, and so on. It also includes other source types: contracts, testimonies, pleadings, and guild regulations.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Berger, Albert, and Ernst Wagner, eds. Urkunden-Regesten aus dem Archiv der Stadt Bistritz in Siebenbürgen. 2 vols. Cologne and Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1986.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Volumes 1 and 2 (covering 1203–1570) contain short extracts of various kinds of sources from the archives of the city of Bistriţa/Beszterce. These are mainly instructions and letters addressed to the magistrate and the judge of the city. Other sources include court records, which are especially valuable for studying everyday life in the city.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Dáné, Veronka, ed. Torda vármegye jegyzőkönyvei I: 1607–1658. Erdélyi Történelmi Adatok 9.1. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, 2009.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. The minutes written as a result of the operation of the self-government of the county offer excellent sources for learning about the different levels of the county nobility and reconstructing their everyday life. They also allow some administrative historical investigation.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Hientz, Käthe, Bernhard Heigl, and Thomas Şindilariu, eds. Hermannstadt und Siebenbürgen: Die Protokolle des Hermannstädter Rates und der Sächsischen Nationsuniversität, 1391–1705. Sibiu, Romania: Honterus, 2007.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The book contains the indices of the council minutes of Sibiu and the minutes of the Saxon Universitas from 1420 to 1699, while a DVD supplement provides digital photos of eleven surviving volumes of meeting minutes in Latin or German from between 1391 and 1705. The index helps researchers with searching the volumes.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Kovács, András, ed. Gyulafehérvár város jegyzőkönyvei; Gyulafehérvár városkönyve 1588–1674; Gyulafehérvár város törvénykezési jegyzőkönyvei 1603–1616. Erdélyi Történelmi Adatok 6.3. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum Egyesület, 1998.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. These are the minutes of the jurisdiction and public life of the city, and offer a source base usable for a wide range of research on everyday life in the capital of the Principality. The cases negotiated at the court of justice shed light on social strata and their tasks within the urban community.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Vlaicu, Monica, Radu Constantinescu, Adriana Ghibu, Costin Feneşan, Cristina Halichias, and Liliana Popa, eds. Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hermannstadt. Vol. 2, Handel und Gewerbe in Hermannstadt und in den Sieben Stühlen 1224–1579. Sibiu, Romania: Arbeitskreis für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde Heidelberg-HORA, 2003.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. The authors’ aim was to form a basis for economic historical research by publishing sources related to the crafts and trade of the city of Sibiu and the seven Saxon seats. These are mainly guild regulations, documents related to guild organization and commercial privileges written in Latin and in German.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Wagner, Ernst, ed. Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen 1191–1975. Cologne and Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1976.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. This work was intended for people interested in history, and thus the sources are in German and are published unabridged or in the form of abstracts. All the chapters are related to Saxon history and contain significant sources previously published. There is a short introduction at the beginning of each chapter in which the author provides the historical context and trends necessary to understand the given period and the sources.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Wolf, Rudolf, ed. Torda város tanácsi jegyzőkönyve 1603–1678. Erdélyi Történelmi Adatok 6.1. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Erdélyi Múzeum Egyesület, 1993.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. The Hungarian council minutes of the town offer insight into the everyday life, public affairs, and operation of the magistrate. This is useful for urban historians.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. The Church and Intellectual Culture
  470.  
  471. All the works cited in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary contain information on Transylvanian church history of the age. Pokoly 1904–1905 is still the best work for the Transylvanian Calvinist Church, while the studies in Jakó 1997 (cited under Intellectual Culture, Schooling, Printing, the Book, and Communication) clearly elucidate minor issues in the fields of church and intellectual history. Roth 1962–1964 is a comprehensive study on the history of Saxons’ Reformation. Research on the history of Transylvanian churches has gained new impetus both in Hungary and in Romania in recent decades. The collected studies published by the University of Cluj Napoca investigate historical issues related to the Transylvanian denominations within the framework of the church history of eastern Europe. Crăciun 2001 describes how superstition was understood in the Reformed Church of Transylvania. Crăciun and Ghitta 1995 discusses medieval and early modern religious identity and religious practice in different eastern European countries. Péter 1995 (cited under Intellectual Culture, Schooling, Printing, the Book, and Communication) clarifies some important minor issues. Murdock 2000 provides an extensive survey of the development and role of the Reformed Church in 17th-century Transilvania and Hungary. Crăciun 2002 reveals the situation of Catholics in 16th-century Protestant Transylvania. Leppin and Wien 2005 contain essays on the status of the four received religions in the principality. Keul 2009 reveals the pluralism of Transylvanian society by examining the roles of its various denominations and religious communities.
  472.  
  473. Crăciun, Maria. “Superstition and Religious Differences in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth- Century Transylvania.” In Frontiers of Faith. Edited by Eszter Andor, and István György Tóth, 213–232. Budapest: CEU-European Science Foundation, 2001.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. This study shows how superstition was understood in the Reformed Church of Transylvania, and tells us how the Reformed religion addressed religious differences in a multiconfessional society and what their attitude to traditional religiosity was. On the basis of Jesuit missionary reports, the author claims that the two large denominations (Catholic and Calvinist) had similar attitudes to religious differences because religious alternatives were portrayed in a negative way by both.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Crăciun, Maria. “Traditional Practices: Catholic Missionaries and Protestant Religious Practice in Transilvania.” In Religion and Superstition in Reformation Europe. Edited by Helen L. Parish and William G. Naphy, 75–93. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. This article examines the possibility and terms of a Catholic restoration in 16th-century Protestant Transylvania. It focuses on the substantive changes in religious life in the Principality, and also reveals the way in which Jesuit missionaries, invited into Transylvania by Prince István Báthory (reigned 1571–1586; as Polish king reigned 1576–1586), saw the people they worked with.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Crăciun, Maria, and Ovidiu Ghitta, eds. Ethnicity and Religion in Central and Eastern Europe. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Cluj University Press, 1995.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. This book describes the medieval and early modern religious identity and religious practices of various ethnic groups from different aspects, from church murals to literary works. The studies deal with different eastern European countries and discuss certain issues relating to the history of Protestant denominations and the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Keul, István. Early Modern Religious Communities in East-Central Europe: Ethnic Diversity, Denominational Plurality, and Corporative Politics in the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1691). Studies in Medieval and Reformation Traditions. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. This book reveals the pluralism of Transylvanian society by examining the development and role of the various denominations and religious communities in Transylvania in the 16th and 17th centuries within the historical paradigm of “confessionalization.” The work is based on a comprehensive survey of the available scholarly literature on the topic. Recommended for university students and researchers as well.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Leppin, Volker, and Ulrich A Wien, eds. Konfessionsbildung und Konfessionskultur in Siebenbürgen in der Frühen Neuzeit. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des östlichen Europas. 66. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. 2005.
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  491. The essays of the volume describe the peculiar circumstances of the Reformation in Transylvania. From the middle of the 16th century there were four confessional communities: Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Unitarianism (the so-called received religions) all of them could save their distinct position. The essays examine also the questions relating to the state building and the confessionalization of the principality.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Murdock, Graeme. Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600–1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. This book examines the history of Protestant communities in Hungary and Transylvania, emphasizing the close connections between the two territories. It also gives a comprehensive survey of the development of the Protestant church, the history of schools and education, the confessional rivalry, and the connections in the European network of Calvinism. Recommended for researchers and students as well.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Pokoly, József. Az erdélyi református egyház története 1556–1880. 5 vols. Budapest:Franklin-Társulat, 1904–1905.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. This is so far the most thorough work on the history of the Transylvanian Reformation. It offers detailed data on church historical events, the activities of certain preachers and religious writers, the struggle among the different congregations, and the religious policy of the princes. It is recommended for researchers.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Roth, Erich. Die Reformation in Siebenbürgen: Ihr Verhältnis zu Wittenberg und der Schweiz. 2 vols. Siebenbürgisches Archiv. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1962–1964.
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  503. This comprehensive study on the Reformation of the Saxons in Transylvania focuses on the political and intellectual role of Johannes Honterus with regard to the organization and operation of the Lutheran church. The book also describes the theological views of the famous Saxon humanist Honterus.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Sources
  506.  
  507. Károly 1860 publishes mainly the religious acts of the 16th and 17th centuries. Lukács 1969–1987 publishes the letters and reports of Jesuits who were papal envoys or performing other diplomatic tasks. Balázs, et al. 1995 and Monok, et al. 1990 contain the correspondence of Jesuits staying in Transylvania and in Hungary. Tóth 2002–2008 publishes the letters of missionaries related to Hungary and Transylvania. Buzogány, et al. 2008 contains the administrative sources of the diocese of Küküllő/Târnava.
  508.  
  509. Balázs, Mihály, Tamás Kruppa, István Dávid Lázár, and László Lukács, eds. Jezsuita okmánytár, I/1–2: Erdélyt és Magyarországot érintő iratok 1601–1606. Adattár a XVI–XVIII. Századi szellemi mozgalmaink történetéhez 34. Szeged, Hungary: Scriptum, 1995.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. The volumes contain important notes, letters, and reports written by Jesuits working in Hungary and Transylvania. These documents are especially useful for research on church and political history.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Buzogány, Dezső, Sándor Előd Ősz, and Levente Tóth, eds. A Küküllői Református Egyházmegye parciális zsinatainak végzései I, 1638–1720. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: n.p., 2008.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. This volume publishes the administrative sources of the diocese, and the documents related to the internal life of the parishes, as well as the court documents of the partial synod dealing with the petty offenses of parsons and marriage suits.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Lukács, Ladislaus, ed. Monumenta Antiquae Hungariae:1550–1600. 4 vols. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 1969–1987.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. This series publishes the letters and reports of Jesuits who were papal envoys or performing other diplomatic tasks. The letters were written to the princes of Transylvania and to aristocrats in the Kingdom of Hungary. Some of them were published earlier, while others are discoveries from recent archival research. These important sources can be used for research on political and church history and intellectual culture.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Monok, István, Mihály Balázs, Ádám Fricsy, and László Lukács, eds. Erdélyi és hódoltsági jezsuita missziók: I, 1609–1616; II, 1617–1625. Adattár XVI–XVIII. Századi szellemi mozgalmaink történetéhez 26/1–2. Szeged, Hungary: Scriptum, 1990.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. These books contain the correspondence of Jesuits staying in Transylvania and in Hungary, as well as letters referring to this region. They are written in Latin, Italian, and German. The editors collected these documents in several archives. They are basic sources of political and church history, as well as intellectual culture, and also help with tracing Transylvanian political changes.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Tóth, István György, ed. Litterae missionariorum de Hungaria et Transilvania, 1572–1717. 5 vols. Bibliotheca Academiae Hungariae in Roma. Budapest: METEM-MTA Történettudományi Intézete, 2002–2008.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The letters published in this series are from the archives of the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fidei in Rome. The letters reveal religious life in the region in detail, and besides Roman Catholics, they also touch upon the popularity and conditions of the Protestant congregations. This is an essential database for any investigation of early modern church, social and intellectual history.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Veszely, Károly. Erdélyi egyháztörténeti adatok. Vol. 1. Kolozsvár: n.p., 1860.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. This publishes the religious acts of the 16th and 17th centuries, as well as the parish documents of Székely land, the records of married priests, the list of Transylvanian vicars, and documents relating to minor parishes in Odorheiu-Scaune.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Lifestyle, Mentality, Family
  534.  
  535. The works listed in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary are also important for Transylvania. Research on everyday life and family relations has been given new impetus recently and has become interdisciplinary (see Sipos 2002 and Benkő and Székely 2008). Transylvanian dress codes published in Oborni, et al. 2009 offers nice illustrations of the history of clothing. Csoma 2009 describes 16th- and 17th-century Transylvanian gardening and horticulture, and Fekete 2007 gives an overview of the gardens of noble families living along the Maros River. Ionescu 2007 reveals the history of the so-called Transylvanian rugs, which were made in the Ottoman Empire mainly for the princes of Transylvania. Kovács 2005 is a modern work on family history, based on a large number of medieval and early modern sources. The latest collection of studies, Bubryák 2010, is an interesting and thorough introduction to the mentality and intellectual history of the age.
  536.  
  537. Benkő, Elek, and Attila Székely. Középkori udvarház és nemesség a Székelyföldön. Budapest: Nap Kiadó, 2008.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. The book reveals the late medieval noble lifestyle in Székely land on the basis of archaeological research by the authors. They have attempted to reconstruct the living conditions of the different strata of this strongly divided society. They have also used written sources for their research. The authors describe several recently excavated noble mansions built between the late medieval period and the end of the 16th century.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Bubryák, Orsolya, ed. “Ez világ mint egy kert”: Tanulmányok Galavics Géza tiszteletére. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Művészettörténeti Kutató Intézet-Gondolat, 2010.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. This Festschrift contains varied studies on the intellectual history, mentality, and history of art in medieval and early modern Hungary and Transylvania. The thematic groups include publicity and propaganda, aristocratic representation, built and natural environment, cultural and artistic relationships, church and patronage, and material culture from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and the Baroque era.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Csoma, Zsigmond. Késő reneszánsz, kora újkori kertek és borok Erdélyben. Budapest: Agroinform Kiadó, 2009.
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  547. This describes 16th- and 17th-century Transylvanian gardening and horticulture. It discusses orchards and vegetable gardens, and lists the herbs known at the time and their usage. It also focuses on the description of Renaissance gardens and the introduction of viticulture and wines of the time.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Fekete, Albert. Transylvanian Garden History: Castle Gardens along the Maros River. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Művelődés. 2007.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. After an overview of research on the Transylvanian castle-gardens the book provides a detailed examination of the castle-gardens of the most important noble families.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Ionescu, Stefan. Antique Ottoman Rugs in Transylvania. 2d ed. Rome: Verduci, 2007.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. One of the most peculiar products of early modern Transylvania was the so-called Transylvanian rugs, which were made in the Ottoman Empire for the princes of Transylvania or for other customers. These rugs were also present in the chateaux and mansions of aristocrats. The book describes their artistic values, peculiarities, and motifs, and contains many beautiful photos.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Kovács, András W. The History of the Wass de Czege Family. Hamburg, Germany: Edmund Siemers Stiftung, 2005.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. This is a modern work of family history based on a large source base. The author investigates medieval and early modern estate acquisitions, coat of arms, and marriage relationships of the family. Through the biographies of the noteworthy members of the family, readers can trace its history up to the 17th century. The case study also sheds light on early modern Transylvanian family life.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Oborni, Teréz, Lilla Tompos, and Gábor Bencsik. A régi Erdély népeinek képeskönyve: Kéziratos viseletkódex az Apafiak korából. Budapest: Magyar Mercurius, 2009.
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  563. The book publishes the colored pictures of one of the most beautiful dress codes that have survived from the late 17th century. The dress code itself can be found in the National Széchényi Library. One of the studies describes the historical background and society of the age, while the other places the costumes in the pictures within the context of contemporary fashion. The book is also published in German.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Sipos, Gábor. “Református eljegyzések, házasságok és válások az erdélyi traktusok jegyzőkönyveiben.” In Ámor, álom és mámor: A szerelem a régi magyar irodalomban és a szerelem ezredéves hazai kultúrtörténete. Edited by Géza Szentmártoni Szabó, 105–122. Budapest: Universitas Kiadó, 2002.
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  567. This work describes marriage customs and divorce practices of the age on the basis of church minutes containing information on the marriages and divorces of Transylvanian Calvinists in the early modern period.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Sources
  570.  
  571. The sources listed in the separate Oxford Bibliographies article The Kingdom of Hungary are also relevant here. Radvánszky 1879–1896 and Radvánszky 1888 contain the most dates and source provenance. Published private and family correspondence can be found in the Monumenta Hungariae Historica series (see Szilágyi 1875–1898, cited under Primary Sources). The private letters published in Szilágyi 1874 offer insight into the personal relationships of members of the princely family. Publication of the Transylvanian testimonies in Tüdős 2003–2008 means a new base for research.
  572.  
  573. Radvánszky, Béla, ed. Magyar családélet és háztartás a XVI. és XVII. Században. 3 vols. Budapest: Hornyánszky, 1879–1896.
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  575. Besides Hungarian sources, it also contains valuable Transylvanian material from the 16th and 17th centuries. The wide range of sources on family relations and customs, eating habits, dress, and housing can be a starting point for later research.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Radvánszky, Béla, ed. Házi történelmünk emlékei: Udvartartás és számadáskönyvek I. Bethlen Gábor fejedelem udvartartása. Budapest: Athenaeum, 1888.
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  579. The book publishes Prince Bethlen’s account books of foreign purchases (from Italy, Vienna, Prague, Krakow, and Constantinople) from 1617 to 1627. It also contains short letters and notes on the expenses of the princely court, as well as lists of consumer goods. The records are rich in data, and thus they shed light on the everyday life and material culture of the court, together with the prince’s luxury expenses.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Szilágyi, Sándor, ed. A két Rákóczi György fejedelem családi levelezése. Monumenta Hungariae Historica–Diplomataria 24. Budapest: Ráth Mór, 1874.
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  583. The published private letters offer insight into the personal relationships of the members of the princely family and into contemporary family events. They also shed light on the background behind the princes’ political decisions. It is a valuable source base for research on everyday life.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Tüdős, S. Kinga, ed. Erdélyi testamentumok. 3 vols. Marosvásárhely, Romania: Mentor Kiadó, 2003–2008.
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  587. This is the unabridged publication of the Hungarian testimonies of the 16th and 17th centuries. It is an excellent source base of social and intellectual history as the personal relationships, peculiarities of family life, history of estate acquisition by certain families, and material culture can be reconstructed on this basis. The series continues.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Intellectual Culture, Schooling, Printing, the Book, and Communication
  590.  
  591. Tarnóc 1978 summarizes Bethlen’s and the Rákóczy princes’ cultural policy and studies the most important cultural and art records. Jakó and Juhász 1979 describes students’ life in the most important college of 17th-century Transylvania. The Jakó 1997 collection contains the author’s significant church and intellectual historical studies relating to medieval and early modern Transylvania. Péter 1995 discusses the most important phenomena of Reformation church history and the Catholic revival in Transylvania and Hungary. Monok, et al. 1991 deals with the history of the most significant Transylvanian libraries. Szabó and Tonk 1992 examines Transylvanian students who attended foreign universities and colleges. König 1996 contain essays on the history of education, mainly of the Saxon schools. Wien and Zach 2004 contain essays mainly on the intellectual history of the time.
  592.  
  593. Jakó, Zsigmond. Társadalom, egyház, művelődés: Tanulmányok Erdély történelméhez. METEM Könyvek 18. Budapest: Magyar Egyháztörténeti Enciklopédia Munkaközösség, 1997.
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  595. The author’s most significant church and intellectual historical studies relating to medieval and early modern Transylvania are collected in this book. It contains studies on the history of printing in Cluj Napoca, the humanist Mihály Csáky, and the style of the Renaissance in everyday furnishings.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Jakó, Zsigmond, and István Juhász. Nagyenyedi diákok 1622–1848. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1979.
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  599. This book offers insight into the history of the best Transylvanian school of the day, the College of Aiud, established in 1622. The thorough introductory study deals with contemporary schooling and educational policy. The book publishes documents relating to the life of the students, diary-like notes, and student rolls, which encourage further research.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. König, Walter, ed. Beiträge zur siebenbürgischen Schulgeschichte. Siebenbürgisches Archiv 32. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1996.
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  603. The essays of the volume examine the history of education of Transylvania from the middle ages until the 19th century, focusing, among other subjects, on some important schools of the 16th–17th centuries, students who studied abroad, the school-reform of Johannes Honterus, and colleges of the time. The emphasis of the volume is on the school history of the Saxons.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Monok, István, Noémi Németh, and Sándor Tonk, eds. Erdélyi könyvesházak. vol.2, Kolozsvár, Marosvásárhely, Nagyenyed, Szászváros, Székelyudvarhely. Adattár tizenhatodik és tizennyolcadik századi szellemi mozgalmaink történetéhez. Szeged, Hungary: Scriptum, 1991.
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  607. The lists of donated books and library inventories allow us to trace the formation and development of the various collections. Text available online.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Péter, Katalin. Papok és nemesek: Magyar művelődéstörténeti tanulmányok a reformációval kezdődő másfél évszázadból. Budapest: Ráday Gyűjtemény, 1995.
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  611. The studies in this book describe the most important historical phenomena of the Reformation and Catholic revival in Hungary and in Transylvania, among them the development of Bible reading, Hungarian schooling in Transylvania in the early modern period, certain pieces of theological publication by the middle nobility, and the relationship between Transylvania and the Calvinist College in Debrecen.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Szabó, Miklós, and Sándor Tonk. Erdélyiek egyetemjárása a korai újkorban, 1521–1700. Fontes Rerum Scholasticarum 4. Szeged, Hungary: JATE, 1992.
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  615. This is a summary of the student rolls found in Transylvanian libraries and certificates issued by universities. They contain the names of Transylvanian students who attended foreign universities, colleges, and grammar schools. It publishes all the information found relating to the education of the students.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Tarnóc, Márton. Erdély művelődése Bethlen Gábor és a két Rákóczi György korában. Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 1978.
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  619. This is a summary of the princes’ cultural policy, supported with sources. It thematically introduces the luminaries of contemporary literary history and the history of science, as well as their works. It is used in university courses.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Wien, Ulrich A., and Krista Zach, eds. Humanismus in Ungarn und Siebenbürgen: Politik, Religion und Kunst im 16. Jahrhundert. Siebenbürgisches Archiv 37. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2004.
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  623. The essays of the volume examine various aspects of the history of Reformation. Special attention is devoted to intellectual and art historical issues, such as altar-pieces of the time, the influences of Erasmus and Melanchton on the Transylvanian theologians, the connection between Basel and Transylvanian antitrinitarianism, church music, etc.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. The Arts
  626.  
  627. Kelemen 1977’s minor art historical studies represent the diversity of the Transylvanian Renaissance in the field of secular architecture, the decorative arts, and church architecture. Nagy 1970 and Nagy 1973 publish sources related to Transylvanian Renaissance mansions and chateaux as well as analyses written on the basis of them. The series of Urbaria et Conscriptiones (Aradi 1967–1990) publishes extracts and abstracts from 16th- and 17th-century economic records preserved in the National Archives of Hungary, which are useful for art historical research. Kovács 2003 and Kovács 2007 discuss the Renaissance architecture of Transylvania. Tüdős 2002 investigates church castles surrounded by walls, the characteristic buildings of Székely land, while the popularizing Nagy 2005 describes the surviving mansions of Székely land with the help of lovely pictures.
  628.  
  629. Aradi, Nóra, ed. Urbaria et Conscriptiones: Művészettörténeti adatok. 8 vols. A Művészettörténeti Dokumentációs Központ forráskiadványai IV–V., A Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Művészettörténeti Kutató Csoportjának forráskiadványai VI., XI., XV., XVIII., XIX., XX. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1967–1990).
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  631. This series includes extracts and abstracts from 16th- and 17th-century economic records preserved in the National Archives of Hungary. They contain data that can be used for research on art history and intellectual culture, which helps historians to reconstruct the architectural features and furnishings of Hungarian and Transylvanian castles, chateaux, mansions, and other buildings. These documents were written in Hungarian, Latin, and German.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Kelemen, Lajos. Művészettörténeti tanulmányok. Edited by T. Attila Szabó, and Margit B. Nagy. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1977.
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  635. The studies deal with Transylvanian Renaissance painting, folk painting, and architecture as well as significant pieces of church architecture. The author also introduces some artists of the era: goldsmiths, painters, engravers, stonemasons, and illuminators.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Kovács, András. Késő reneszánsz építészet Erdélyben, 1541—1720. Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2003.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. This is a summary of the history of Transylvanian Renaissance architecture. It provides the history of beautiful buildings, illustrated with colored photos and drawings. Although its style is popularizing, it is an essential work rich in basic data, and it has a bibliography.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Kovács, András. Épületek emlékezete: Nevezetes épületek Erdélyben. Múltidéző Zsebkönyvtár. Budapest: L’Harmattan Kiadó, 2007.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. This is an art-historical analysis of significant Transylvanian Renaissance buildings on the basis of material and written sources. The basic studies show churches, mansions, and chateaux.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Nagy, Balázs, ed. Kúriák földje: Háromszék. Sfântu Gheorghe, Romania: Kovászna Megyei Művelődési Központ, 2005.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. The book shows the family residences and mansions survived in Trei Scaune (Háromszék) with help of photos, and short analyses of history, art history, and the history of architecture. Although it is popularizing, it is still a useful basic work.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Nagy, Margit B. Reneszánsz és barokk Erdélyben: Művészettörténeti tanulmányok. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1970.
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  651. This book describes the history of mansion construction and traces the diffusion of Renaissance styles from high culture into the lower strata of the nobility and of the society. It also contains maps and floor plans.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Nagy, Margit B. Várak, kastélyok, udvarházak, ahogy a régiek látták: XVII–XVIII. századi erdélyi összeírások és leltárak. Bucharest, Romania: Kriterion, 1973.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. This offers contemporary inventories, floor plans, and sketches of 17th- and 18th-century Transylvanian castles, chateaux, and mansions. The author publishes the texts in the original Hungarian, unabridged. It is an excellent source base for researchers.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Tüdős, S. Kinga. Háromszéki templomvárak: Erdélyi védőrendszerek a XV–XVIII. Században. Marosvásárhely, Romania: Mentor Kiadó, 2002.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. The author describes the characteristic defensive buildings of Székely land, the so-called church fortresses surrounded by walls. The book also contains historical drawings, art historical descriptions, and floor plans.
  660. Find this resource:
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