Greek Architecture (Classics)

Introduction

Greece occupies an important place in the history of architecture: as the birthplace of the classical orders in the ancient world and as a source of inspiration for the revival of classical forms in the 18th and 19th centuries. Our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from a variety of sources, both ancient and modern. Vitruvius, a Roman architect and author, was an avid student of Greek architecture. He read treatises written by the Greek architects and provided anecdotes about the achievements of many others. His explanation of the origins of classical architecture is the only surviving account from Antiquity and has enjoyed a unique status since the Renaissance. In recent centuries, however, the rediscovery of ancient monuments by travelers, architects, and archaeologists has provided a closer look at the original buildings and allowed modern scholars to form their own conclusions. Greek architecture can be defined by its form, material, and structure. Monumental stone architecture can be traced back to the 7th century BC, although the religious, social, and artistic practices that led to its development go back to the Early Iron Age. Masonry techniques can be documented in the 7th-century Corinthia, but the Ionian Greeks may also have learned from the Egyptians, whose mastery of stone construction goes back to the 3rd millennium BC. The familiar forms of classical architecture, especially the columns and entablature, may also owe a debt to Egyptian precursors; however, their appearance and use clearly reflect an equally important creative process in Greece. Early Greek temples dating from the 7th and 6th centuries show a gradual development of forms, beginning with stone foundations, walls, and columns. The gradual appearance of distinctively Greek elements, such as the Doric triglyph metope frieze or Ionic dentils, suggests that experimentation and innovation in architectural forms continued throughout the 6th century. Even when architects had developed a complete vocabulary and syntax of Ionic and Doric design, they continued to explore their potential for use in a variety of buildings. The most recognizable type of building, the Greek temple, is a complex expression of religious devotion, communal identity, and competition but one that also contained within it philosophical and aesthetic concepts. In addition to structures that served in Greek sanctuaries, such as temples and treasuries, other buildings were created to serve civic and social needs.

General Overviews of Greek Architecture

The general overviews of Greek architecture fall into three categories, older handbooks, recent books on temples and sanctuaries, and more scholarly works. Dinsmoor 1950 was originally conceived as a revision of The Architecture of Greece and Rome (1902) by William J. Anderson and R. Phene Spiers, which was a textbook based on Anderson’s lectures at the University of Glasgow. Both Dinsmoor 1950 and Lawrence 1996 (first edition 1957) follow Anderson and Spiers’s chronological organization and evolutionary approach. Berve, et al. 1963 presents essays on the nature of Greek architecture and sanctuaries; it was also one of the first books to provide extensive photographic illustrations to accompany the scholarly but readable text. Although out of date in many respects, the aforementioned books are still valuable for their observations, descriptions, and illustrations. Pedley 2005 and Spawforth 2006 provide excellent introductions to Greek architecture that are aimed at students; however, like Emerson 2007, these are appropriate for a general audience as well. Two more recent handbooks, Gruben 2001 and Lippolis, et al. 2007, are organized by geographical region and summarize early-21st-century knowledge about individual buildings, sanctuaries, and cities and will be of use to advanced students and scholars.

Berve, Helmut, Gottfried Gruben, and Max Hirmer. 1963. Greek temples, theaters, and shrines. 2 vols. London: Thames and Hudson.
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History of Greek sanctuaries written by Berve, descriptions of the most important examples of Greek architecture by Gruben, and high-quality color and black-and-white photography by Max Hirmer. Descriptions and bibliography are out of date, but the illustrations are still useful.
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Dinsmoor, William Bell. 1950. The architecture of ancient Greece. 3d ed. New York: Norton.
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Chronological survey from Late Bronze Age through the Hellenistic period and organized to follow evolutionary development of architectural forms; this is one of the most widely read handbooks on Greek architecture in the last half-century. The book’s methodology, Athenocentric perspective, and bibliography are out of date, but Dinmoor’s observations and measurements are still useful.
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Emerson, Mary. 2007. Greek Sanctuaries: An Introduction. London: Bristol Classical.
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This basic introduction intended for high school or undergraduate students includes identification of Greek architectural elements and description of panhellenic sanctuaries and the Acropolis of Athens.
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Gruben, Gottfried. 2001. Griechische Tempel und Heiligtümern. Rev. ed. Munich: Hirmer.
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Latest edition of this authoritative handbook of Greek architecture. Features entries on archaeological sites in Greece, southern Italy, Sicily, Ionia, and the Cyclades, as well as Hellenistic centers of Kos, Rhodes, and Pergamon. Includes description of architectural remains and plans, elevations, and black-and-white photos of buildings.
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Lawrence, Arnold W. 1996. Greek architecture. 5th ed. Revised by R. A. Tomlinson. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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In its first edition (1957), this was among the first textbooks to provide equal consideration of both prehistoric architecture as well as later historical periods in a chronological survey of Greek architecture. Still useful for description and illustrations, but the bibliography is out of date.
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Lippolis, Enzo, Monica Livadiotti, and Giorgio Rocco. 2007. Architettura greca: Storia e monumenti del mondo della polis dalle origini al V secolo. Milan: Mondadori.
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Most recent and comprehensive handbook of Greek architecture. Chapters are arranged chronologically, and there is a brief discussion of prehistoric architecture followed by more thorough thematic discussion of architectural development from 10th to 5th centuries BC. Extensive site catalogue arranged by region presents summary of topography, architecture, and bibliographic references.
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Pedley, John Griffiths. 2005. Sanctuaries and the sacred in the ancient Greek world. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Introduction to the origin, development, and function of sanctuaries in the ancient Greek world. Examines the role of architecture, ritual activities, and experiences at selected sanctuaries in Greece (Olympia, Delphi, Athens, and Samos) and southern Italy (Poseidonia). Useful for undergraduate students.
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Spawforth, Tony. 2006. The complete Greek temples. London: Thames and Hudson.
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Engaging and generously illustrated introduction to the Greek temple with thematic exploration of its origins, construction, and function in ancient society. Catalogue of sites in Greece, Italy and Sicily, North Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Black Sea—with practical information for visitors. Intended for popular audiences and undergraduate students.
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Reference Works

These authoritative works will be useful to anyone seeking a definition or explanation regarding Greek architecture. The manuals can be read in the same manner as a handbook but are typically organized with a thematic approach to the subject as opposed to a chronological or geographical arrangement. Among the dictionaries, Curl and Wilson 2015 is the only English-language reference and provides helpful definitions, while the others are intended for advanced students and researchers. The bibliographies, particularly Hellmann 2006 (cited under Manuals of Greek Architecture), are useful for scholars looking for recent publications.

Manuals of Greek Architecture

Written by distinguished scholars with many decades of experience, these books provide detailed investigations of ancient Greek building materials and construction techniques. Orlandos 1966–1968 (originally published in Greek, in 1955–1958) and Martin 1965 established a methodology that encompassed ancient sources and modern archaeological research. Hellmann 2002, Hellmann 2006, and Hellmann 2010 follow a similar approach with the addition of more recent scholarship and extensive drawings and photographs. These books will be useful to advanced students and researchers.

Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 2002. L’architecture grecque I: Les principes de la construction. Paris: Picard.
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Detailed exploration of Greek architecture, from the role of the architect and worksites to the architectural orders, architectural decoration, and roofs. Generously illustrated, with footnotes and bibliography.
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Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 2006. L’architecture grecque II: Architecture religieuse et funéraire. Paris: Picard.
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Thematic chapters explore the importance of religious and funerary architecture in the ancient Greek world. Topics include the definition of a temple, the origin and evolution of sacred architecture, buildings, monuments, and spatial organization of sanctuaries, types of tombs, and cemeteries.
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Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 2010. L’architecture grecque III: Habitat, urbanisme et fortifications. Paris: Picard.
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Chronological discussion of habitations (houses, palaces) and commercial structures and artisans’ workshops, urban planning and infrastructure, military fortifications, and ports.
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Martin, Roland E. 1965. Manuel d’architecture Grecque: Matériaux et techniques. Paris: Picard.
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Comprehensive source for understanding Greek building materials and construction techniques. This book assembles information provided by Greek and Roman authors, ancient art, building accounts, inscriptions, and archaeological evidence. The references are out of date, but this still provides a valuable summary of ancient sources and critical evaluation of contemporary knowledge.
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Orlandos, Anastasios K. 1966–1968. Les matériaux de construction et la technique architecturale des ancient Grecs. Translated by Vanna Hadjimichali et Krista Laumonier. Paris: De Boccard.
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French translation of Τὰ ὑλικα δομῆς τῶν ἀρχαίων Ἑλλήνων, first published in 1955–1958. Authoritative study of Greek building materials and construction techniques, based on evidence from archaeology, literature, and epigraphy.
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Dictionaries of Greek Architecture

Many of the general overviews of Greek architecture include a glossary, but the dictionaries listed here provide more extensive resources for scholars. Curl and Wilson 2015 is a useful general reference for anyone interested in architecture of all periods. Ginouvès and Martin 1985–1998, in French, is extremely helpful for tracing the meaning and usage of an architectural term in ancient sources and modern scholarship: the volumes included also provide translation of terms into modern languages. Orlandos and Travlos 1986, in Greek, takes a similar approach to defining architectural terms and providing references, but has a greater chronological range that traces usage from ancient Greek through Byzantine periods.

Curl, James Steven, and Susan Wilson. 2015. The Oxford dictionary of architecture. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Useful general reference for definitions of architectural terms, techniques, and architect biographies. Some entries contain references and are illustrated with annotated line drawings. Selected bibliography provided.
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Ginouvès, René, and Roland Martin. 1985–1998. Dictionnaire méthodique de l’architecture grecque et romaine. 3 vols. Paris and Rome: Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome.
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Definitions in French followed by equivalent word in German, English, Italian, ancient Greek, and Latin. Entries have footnotes to ancient sources and modern scholarship, and many terms are illustrated in line drawings and photographs. Indexes are in all of the languages listed above. Valuable resource for advanced students and scholars.
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Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 1992. Recherches sur le vocabulaire de l’architecture grecque d’après les inscriptions de Délos. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
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Examination of Greek architectural vocabulary used in inscriptions from Delos (including dedications, decrees, building accounts, and inventories) from the 6th to 1st centuries BC. Introduction to scholarship of Greek architectural vocabulary. Also available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online.
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Keyser, Paul T., and Georgia L. Irby-Massie, eds. 2008. The encyclopedia of ancient natural scientists: The Greek tradition and its many heirs. London and New York: Routledge.
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Concise entries on individuals related to ancient architecture, some directly, such as Greek architects and engineers and others whose work relates more indirectly. Useful glossary, list of entries by topic (including architecture), various indexes.
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Orlandos, Anastasios K., and Ioannes K. Travlos. 1986. Λεξικὀν ἀρχαίων ἀρχιτεκτονικῶν ὄρων. Athens, Greece: Athens Archaeological Society.
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Specialist lexicon of ancient architectural terms with definition, list of references in Greek and Latin literature, inscriptions, and contemporary scholarship. Chronological range from ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine periods.
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Bibliographies of Greek Architecture

The manner in which Greek architecture studies are published has evolved to include not only books and articles but also conference proceedings, collected volumes, museum catalogues, and exhibitions, among others. Barletta 2011 offers a summary of how the study of architecture developed from the 18th century to the 21st century and how types of publications have developed, especially since around the mid-1990s. Østby 1993 summarizes publications from the twenty-five years prior to that. Hellmann 2008 was the last print edition of an exhaustive biannual publication of research in Greek architecture compiled by French scholars. An online archive of this resource is available online as Bibliographie de l’architecture grecque.

Barletta, Barbara A. 2011. State of the discipline: Greek architecture. American Journal of Archaeology 115:611–640.
DOI: 10.3764/aja.115.4.0611Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Thoughtful appraisal of the study and publication of Greek architecture from the 18th century to the early 21st century. Focuses on the history of scholarship, the role of archaeological schools and institutes in Greece, research trends, and the most important publications since the mid-1990s.
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Bibliographie de l’architecture grecque. Edited by Marie-Christine Hellmann.
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Open-access online archive of the bibliography previously edited by Hellmann and published as the Bulletin Analytique d’Architecture du Monde Grec in the Revue Archéologique. Includes selected recent additions. Can be searched using keywords, including author, term, and site.
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Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 2008. Bulletin Analytique d’Architecture du Monde Grec. Révue Archéologique 293–441.
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Exhaustive list of publications on Greek architecture with summary and review published biannually from 1992–2008. An archive of the bibliography, including more recent additions, is available online in the Bibliographie de l’architecture grecque.
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Østby, Erik. 1993. Twenty-five years of research on Greek sanctuaries. In Greek sanctuaries: New approaches. Edited by Nanno Marinatos and Robin Hägg, 192–227. London and New York: Routledge.
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Useful list of publications from the late 1960s to early 1990s with brief commentary. Geographic range includes southern Italy and Sicily, the Greek mainland, Aegean Islands, and Asia Minor.
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Journals

Among the scholarly journals that focus on the classical world, those listed below are valuable sources of information on the history of Greek architecture. Archaeological excavation began in the 19th century and excavation reports published in the journals are often the best source of information about the discovery of architectural remains.

Greek Journals

Following Greek independence in 1831, archaeological research in Greece has been carried out by the Archaeological Society at Athens, the Archaeological Service, and foreign schools and institutes under the auspices of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture. The Archaeological Society publishes two journals, the Archaiologike Ephemeris and the Praktika tes en Athenais Archaiologikes Hetaireias. The work of the Greek Archaeological Service is published in the Archaiologikon Deltion.

Archaiologike Ephemeris. 1837–.
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Abbreviated as AE or ArchEph. Annual publication of research and excavations carried out by the Archaeological Society of Athens. In Greek.
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Archaiologikon Deltion. 1915–.
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Abbreviated as AD or ArchDelt. Annual publication in of research (Μελέτες) and excavation reports (Χρονικά) of the Greek Archaeological Service. In Greek.
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Praktika tes en Athenais Archaiologikes Hetaireias. 1839–.
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Abbreviated as Prakt or PAE. Publication of the excavations of the Archaeological Society. Series one through five (current) reflect slight differences in title. In Greek.
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Foreign Schools and Institutes in Greece

The foreign archaeological schools in Greece facilitate the research of scholars from Europe, North America, and elsewhere, and many publish journals with articles and reports of their fieldwork. The French School at Athens, established in 1846, publishes the Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. The German Archaeological Institute in Athens publishes both the Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologisches Institut in Athen and the Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, while the British School at Athens has both an annual journal and supplementary volumes. There are two North American journals, Hesperia, which is published by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, and the American Journal of Archaeology, from the Archaeological Institute of America.

Annual of the British School in Athens. 1894–.
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Abbreviated as BSA. Annual publication of the British School at Athens on Hellenic culture from prehistory to the present. Supplementary volumes include monographs on the Protogeometric building and Iron Age settlement at Lefkandi and temples of Athena at Old Smyrna.
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American Journal of Archaeology. 1897–.
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Abbreviated as AJA. Journal of the Archaeological Institute of America publishes quarterly with peer-reviewed articles on archaeology emphasizing the ancient Mediterranean world.
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Archäologischer Anzeiger. 1889–.
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Abbreviated as AA. Annual publication of the excavation reports and research by members of the institute with focus on the Mediterranean world from prehistory to the late Antique period. Published with the Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologisches Institut in Athen from 1889–1975.
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Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. 1877–.
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Abbreviated as BCH. Biannual journal presents scholarly articles on the Greek world from prehistory to the end of the Byzantine period, as well as reports on fieldwork carried out by members of the French School. Available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online.
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Hesperia. 1932–.
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Quarterly publication of peer-reviewed articles on excavation and fieldwork of the school, including Greek archaeology, art, and culture from prehistory to the present.
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Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologisches Institut in Athen. 1886–.
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Abbreviated as JdI. Annual publication of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens. Publishes research on aspects of the classical world but ranging from prehistory to the late Antique period.
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Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung. 1915–.
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Abbreviated as AM. Annual publication of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens with peer-reviewed articles on art, archaeology, and architecture of Greece from prehistory to the early Middle Ages. Abbreviated in German, Italian, English, and French.
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Italy

Among the Italian institutions that host journals, the University of Rome published Archeologia Classica, while the National Academy of Lincei publishes the Monumenti Antichi and the Notizie degli scavi di antichità. The German Archaeological Institute in Rome has its own journal, the Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung, which offers both articles and excavation reports.

Archeologia Classica. 1949–.
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Abbreviated as ArchCl. Annual publication of the University of Rome, La Sapienza. Includes articles on Greek, Roman, and Etruscan archaeology.
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Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung. 1829–.
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Abbreviated as RM. Annual publication of peer-reviewed excavation reports and articles on art, archaeology, and architecture of Italy and North Africa from prehistory to the early Middle Ages. In German, Italian, English, and French.
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Monumenti Antichi. 1889–1966.
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Abbreviated as MonAnt. Important source of information about early excavations in Italy and Sicily. In Italian. Volumes from 1890–1931 available online.
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Notizie degli scavi di antichità. 1876–.
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Abbreviated as NSc. Annual publication of excavations in Italy and Sicily. In Italian. Volumes from 1884–1929 available online.
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Turkey

German archaeologists have been excavating in western Asia Minor since the 19th century at sites that include Didyma, Miletos, Pergamon, Priene, and Troy. The German Archaeological Institute in Istanbul publishes articles and excavation reports in the Istanbuler Mitteilungen.

Istanbuler Mitteilungen. 1933–.
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Abbreviated as IstMitt. Features articles and excavation reports for sites in Turkey.
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Early Greek Architecture

The approach to understanding when and how the familiar forms of Greek architecture developed has changed to reflect our growing knowledge. Although Vitruvius offers the perspective of an ancient Roman architect, modern archaeological excavation rapidly surpassed him as a resource. Discovery of prehistoric Minoan and Mycenaean sites and the recognition of Linear B as a Bronze Age form of Greek language led scholars to search for an architectural legacy in later periods. Handbooks of Greek architecture began their survey with prehistoric buildings and continued to the Hellenistic period. Despite a clear chronological gap between the end of the Bronze Age and the appearance of Doric and Ionic forms, many scholars still sought to demonstrate a connection between the prehistoric civilizations and later historical developments. The studies in this section demonstrate the evolving scholarship of this transitional period. Drerup 1969 is based on a catalogue of buildings from the Geometric and Protogeometric periods, but his attempts to connect them to the Homeric traditions did not find universal support. Fagerström 1988 expanded the range of material evidence, but Fagerström was criticized for his methodological and chronological ambiguities. Mazarakis Ainian 1997 presented both an extensive catalogue of buildings and a critical analysis of function that signaled an important change for future interpretations. A more critical inquiry into the relationship between the 8th and 7th centuries and later monumental buildings was presented by Kalpaxis 1976 and Mallwitz 1982. Of the two, Kalpaxis 1976 is more limited in scope and analysis, while Mallwitz 1982 systematically evaluated the evidence for peripteral buildings and their role in the development of monumental forms. Klein and Glowacki 2009 evaluates the religious architecture of Crete in the transitional period from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age to understand how religious practice is expressed in the built environment. See also Barletta 2001 and Wilson Jones 2014 (both cited under Origins of Classical Architecture).

Drerup, Heinrich. 1969. Griechische Baukunst in geometrischer Zeit. Gottingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
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Part of a series on Homeric archaeology, Drerup presents typological and chronological discussion of buildings and settlements in the Early Iron Age. Criticized for interpretation of Geometric buildings as settings described in Homeric literature (instead of Mycenaean palaces) but his suggestion that the idea of the ruler’s house may anticipate later temples has support.
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Fagerström, Kåre. 1988. Greek Iron Age architecture: Developments through changing times. Göthenberg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag.
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Exploration of architecture and society in the Iron Age, based on a catalogue of buildings and analysis of building materials, methods, and function. Criticized for chronological ambiguities and methodology, this book’s dates and conclusions should be closely examined.
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Kalpaxis, Athanasios E. 1976. Früharchaische Baukunst in Griechenland und Kleinasien. Athens, Greece: Athanassiou.
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Typological analysis of buildings based on descriptive catalogue, focuses on archaeological evidence for developments in plan and elevation that anticipate Classical buildings. Based on a dissertation for the University of Heidelberg (1971).
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Klein, Nancy L., and Kevin T. Glowacki. 2009. From Vronda to Dreros: Architecture and display in Cretan Cult buildings. In Archaeologies of cult: Essays on ritual and cult in Crete in honor of Geraldine C. Gesell. Edited by Anna Lucia D’Agata and Aleydis Van de Mortel, 153–167. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Investigation of religious buildings in Crete from 1200–700 BC. Considers the relationship between architectural design and ritual practices with attention to built features used for the dedication and display of votives.
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Mallwitz, Alfred. 1982. Kritisches zur Architektur Griechenlands im. 8. und 7. Jahrhundert. Archäologischer Anzeiger 599–642.
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Thorough examination of archaeological evidence (especially ground plans) provided by Geometric buildings and models for the development of the monumental peripteral. Important for challenging the reconstruction of many early examples (contra Drerup), this study argues that the peripteral temple may have originated in the Peloponnese.
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Mazarakis Ainian, Alexander. 1997. From ruler’s dwellings to temples: Architecture, religion, and society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 B.C.). Jonsered, Denmark: Paul Åströms.
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Critical evaluation of archaeological evidence for Early Iron Age architecture. Distinguishes between rulers’ dwellings and cult buildings and notes connection of the former with both communal dining and hero cults. An encyclopedic catalogue and generous illustrations make this a useful reference for anyone interested in early Greek architecture.
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Origins of Classical Architecture

As the primary written source on architecture to survive from Antiquity, Vitruvius’s account of the origins and characteristics of classical architecture enjoys a unique status and has been subject to scholarly analysis since the Renaissance. Rowland and Howe 1999 offers a recent translation of the Latin text accompanied by commentary and numerous line drawings. Vitruvius’s theory, that the mature forms of the classical orders evolved from ephemeral materials such as wood into stone was generally accepted but has been challenged by modern research. Conference volumes Knell and Wesenberg 1984 and Geertman and de Jong 1989 highlight efforts by scholars to evaluate Vitruvian theory in light of the archaeological discoveries. Barletta 2001 and Wilson Jones 2014 take a more comprehensive approach to the history of scholarship and the archaeological evidence for the origins of the architectural order. Curl 2003 is intended for architectural historians and a general audience seeking an introduction to the classical orders from their origins to the present.

Barletta, Barbara A. 2001. The origins of the Greek architectural orders. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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This clearly written consideration of the history of scholarship looks at literary sources and archaeological evidence for the origins of the Doric and Ionic orders. Documentation and bibliography makes this a useful resource for advanced undergraduates and scholars.
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Curl, James Stevens Curl. 2003. Classical architecture: An introduction to its vocabulary and essentials, with a select glossary of terms. New York: Norton.
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Excellent resource for understanding the origin of the classical orders in ancient Greece and Rome and their subsequent revival in the Renaissance and later periods. The photographs, line drawings, and glossary make this a useful reference for anyone interested in exploring classical architecture.
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Geertman, Herman, and J. J. de Jong, eds. 1989. Munus non ingratum: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Vitruvius’ De Architectura and the Hellenistic and Republican Architecture, Leiden, 20–23 January 1987. Leiden, The Netherlands: Stichting Bulletin Antieke Beschaving.
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Collection of twenty-four papers examining Vitruvius in the context of Hellenistic Greece, as well as late Republican and early imperial Rome. Topics include drawing, perspective, mathematics, and modules in Vitruvius.
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Knell, Heiner, and Burkhart Wesenberg, eds. 1984. Vitruv-Kolloquium des Deutschen Archäologen-Verbandes e.V., durchgeführt an der Technischen Hochschule Darmstadt, 17. bis 18. Juni 1982. Schriften des Deutschen Archäologen-Verbandes 8. Darmstadt, Germany: Hochschule.
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Collection of thirteen papers by German scholars addresses a range of Vitruvian topics including his description of the orders, optics, and perspective, as well as Hellenistic architects and buildings.
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Rowland, Ingrid D., and Thomas N. Howe. 1999. Vitruvius: Ten books on architecture. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Translation and commentary complemented by extensive line drawings illustrating ancient architecture, construction techniques, and Vitruvian theory. The thoughtful introduction will be helpful to students and those beginning to study Vitruvius, his place in the ancient Roman world, and his rediscovery in the Renaissance.
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Wilson Jones, Mark. 2014. Origins of classical architecture: Temples, orders, and gifts to the gods in ancient Greece. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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Thorough study of purpose, development, appearance, and meaning of Greek temples. Emphasizes understanding forms in sanctuary context and that, as one of many dedications to the gods, the temple reflects influences from votive offerings in other media. Draws upon theoretical and philosophical approaches to understanding architecture and ritual.
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Greek Architectural Orders

In architectural usage, the term “order” implies a relationship between individual parts to create a unified whole, such as the Doric or Ionic order. Individual Doric and Ionic elements appear in the late 7th and 6th centuries BC but do not coalesce into a predictable whole until the later 6th century BC. The first known example of the Corinthian capital dates to the 5th century BC. In his writing, Vitruvius emphasized how proportion and decoration appropriate to each genus (rather than ordo), especially in the design of columns and the entablature, contributed to the beauty of a structure. His guidelines were intended to serve as a basis for evaluating the success of existing structures and the future design of others but have assumed a more restrictive quality in modern understanding. By contrast, modern archaeological research has discovered a wide range of architectural forms, especially in the earliest Greek temples from the 7th and 6th centuries BC and gained a greater appreciation for when and where the recognizable Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian elements appear; how they are combined with other elements; and how they change over time. This suggests that the term “order” should be understood in a broad sense as a relationship of parts and that regional and chronological variations, rather than deviating from a single correct order, represent a dynamic and imaginative realization of the potential of classical architecture.

The Doric Order

The Doric order is characterized by columns without base, a capital with echinus and abacus, architrave, triglyph and metope frieze, as well as a projecting cornice. An introduction to the elements and appearance of the Doric temple can be found in General Overviews of Greek Architecture and Reference Works. More focused research considers the development of these forms and how the Doric temple and its elements were designed. Coulton 1974 examined the evidence for temple planning based on the stylobate and intercolumniation, and Coulton 1975 expanded the discussion to consider the use of proportional relationships throughout the Doric temple that were defined during the building process. The analysis of Doric capital proportions in Coulton 1979 argues against a steady chronological development. Recognition of regional styles and means by which design can be communicated is explored in Barletta 1990. See the Origins of Classical Architecture and Greek Building Types for additional discussion of Doric architecture.

Barletta, Barbara. 1990. An “Ionian Sea” style in Archaic Doric architecture. American Journal of Archaeology 94:45–72.
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Close examination of characteristics previously associated with Achaean colonies. The article’s careful analysis of date and location led to the suggestion that, rather than reflecting architectural practices spread through colonization, they represented a regional style that emerged in the Archaic period. Important methodological contribution.
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Coulton, J. J. 1974. Towards understanding Doric design: The stylobate and intercolumniations. Annual of the British School at Athens 69:61–86.
DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400005438Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The first of several articles to propose criteria and methodology for evaluating design practices in Greek architecture. Compares theoretical principles to examples of built structures in order to propose basic rules (and numerous variations) governing layout of the stylobate and columns. Suggests that these techniques did not require preliminary drawings.
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Coulton, J. J. 1975. Towards understanding Greek temple design. Annual of the British School at Athens 60:59–99.
DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400006535Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Convincing argument in support of proportional relationships established in succession as part of the building process, as opposed to modules, in the design of Greek temples. The work’s practical consideration of building practices also evaluates evidence for the use of fractions, the accuracy of measuring tools (and thus measurements), and foot measure.
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Coulton, J. J. 1979. Doric capitals: A proportional analysis. Annual of the British School at Athens 74:81–153.
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Technical examination of Doric capitals based on proportions and statistics. Analysis leads to identification of discrete groups with shared proportions and concludes that development was neither continuous nor uniform over time. Tabular presentation of data of use to mathematically inclined readers.
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The Ionic Order

The appearance and development of Ionic architectural elements, especially the capital, have received special attention. Martin 1955–1956 is an early study of volute capitals that is still important for its observations and methodology. Martin 1973 is a study of the capitals from Delos and noted the contribution of this Cycladic island to the emerging Ionic style, as Lambrinoudakis 1996 does for the island of Naxos. McGowan 1997 provides an important examination of Archaic Ionic votive columns in Athens, and Barletta explores possible means of transmission for Ionic forms from the eastern Mediterranean to southern Italy and Sicily. See the General Overviews of Greek Architecture and Reference Works for additional discussion of Ionic architecture.

Barletta, Barbara A. 2000. Ionic influence in western Greek architecture: Towards a definition and explanation. In Die Ägais und das westliche Mittelmeer: Beziehung und Wechselwirkungen 8. Bis 5. Jh. V. Chr. Edited by Friedrich Krinzinger, 203–216. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
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Investigation into origins and characteristics of Ionic temples and altars in western Greece demonstrates that Ionic forms appear in the 6th century and have close associations with Samos, Cyclades, and the eastern Mediterranean. Argues against migration as source of influence and suggests that craftsman may have played an important role.
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Lambrinoudakis, Vassilis. 1996. Beobachtungen zur Genese der ionischen Gebälkformen. In Säule und Gebälk: zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechischer-römischer Architektur. Edited by Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner, 55–60. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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Presentation of architectural fragments from temple in the sanctuary of Dionysus at Iria on Naxos that suggest stone architectural forms of Ionic architecture from the Cycladic Islands and Asia Minor are derived from wooden predecessors.
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Martin, Roland E. 1955–1956. Problème des origins des orders à volutes. Études d’archéologie classique 1:117–132.
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Early study of volute capitals that summarizes theoretical background, history of scholarship, and examines extant examples of Aeolic and Ionic capitals. Emphasizes that decorative plant motifs are ubiquitous in the minor arts throughout the eastern Mediterranean and Levant but that the steps leading to structural elements in monumental architecture are not clear.
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Martin, Roland E. 1973. Compléments à l’étude des chapiteaux ioniques de Délos. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique Supplement 1:371–398.
DOI: 10.3406/bch.1973.5071Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Important study of the early Ionic capitals found on the island of Delos. Descriptions and illustrations provide basis for identifying different groups’ capitals. Important for understanding the origins and development of the Ionic capital and its regional forms in the 6th century BC.
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McGowan, Elizabeth. 1997. The origins of the Athenian Ionic capital. Hesperia 66:209–233.
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Examination of evidence for the introduction of the Ionic capital to Athens in the 6th century and subsequent development of Attic-Ionic forms.
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Caryatids

The ancient Greeks called the female figures used as architectural supports “korai,” or maidens, but they are also known today as “caryatids.” Vitruvius (I 1, 5) (see Rowland and Howe 1999, cited under Origins of Classical Architecture) explained the “caryatids” as a reference to the punishment of the women of Caryae, a city that had conspired with the Persians against the Greeks, but modern research on the origins and context of these female architectural supports suggests that they are more likely to represent women performing ritual acts. Homolle 1917 and Plommer 1979 used the text of Vitruvius as the point of departure for their research, while later scholars such as Lauter 1976, Scholl 1995, and Shear 1999 adopt a contextual approach to examples from the Athenian Acropolis and Delphi. Schmid-Colinet 1977 and Schmid 1982 are useful for their extensive catalogues of human figures as supports in architecture and other arts.

Homolle, Théophile. 1917. L’origine des caryatides. Révue Archéologique 5:1–67.
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Important early contribution to the study of female figures as architectural supports. Considers literary, historical, and archaeological evidence behind the Vitruvian derivation of the term. Comparanda and bibliography are out of date but still useful for methodology and analysis.
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Lauter, Hans. 1976. Die Koren des Erechtheion. Antike Plastik 16. Berlin: Mann.
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Important publication of the female statues or korai (maidens) of the south porch of the Erechtheion. Detailed description of individual figures with high-quality black-and-white photographs. Proposes identifying the figures as the arrephoroi, or young Athenian girls who served the goddess Athena Polias.
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Plommer, Hugh. 1979. Vitruvius and the origin of caryatids. Journal of Hellenic Studies 99:97–102.
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Detailed and densely written study of Vitruvius’s discussion of caryatids in Book I 4.8–5.11 along with other ancient sources. Responds to earlier theories by the author of Homolle 1917 and others and includes discussion of selected archaeological evidence.
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Schmid, Evamaria. 1982. Geschichte der Karyatide: Funktion und Bedeutung der menschlichen Träger und Stützfigur in der Baukunst. Wurtzburg, Germany: K. Triltsch.
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Study of human supports in architecture and other arts. Includes summary of evidence from literary sources and examples from the Near East and Egypt. Emphasis on Greek (Geometric to Hellenistic) and Roman figures.
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Schmid-Colinet, Andreas. 1977. Antike Stützfiguren: Untersuchungen zu Typus und Bedeutung des menschengestaltigen Architekturstütze in der griechischen und römischen Kunst. PhD diss., Univ. of Cologne.
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Investigation of the human figure as architectural support. Considers precedents in the ancient Near East and Egypt and the catalogue of male and female figures in Greek and Roman architecture. Emphasizes the importance of context for understanding the meaning of these figures.
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Scholl, Andreas. 1995. Choephoroi: Zur Deutung der Korenhalle des Erechtheion. Jahrbuch des Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Athen 110:179–212.
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Interpretation of caryatid porch as funeral monument for Kekrops based on structural and decorative details. The raised base is compared to a podium or peribolos appropriate for funerary monuments or hero shrines and the caryatids, who carry phialai and wear snake bracelets, are seen as participants in a chthonic ritual.
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Shear, Ione M. 1999. Maidens in Greek architecture, the origin of the “caryatids.” Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique 123:65–85.
DOI: 10.3406/bch.1999.7211Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Clear and thoughtful analysis of literary and archaeological evidence for female architectural supports in Greece. Earliest examples belong to 6th-century treasuries in Delphi and may have been a response to the monumental sculpted column drum of Ephesus and Didyma. Characteristics and context suggest they are priestesses, contra Vitruvius.
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The Corinthian Capital

Our understanding of the Corinthian capital, like much of classical architecture, is guided by Vitruvian theory and archaeological evidence. Vitruvius attributes its invention to Kallikrates, an ancient metallurgist who observed a basket (kalathos) of toys that had been placed on a child’s grave and surrounded by the leaves of an acanthus plant. Thus its form (central kalathos surrounded by acanthus leaves and corner volutes) and funerary function are established by Vitruvius. Homolle 1916 was the first to analyze Vitruvius’s account and compare it to the evidence from ancient Greece. Mallwitz 1981 and Scahill 2009 contribute new evidence in the form of architectural elements from Olympia and Corinth that suggest a more complicated development of the mature Corinthian capital. Pedersen 1989 is concerned primarily with the architecture of the Parthenon but is notable for his suggestion that the Corinthian capital would have been an appropriate design response to the square space of the back room. The earliest known examples of the Corinthian capital appeared in the interior of the 5th-century BC temple of Apollo at Bassae (see Cooper 1996, cited under Greek Architecture of the Mainland and Islands: Arcadia) and, in the following century, in the interior of the tholos at Epidauros and the exterior of the choragic monument of Lysicrates in Athens. Updated summary of examples and interpretation can be found in Wilson Jones 2014 (cited under Origins of Classical Architecture).

Homolle, Théophile. 1916. L’origine du chapiteau corinthien. Révue Archéologique 4:17–60.
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Vitruvius’s account of the origin of the Corinthian capital serves as point of departure for this early study. Considers funerary associations (on grave stelai), artistic representation (especially in vase painting) of acanthus, and invention in Corinth (center of bronze working) by Callimachus (a metalworker).
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Mallwitz, Alfred. 1981. Ein Kapitell aus gebranntem Ton oder zur Genesis des korinthischen Kapitells. Olympia Bericht 10:318–352.
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Presentation of a 5th-century terracotta capital from Olympia with double volutes and acanthus leaves. Detailed description, analysis of individual elements, and presentation of comparanda serve as point of departure for reexamination of the origins of the Corinthian capital.
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Pedersen, Poul. 1989. The Parthenon and the origin of the Corinthian capital. Odense, Denmark: Odense Univ. Press.
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Brief monograph on the Parthenon, most notable for suggestion that the design of the back room as a square with four central columns led to the invention of the Corinthian capital. An attractive theory, but there is no physical evidence to support it.
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Scahill, David. 2009. The origins of the Corinthian capital. In Structure, image, ornament: Architectural sculpture in the Greek world. Edited by Peter Schultz and Ralf von den Hoff, 40–53. Oxford: Oxbow.
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Important investigation into the development of Corinthian capital, the role of Kallimachos, his association with metalworking, and the kalathos capital type. Concludes that kalathos capitals from Corinth adorned by bronze leaf attachments represent an experimental design that was abandoned in favor of sculpted stone columns.
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The Aeolic Style

The Aeolic style is distinguished by a capital with volutes that rise vertically from the top of the column. The capital appears in the 6th century BC and is contemporary with the earliest examples of Ionic capitals. The relationship between the two capital types, as well as the geographical and chronological development the Aeolic style, continue to be subjects of discussion. Martin 1973 (cited under Greek Architectural Orders: Ionic Order) discusses examples of the two capital types on the island of Delos. Betancourt 1977 was the first major study of the architectural forms. Basaran 2000 presents a stylistic analysis of four examples of Aeolic capitals from the northern Aegean. A discussion of the Aeolic style is found in Wilson Jones 2014 (cited under Origins of Classical Architecture).

Basaran, S. 2000 [2001]. Aeolische Kapitelle aus Ainos (Enez). Istanbuler Mitteilungen 50:157–170.
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Publication of four Aeolic capitals from Ainos (Enez) on the modern border between Turkey and Greece that were found out of context but probably belong to a building. Decoration is similar to others found in the northeast Aegean at the end of the 6th century.
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Betancourt, Philip. 1977. The Aeolic Style in Architecture: A Survey of its Development in Palestine, the Halicarnassos Peninsula, and Greece, 1000–500 B.C. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Comprehensive survey of extant architectural evidence in the eastern Mediterranean. Questions of where the style originated and its chronological development are not completely resolved.
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Rediscovery of Greek Architecture

Although architectural developments of the Renaissance were inspired by interest in ancient (mostly Roman) architecture, an appreciation of Greek architecture emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, as travelers from western Europe visited the eastern Mediterranean. Institutions such as the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris and the Society of the Dilettanti in London sponsored research expeditions to document the surviving monuments of Greece. Le Roy 2004 is the work of one of the first European scholars to visit Athens. Among Le Roy’s contemporaries, James Stuart and Nicholas Revett (Stuart and Revett 2008) published their drawings and commentary, followed by Blouet and Ravoisié 1831–1838. In the 19th century, Leake 1841 adopted a topographic approach that described the architecture of Athens in its urban setting. Hittorff and Zanth 1827–1829, and Hittorff 1851 were catalysts for the discussion of architectural polychromy in the ancient world based upon their work at Segesta and Selinus. From the late 18th to the 20th century, students from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris who won the Prix de Rome traveled to Italy and Greece. Their envoi, documentation and reconstruction of ancient architecture, served to promote an awareness and appreciation of classical architecture. See Paris-Rome-Athens (Hellmann 1982, cited under Architectural Polychromy).

Blouet, Abel, and Amable Ravoisié. 1831–1838. Expédition scientifique de Morée: Ordonnée par le Gouvernement Français. Architecture, Sculptures, Inscription et Vues du Peloponèse, des Cyclades et de l’Attique. 4 vols. Paris: Didot.
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A description of the topography and monuments of Greece by members of an expedition sponsored by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris. Includes maps, plans, and elevations.
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Hittorff, Jacques-Ignace. 1851. Restitution du temple d’Empédocle à Sélinonte, ou l’architecture polychrome chez les grecs. Paris: Didot.
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An expanded discussion of architectural polychromy based on the temple of Empedocles (Temple B) at Selinus.
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Hittorff, Jacques-Ignace, and L. von Zanth. 1827–1829. Architecture antique de la Sicile. Paris: Didot.
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Reconstructions of the temples at Segesta and Selinus architecture emphasized the contribution of color and played a significant role in the 19th-century debate on polychromy.
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Le Roy, Julien-David. 2004. The ruins of the most beautiful monuments of Greece. Translated by David Britt. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust.
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English translation of Les ruines des plus beaux monuments de la Grèce, first published in 1770, with introduction by Robin Middleton. Le Roy traveled in Greece from 1754 to 1755 and made a study of the best examples of ancient Greek architecture.
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Leake, William Martin. 1841. The topography of Athens with some remarks on its antiquities. 2 vols. London: J. Rodwell.
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Detailed description of the city and its monuments at the beginning of the 19th century. Scale plans of the city and ancient monuments.
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Stuart, James, and Nicholas Revett. 2008. The antiquities of Athens. New York: Princeton Architectural.
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Reprint of four original volumes (1762–1816). Stuart and Revett visited Athens from 1751 to 1753, studying and making measured drawings of the ancient monuments for the Society of the Dilettanti in London. Their publications were extremely influential in generating an appreciation for Greek architecture and the development of Greek Revival architecture.
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Architectural Design and Construction

Questions about the techniques used to design and build in the ancient Greek world can be investigated in a variety of ways, using ancient sources, examining buildings, and comparing them to building practices elsewhere. Coulton 1977 provides a lucid introduction to the theory and practice of architectural design that is useful to all readers but especially to students. Müller-Wiener 1988 (in German) and Malacrino 2010 discuss a wide range of building materials and techniques and are illustrated with useful line drawings and photographs; however, they are less encyclopedic in method or range than the Manuals of Greek Architecture. The colloquium Bauplanung und Bautheorie in der Antike 1984 is a collection of papers by distinguished scholars on a variety of topics related to architectural theory and design. Oleson 2008 assembles a wide range of articles on ancient technology related to Greek architecture.

Bauplanung und Bautheorie in der Antike. 1984. Bericht über ein kolloquium veranstaltet vom Architekturreferat des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts mit Unterstützung der Stiftung Volkswagenwerk in Berlin vom 16.11 bis 18.11.1983. Berlin: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut.
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Collection of thirty-two essays by distinguished international scholars on architectural planning and theory, drawings, templates, and design analysis.
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Coulton, James J. 1977. Ancient Greek architects at work: Problems of structure and design. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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Fundamental study of how Greek buildings were designed and constructed. Examines archaeological evidence from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece related to measurement, scale, and construction techniques.
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Malacrino, Carmelo G. 2010. Constructing the ancient world: Architectural techniques of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Translated by Jay Hyams. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
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English translation of Ingegneria dei Greci e dei Romani, first published in 2009. Useful introduction to ancient building materials and construction techniques. High-quality illustrations—including color photographs, line drawings, and reconstructions of building processes—are significant contributions. Includes glossary and short bibliography.
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Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang. 1988. Griechisches Bauwesen in der Antike. Munich: Beck.
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Thematic approach focuses on planning, building materials and construction techniques, a discussion of the classical orders, types of buildings, cities, and city planning. Adequately illustrated with line drawings and photos, including interesting examples of contemporary buildings made with traditional materials and techniques.
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Oleson, John Peter, ed. 2008. The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Valuable reference on technological skills developed in ancient Greece and Rome. Chapters on quarrying and stoneworking by J. Clayton Fant and on Greek engineering and construction by Frederick Cooper. These chapters address specific aspects of Greek architecture.
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Architects and Builders

Our knowledge of architects and craftsmen in the ancient Greek world is limited by the scarcity of surviving information. Unlike Renaissance Europe, where the career of an artist or architect can be traced through extant works, books, and other documents, information about their ancient Greek counterparts must be teased out of less direct or generous sources. The architects of well-known buildings, including Rhoikos and Theodoros (6th-century temple of Hera on Samos), Iktinos and Kallikrates (Parthenon), and Mnesikles (Propylaia), have been known since Antiquity, and Vitruvius analyzes the contributions of Hermogenes with reference to the temples at Magnesia and Teos. Bundgaard’s monograph on Mnesikles (Bundgaard 1957) is an early and influential example of examining a building in order to understand an architect’s achievements, and this has been followed by others investigating Hermogenes in Hoepfner and Schwander 1990. Papers in Des Courtils and Moretti 1993 seek to trace the creative activities of nameless craftsmen and workshops through study of architectural remains that are not associated with a famous architect. Burford 1972 draws upon ancient sources to present a social history of craftsmen in Greece and Rome.

Bundgaard, J. A. 1957: Mnesicles: A Greek architect at work. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.
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Important study of architectural design as basis for understanding the architect of the Propylaia on the Athenian Acropolis. Detailed consideration of topography, architectural evidence, and phases of construction and modifications. Conclusions regarding the relationship between earlier buildings and the Classical gateway must be treated with caution.
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Burford, Alison. 1972. Craftsmen in Greek and Roman society. London: Thames and Hudson.
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Authoritative and readable study of craftsmen, including architects and masons, in ancient Greece and Rome. Discusses the contribution and limitation of ancient sources for understanding social status, working conditions, and ancient views on craftsmanship.
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Des Courtils, J., and J. -C. Moretti, eds. 1993. Les grands ateliers d’architecture dans le monde égéen du VIe siècle av. J.-C. Actes du colloque d’Istanbul, 23–25 mai 1991. Paris: De Boccard.
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Collection of twenty papers by international scholars emphasizing the role of workshops, trade, and itinerant craftsmen in the diffusion of styles. Many contributions point to a diversity of regional forms, the use of local materials, and the lack of canonical orders in the 6th century BC.
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Hoepfner, Wolfram, and Ernst-Ludwig Schwander, eds. 1990. Hermogenes und die hochhellenistischen Architektur. Internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 28 und 29. Juli 1988. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.
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Collection of eleven papers written by distinguished scholars about the architect Hermogenes and the temples he built. This volume will be of interest to scholars researching the role of the architect and questions of Hermogenes’s contributions to Hellenistic architecture.
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Architectural Drawings and Models

The concept of design communication and the tools used to plan and build a structure are important for understanding architectural practice. Not much graphic documentation has survived, but scholars have found evidence in a variety of sources. The use of scale drawings for the planning and execution of buildings is discussed in Coulton 1983 and several of the papers presented in Le dessin d’architecture dans les sociétés antiques 1985, while Haselberger 1997 reviews the evidence for both plans and models. The discovery of architectural drawings incised on the walls of the temple of Apollo at Didyma is documented in Haselberger 1985, and there is a more detailed inquiry into their use in Haselberger 1991. The relationships between philosophy and architectural drawing, and perception and representation, are explored by Hahn 2001 and Senseney 2011.

Coulton, J. J. 1983. Greek architects and the transmission of design. In Architecture et société: De l’archaïsme grec à la fin de la République Romaine. Actes du colloque international, by le Centre national de la recherche scientifique and École Française de Rome. By J. J. Coulton, 453–468. Paris: De Boccard.
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Concise discussion of evidence for the communication of design principles between architects and craftsmen. Draws upon building inscriptions, ancient authors, and modern scholarship to evaluate the use of scale drawings (which was unlikely) and books (Vitruvius mentions examples from the 6th century onward) for actual buildings or the spread of ideas.
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Hahn, Robert. 2001. Anaximander and the architects: The contributions of Egyptian and Greek architectural technologies to the origins of Greek philosophy. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press.
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Study of Greek philosopher explores the contribution of Greek technical innovations in architecture to his inventions (maps of the earth, cosmos). Suggests that Egyptian influence on Ionian Greek architects contributed to both practical (masonry techniques) and theoretical (perspective and proportion) advances that gave rise to architectural plans and views.
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Haselberger, Lothar. 1985. The Construction plans for the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. Scientific American 253:126–132.
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Popular account of discovery and interpretation of architectural drawings discovered on the interior wall of the temple of Apollo at Didyma. Line drawings and photographs accompany a technical but readable explanation of how the incised “blueprints” were used by the builders.
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Haselberger, Lothar. 1991. Aspekter der Bauzeichnungen von Didyma. Revue Archéologique no 1:99–113.
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Presentation and evaluation of the drawings incised on the temple of Apollo at Didyma. Explores the correlation between the drawings and the built forms and concludes that they were intended as building designs. Includes discussion of later architectural drawings found in England, Italy, and India.
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Haselberger, Lothar. 1997. Architectural likenesses: Models and plans of architecture in Classical Antiquity. Journal of Roman Archaeology 10:77–94.
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Philosophical and theoretical inquiry into the nature of “likenesses,” combined with a practical investigation of architectural models and plans from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Identifies four categories of material, the most numerous appear to be dedications, votive offerings, and funerary monuments. Extensive footnotes included.
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Le dessin d’architecture dans les sociétés antiques. 1985. Actes du Colloque de Strasbourg 26–28 janvier 1984. Strasbourg, France: Univ. de Strasbourg.
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Collection of twenty-five essays on architectural drawings in the ancient Near Eastern, Minoan, Greek, Roman, and early Christian worlds.
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Senseney, John. 2011. The art of building in the classical world: Vision, craftsmanship, and linear perspective in Greek and Roman architecture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511976711Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Nuanced and sophisticated approach to concepts of perception and representation in philosophy (Plato’s ideai) and architectural drawings (Vitruvius’s dispositio, ichnographia, orthographia, and scaenographia). Explores the archaeological evidence for scale and reduced scale drawing in the Classical and Hellenistic periods, including the examples from Didyma. Primarily for specialists.
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Greek Building Inscriptions

Inscriptions that record building specifications, contracts, and expenditures are a valuable source of information about Greek architecture. The accounts that survive are often fragmentary, but several studies have produced a variety of findings. Burford 1969 draws upon inscriptions from the sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidauros to describe construction practices, cost of materials, and labor. Hellmann 1999 collects a wide range of inscriptions and provides original text, translation in French, and analysis. Davies 1998 and Davies 2002 use literary and epigraphical evidence for administration and finance to consider social, political, and practical aspects of temple building at Delphi. Feyel 2006 is concerned primarily with reconstructing a social history of craftsman, but there is much that pertains to architectural practice as well. See also the Reference Works, especially Hellmann 1992 (cited under Reference Works: Dictionaries of Greek Architecture) for additional discussion of Greek building inscriptions.

Burford, Alison M. 1969. The Greek temple builders at Epidauros: A social and economic study of building in the Asklepian sanctuary, during the fourth and the early third centuries B.C. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool Univ. Press.
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Draws upon building inscriptions from the sanctuary of Asklepios to investigate economics and methods of constructions, the role of the architects, and architectural development of the sanctuary. Has been criticized for dubious calculations regarding building materials but offers valuable demonstration of how much information can be extracted from inscriptions.
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Davies, J. K. 1998. Finance, administrations, and realpolitik: The case of fourth-century Delphi. In Modus operandi: Essays in honour of Geoffrey Rickman. Edited by M. Austin, J. Harries, and C. Smith, 1–14. London: Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Suppl. 71.
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Primary focus is on the magistrates of the city of Delphi and the administration of the sanctuary as preserved in 4th-century inscriptions. Discusses the political nature of appointments, including the naopoioi, who served as the building committee in charge of rebuilding the temple of Apollo.
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Davies, J. K. 2002. Rebuilding a temple: The economic effects of piety. In Economies beyond agriculture in the classical world. Edited by David J. Mattingly and John Salmon, 209–229. New York: Routledge.
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Uses the literary and epigraphical evidence for the 6th- and 4th-century BC temples of Apollo at Delphi to discuss temple building in ancient Greece. Considers the administration, financing (by communities, families, and individuals), range of craftsmen employed, and record keeping related to temple construction.
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Feyel, Christophe. 2006. Artisans dans les sanctuaires grecs aux époques classiques et hellénistique à travers la documentation financière en Grèce. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
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Detailed investigation into the social history of artisans in the Classical and Hellenistic periods based upon a study of building accounts from the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis, Delos, Delphi, Eleusis, and Epidauros. Extensive bibliography is organized thematically.
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Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 1999. Choix d’inscriptions architecturales grecques. Lyon, France: Maison de l’Orient Mediterraneen-Jean Pouilloux.
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Presentation of selected architectural inscriptions including building contracts and accounts, dedications, signatures, city planning, leases, and sales contracts. Brief introduction to each topic, followed by catalogue of inscription with details on material, findspot, preservation, references, Greek text, French translation, and commentary. Valuable reference for advanced students and scholars.
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Metrology and Design

Building accounts and other sources tell us that the Greeks used a foot measure, but there appear to have been a variety of foot lengths used in different regions and at different times. Public standards, which could be used to measure a variety of commodities, may also have established the foot used in a particular city of region. The discovery of a possible standard in Salamis is discussed in Dekoulakou-Sideris 1990 and reevaluated by Wilson Jones 2001. Modules, which are not a specific length but can be based on an individual element or fraction thereof, may also have been used. Waddell 2002 argues that temple design was based on modules derived from the krepis, while Wilson Jones suggests that the triglyph was the primary module. Pakkanen 2013 tests these theories by applying quantitative analysis to several case studies. Wesenberg 1983 summarizes the evidence for understanding metrology and proportion. See also Doric Order and Architectural Design and Construction.

Dekoulakou-Sideris, I. 1990. A metrological relief from Salamis. American Journal of Archaeology 94:445–451.
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Publication of stone relief that served as a public standard. Metrological units on the fragment include part of the head and shoulder to fingertip (partial span), elbow to fingertip (cubit), hand (span), foot (0.322 m), and ruler (0.301 m). The two last elements may represent coexisting foot measures.
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Pakkanen, Jari. 2013. Classical Greek architectural design: A quantitative approach. Helsinki: Finnish Institute in Athens.
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Important study of quantitative analysis to evaluate theories about the design. Suggests that stylobate block and not triglyph served as module (contra Wilson Jones 2001), and Coulton’s theories regarding proportion (see Coulton 1974 and Coulton 1975, both cited under Doric Order) may be correct. Includes explanation of methodology, case studies.
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Waddell, Gene. 2002. The principal design methods for Greek Doric temples and their modification for the Parthenon. Architectural History 45:1–31.
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Analysis of measurements and proportions of 5th-century Greek temples suggests that temple planning was based upon the krepis, from which other modules such as the triglyph were derived. Responds to theories proposed by Wilson Jones 2001.
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Wesenberg, Burkhart. 1983. Beiträge zur Rekonstruktion griechischer Architektur nach literarischen Quellen. Berlin: Mann.
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Detailed evaluation of proportions, and metrology of temples based on the description of ancient authors, especially Vitruvius, and measurements from existing structures.
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Wilson Jones, Mark. 2000. Doric measure and architectural design I: The evidence of the relief from Salamis. American Journal of Archaeology 104:73–93.
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Detailed reexamination of the metrological relief from Salamis suggests that it represents a Doric foot of 0.327 meters. The proposed reconstruction of the complete relief (based on the Vitruvian man) might have been used to compare the Doric foot to the Attic foot and the Egyptian cubit.
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Wilson Jones, Mark. 2001. Doric measure and architectural design II: A modular reading of the classical temple. American Journal of Archaeology 105:675–713.
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Consideration of Vitruvian theory and analysis of the facades of six hexastyle temples from the 5th century BC leads to conclusion that the triglyph served as the basic design module in Doric architecture. Challenged by Pakkanen 2013.
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Quarrying and Masonry Techniques

Many question how the Greeks were able to build monumental structures without the benefit of modern machinery. Some of the answers can be found in the cuttings on architectural elements and fragments of unfinished blocks found in quarries and archaeological sites. Rhodes 1987a and Rhodes 1987b examine the evidence for early stone-working techniques in the Corinthia. Langdon 2000 summarizes the evidence for the quarries of Piraeus that were also incorporated into domestic structures, while Peschlow-Bindokat 1990 provides a thorough examination of the quarries in western Sicily that provided building material for the sanctuary at Selinus. Korres 2000 is an imagined account of how a capital was quarried and transported to the Acropolis of Athens. Coulton 1974 addresses the ancients’ responses to the challenge of lifting architectural blocks into position and what machines were used. For discussion of Egyptian influence on Ionian Greek masons see Hahn 2001, cited under Architectural Drawings and Models. See also Reference Works for additional information about quarrying and masonry techniques.

Coulton, J. J. 1974. Lifting in early Greek architecture. Journal of Hellenic Studies 94:1–19.
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Focused examination of the evidence from ancient sources and architectural blocks for lifting devices. Useful line drawings depict cuttings and how they were used to lift or maneuver blocks. Concludes that Greeks relied on levers and ramps prior to the adoption of cranes in late 6th century.
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Korres, Manolis. 2000. The stones of the Parthenon (From Pendele to Parthenon). Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum.
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Illustrated narrative of the “life history” of a capital for the older Parthenon, from quarrying, transportation, and dressing, through the Persian destruction. Detailed explanation, drawings, and references make this a useful resource for students and scholars.
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Langdon, Merle. 2000. The quarries of Peiraieus. Archaiologikon Deltion 55:235–250.
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Study of the archaeological evidence for the quarries of Piraeus discusses the combination of quarry and settlement in urban setting.
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Palagia, Olga, and Robert Steven Bianchi. 1994. Who invented the claw chisel? Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13:185–196.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0092.1994.tb00038.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Important study identifies earliest evidence of claw chisel in Egypt to mid-7th-century tomb followed by 6th-century Greek sculpture and architecture. Briefly examines architectural usage and offers the important suggestion that Egyptian influence on Greek craftsmen has a technical as well as a formal basis.
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Peschlow-Bindokat, Anneliese. 1990. Die Steinbrüche von Selinunt: Die Cave di Cusa und die Cave di Barone. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: von Zabern.
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Valuable study of the quarries that provided building material for the temples at Selinus (Temple G, perhaps the Olympieion) during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Discusses methods of extraction relationship between quarry and building. Includes section on geological and petrological characteristics.
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Rhodes, Robin F. 1987a. Early stoneworking in the Corinthia. Hesperia 56:229–232.
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Brief but useful examination of the tools and toolmarks associated with dressing poros (limestone) blocks in the Corinthia from the 8th to the 6th centuries. Concludes that only the flat chisel, adze, hammer, and the pointed chisel were used.
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Rhodes, Robin F. 1987b. Rope channels and stone quarrying in the early Corinthia. American Journal of Archaeology 94:545–551.
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Close examination of rope cuttings on limestone architectural blocks from 7th-century temples at Corinth and Isthmia led author to suggest that they were made to facilitate the extraction of blocks from the quarry, not for their final placement in the building as previously believed.
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Architectural Refinements

The observation that the architectural elements of some Greek temples were intentionally designed to have curving, rather than straight lines, has led scholars to question how and why this was done. Although earlier scholars had documented horizontal curvature of the krepis or stylobate, inclination and entasis of the columns in specific buildings, Goodyear 1912 was the first to devote an entire book to the subject. Haselberger 2005 summarizes the evidence for refinements in Archaic and Classical architecture, leading up to the example of the Parthenon. Haselberger 1999 has collected a wide range of papers exploring the evidence for curvature in Greece and Rome.

Goodyear, William Henry. 1912. Greek refinements: Studies in temperamental architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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Seminal study of Greek architectural refinements. Presents the discovery and interpretation of curvature, inclination, and entasis by modern scholars, critiques of earlier theories, and new interpretations of significance. Out of date in many regards, this book still stands as one of the first major studies of its kind.
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Haselberger, Lothar, ed. 1999. Appearance and essence: Refinements of classical architecture—curvature. Proceedings of the second Williams Symposium on Classical Architecture held at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, April 2–4, 1993. Philadelphia: Univ. Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania.
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Collection of twenty-three papers by international scholars exploring curvature, the monumental evidence from Greece and Rome, and its reemergence in the Renaissance and elsewhere.
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Haselberger, Lothar. 2005. Bending the truth: Curvature and other refinements of the Parthenon. In The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the present. Edited by Jenifer Neils, 101–157. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Detailed investigation of optical refinements in Greek architecture with primary focus on Parthenon. Discusses curvature, entasis, inclination, thickening of columns, and corner contraction in Archaic and Classical buildings. Concludes, somewhat controversially, that use of refinements in the Parthenon was neither unique nor exceptional.
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Roofs

Our understanding of how the Greeks designed the roofs of their buildings is challenged by the lack of surviving wooden elements and a bewildering quantity and variety of roof tiles. The first and most comprehensive attempt to reconstruct the woodwork of Greek roofs is Hodge 1960. The recent collection of papers in Kienlin 2011 presents a variety of evidence from the ancient world. Klein 1998 examines the evidence for wooden roof construction in Archaic and Classical buildings from Greece, southern Italy, and Sicily. The authoritative source for understanding the development of terracotta roofs and identifying regional roofing systems is Winter 1993, while Ohnesorg 1993 provides a comparable resource for the study of marble tiles and roofs. Sapirstein has studied some of the earliest tile roofs in Greece. Sapirstein 2009 offers an experimental approach to understanding the design of the Protocorinthian roof in the northeastern Peloponnese and the late-7th-century temple of Hera at Mon Repos on Corfu is the subject of Sapirstein 2012. Sapirstein’s digital data from is available online at the Archaic Sanctuary at Mon Repos. The roof design of the Hellenistic rotunda on Samothrace is discussed in McCredie, et al. 1992 (cited under Round Buildings).

Archaic Sanctuary at Mon Repos.
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Website hosted by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology with digital scans of the architectural material from the sanctuary, including the architectural terracottas, by Philip Sapirstein.
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Hodge, A. Trevor. 1960. The woodwork of Greek roofs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Important early study of the evidence for timber ceilings and roof frames. Based on a study of ancient sources and examination of cuttings in stone blocks from buildings throughout the Greek world. Bibliography is out of date, but the discussion and catalogue provide a good introduction to the subject.
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Kienlin, Alexander von, ed. 2011. Holztragwerke der Antike. Internationale Konferenz 30 März-1 April in München. Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari.
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Collection of twenty-three papers investigating the structural woodwork in a wide range of buildings from the Bronze Age, Classical and Hellenistic Greece, Rome, and later. Introduction includes discussion of ancient sources, terminology, and a history of scholarship.
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Klein, Nancy L. 1998. Evidence for west Greek influence on mainland Greek roof construction in the Archaic period. Hesperia 67:383–422.
DOI: 10.2307/148449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examination of extant stone elements from 6th- and 5th-century buildings in southern Italy, Sicily, and mainland Greece. Observes that cuttings to secure rafter beams first appear in western Greece in the 6th century and provided a technical advantage that may have anticipated the creation of the truss.
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Ohnesorg, Aenne. 1993. Inselionische Marmordächer. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Definitive study of marble roofs from the 6th-century in the Cyclades. Traces subsequent distribution and development in the Greek world. Assembles fragmentary information from many sites, reviews older publications, and proposes new typologies and reconstructions.
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Sapirstein, Philip. 2009. How the Corinthians manufactured their first roof tiles. Hesperia 78:195–229.
DOI: 10.2972/hesp.78.2.195Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Based on a reexamination of the Protocorinthian tiles from Corinth, Isthmia, and Delphi along with experimental recreation of tile production process. Concludes that the Protocorinthian tile, which combines pan and cover elements in a single piece, was an experimental product that was not imitated.
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Sapirstein, Philip. 2012. The monumental Archaic roof of the Temple of Hera at Mon Repos. Hesperia 81:31–91.
DOI: 10.2972/hesperia.81.1.0031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Presentation of architectural terracottas and reconstruction of the roof from late-7th-century temple with “proto-pediment” framed by antefixes along the gables and horizontal cornice. Notes similarity of temple roof to that of Apollo at Thermon. Includes catalogue of roof tiles.
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Winter, Nancy. 1993. Greek architectural terracottas from the prehistoric to the end of the Archaic period. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Landmark study of architectural terracottas or roof tiles in Greece. Identifies regional typologies or “roofing systems” based on design and decoration of elements and traces development over time. Provides catalogue of roofs and roofing elements, clearly illustrated with line drawings and photographs. Valuable as reference and introduction to the subject.
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Architectural Decoration

Our modern perception of ancient architecture is based upon the weathered remains of buildings that have stood for thousands of years, but Greek buildings were originally far more decorated and colorful than we might expect. The terracotta and marble roofs had decorative elements (painted, molded, sculpted) along the edges of the roof and framing the gables (e.g., Winter 1993, Ohnesorg 1993, and Sapirstein 2012, all cited under Roofs), architectural sculpture decorated the pediments, metopes, and friezes, while columns and capitals could have additional sculpted ornamentation as well. Individual architectural elements were articulated with three-dimensional moldings and were painted as well.

Architectural Moldings

The form of Greek architectural elements was often articulated by moldings, plastic or three-dimensional details that are decorative but can also mark a transition between blocks. The profile of architectural moldings can be flat (fillet) or convex with a single (ovolo) or double curve (cyma reversa, cyma recta) and each type is associated with a particular form of decoration (ovolo and egg and dart, cyma reversa with leaf). The grammar and syntax of moldings is established for both Doric and Ionic architecture in the Archaic and early Classical periods, while profile and decoration change over time and by region. The seminal studies of Greek moldings are Shoe 1936, supplemented by Shoe 1952. Although architectural studies have expanded the range of examples and refined our understanding of their usage, the book is still an important reference. Altekamp 1991 has a much narrower focus but offers a more complex method of analysis. The theories proposed by Hersey 1988 are highly imaginative, but their relevance to ancient architecture is questionable.

Altekamp, Stefan. 1991. Zu griechischer Architekturornamentik im sechsten und fünften Janhundert v. Chr. New York: Peter Lang.
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Detailed, specialized inquiry into non-Doric leaf ornament in Greek architecture. Based on a catalogue of examples from the Greek mainland, Aegean Islands, and Asia Minor. Critical analysis of numerous issues, including morphology, typology, polychromy, usage, relationship to the orders, and chronology.
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Hersey, George L. 1988. The lost meaning of classical architecture: Speculations on ornament from Vitruvius to Venturi. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
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Semiotic approach to understanding the ornament of classical architecture. There are many interesting ideas here including the temple being an embodiment of sacrifice and Doric triglyphs representing the thighs of sacrificial animals on altar and guttae as drops of blood—but these are not generally accepted in the mainstream.
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Shoe, Lucy T. 1936. Profiles of Greek mouldings. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Foundational study of architectural moldings features 1:1 profiles, discussion of molding type and usage, and proportional analysis. Bibliography is out of date and the book’s method of analysis has been called into question; however, this is still the most comprehensive publication on Greek moldings.
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Shoe, Lucy T. 1952. Profiles of western Greek mouldings. Rome: American Academy.
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Companion volume to Shoe 1936 with architectural moldings from southern Italy and Sicily.
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Architectural Polychromy

Although primarily made of stone, ancient Greek buildings often incorporated a variety of colorful materials. Terracotta and marble roofs, now missing, would have added color to the top and edges of the building. Parts of the Doric entablature such as triglyphs, regulae, and mutules were painted a dark blue, the taenia and viae were red, and the decoration of moldings was usually painted. Different colors of stone could also be used to highlight certain parts of the building (e.g., the Classical Propylaia and the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis). Ionic friezes often had a red background, and the details of complex Ionic moldings were often highlighted with color. The rediscovery of polychromy in Greek architecture can be credited to the artists and architects who visited Greece in the 17th and 18th centuries and observed traces paint in the ancient buildings. The exhibition catalogue Paris-Rome-Athens (Hellmann 1982) includes a thoughtful introduction to the work of French architects who documented Greek polychromy. The publications of Hittorff and Zanth 1827–1829 and Hittorff 1851 (both cited under Rediscovery of Greek Architecture) played a leading role in promoting awareness of color in Greek architecture. More recently, the papers collected in Tiverios and Tsiaphake 2002 explore polychromy in a variety of buildings, as well as painting techniques, and chemical analysis of pigments. Ridgway 1999 (cited under Architectural Sculpture) considers the evidence for architectural polychromy from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods.

Hellmann, Marie-Christine, Philippe Fraisse, and Annie Jacques. 1982. Paris-Rome-Athens: Travels in Greece by French architects in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Houston, TX: Museum of Fine Arts.
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Exhibition of architectural drawings by winners of the Prix de Rome awarded by the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris to students to study the ancient monuments of southern Italy and Greece. Introduction by Barbara Rose outlines the contribution of these architects to an understanding of Greek architecture and especially polychromy.
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Tiverios, M. A., and D. S. Tsiaphake, eds. 2002. Color in ancient Greece: The role of color in ancient Greek art and architecture (700–31 B.C.). Proceedings of the Conference Held in Thessaloniki, 12th–16th April, 2000, Organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum and Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki, Greece: Aristotle Univ. of Thessaloniki, Hidryma Meleton Lamprake.
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Important collection of twenty-seven papers (in English and Greek) on the use of color in Greek art and architecture. Topics include specific buildings and media (vase painting, wall painting), the evidence from ancient literature, chemical analysis of paints and pigments, painters, and painting styles.
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Architectural Sculpture

Architectural sculpture contributes to the artistry, decoration, and expression of Greek buildings. It can take the form of acroteria on the roof, figural compositions in triangular pediments, sculpted metopes in a Doric building, continuous friezes in an Ionic building, and sculpted columns drums among other possibilities. For students, an informative introduction to Greek architectural sculpture is found in Stewart 1990 and Stewart 2014, while Jenkins 2006 features examples from the British Museum from the Classical and Hellenistic period. Knell 1990 is a critical study of sculptural programs that is appropriate for advanced students and scholars. Ridgway 1999 is a collection of essays exploring the function and meaning of architectural sculpture, and Marconi 2007 uses the Archaic metopes from Selinus as a means to explore how architectural sculpture expresses aspects of social and religious identity. The papers collected in Schultz and von den Hoff 2009 address a variety of topics related to architectural sculpture. See also Oxford Bibliographies entries on Greek Sculpture, Greek Art and Architecture, and the Parthenon.

Jenkins, Ian. 2006. Greek architecture and its sculpture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Authoritative and readable presentation of the Greek temples and tombs and their sculpture in the British Museum. Contextual approach allows reader to understand cultural and artistic developments. Beautifully illustrated and produced, intended for general reader but useful for students and scholars as well.
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Knell, Heiner. 1990. Mythos und polis: Bildprogramme griechischer Bauskulptur. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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Study of the most important examples of architectural sculpture from the 6th to the 2nd centuries BC, including temples from the Athenian Acropolis, Corfu, Delphi, Eretria, Olympia, Bassae, the Mausoleum of Halicarnasss, and the altar of Zeus at Pergamon.
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Marconi, Clemente. 2007. Temple decoration and cultural identity in the Archaic Greek world: The metopes of Selinus. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Study of figural decoration in Greek architecture with primary focus on Archaic metopes from Selinus. Important emphasis on understanding sculpture with architectural, social, and religious contexts. Catalogue of metopes includes discussion of compositions and fragments.
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Ridgway, B. S. 1999. Prayers in stone: Greek architectural sculpture ca. 600–100 B.C.E. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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Lectures by a distinguished scholar exploring the role of architectural sculpture in Greece, especially questions of visibility, polychromy, and changing meaning over time. Extensive footnotes and bibliography make this a valuable resource for students and researchers.
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Schultz, Peter, and Ralf von den Hoff, eds. 2009. Structure, image and ornament: Architectural sculpture in the Greek world. Proceedings of an international conference held at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 27–28 November 2004. Oxford: Oxbow.
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Collection of sixteen papers addressing aspects of architecture and decoration. Divided into four sections: “Structure and Ornament,” “Technique and Agency,” “Myth and Narrative,” and “Diffusion and Influence.”
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Stewart, Andrew. 1990. Greek sculpture, an exploration. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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Comprehensive survey of Greek sculpture from the Late Bronze Age to the end of the Hellenistic period. Three sections consider the sculptor’s world, the sculpture, and matters of interpretation. Discusses the most important examples of architectural sculpture, their context and significance. Useful for advanced students and scholars.
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Stewart, Andrew. 2014. Art in the Hellenistic world: An introduction. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107262270Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Handbook of Hellenistic art intended for students that adopts a thematic approach to sculpture, architecture, painting, and other arts. Its contextual approach draws upon ancient sources. Beautifully illustrated, this includes useful resources such as maps, glossary, timeline, and biographies.
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Webb, Pamela A. 1996. Hellenistic architectural sculpture: Figural motifs in western Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
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Valuable study of figural sculpture in Hellenistic architecture. Catalogue of sites and buildings with summary of extant sculpture, bibliography, and analysis. Useful for students and specialists alike.
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Greek Building Types

Greek architecture encompassed a wide range of buildings that served sacred and secular purposes. Although Greek religion required an altar for ritual sacrifice, sanctuaries held temples and other buildings as well. City-states built treasuries in the Panhellenic sanctuaries that sheltered and protected votive offerings and were architectural dedications in themselves. Other structures such as stoas, tholoi, served a variety of purposes and were found in both sanctuaries and cities. Special buildings were designed for bathing and dining, whether for ritual or social purposes. Domestic architecture, including urban houses and Hellenistic palaces, demonstrates how the Greeks constructed an architectural environment that was both practical and representative of their society.

Early Monumental Architecture

Our knowledge of the development of monumental architecture in Iron Age Greece has been advanced by several important studies. The publication of the long apsidal building at Lekandi by Popham, et al. 1993 presented the evidence for what appears to be a unique example of monumental architecture in Protogeometric Greece. The archaeological and architectural evidence for the geometric temple of Apollo Daphnephoros is reexamined in Verdan 2012, and Rhodes 2003 evaluates the evidence for monumental stone architecture in the 7th-century Corinthia.

Popham, M. R., P. G. Calligas, and L. H. Sackett, eds. 1993. Lefkandi. The Protogeometric Building at Toumba: The Excavation, Architecture and Finds. Vol. 2. London: Thames and Hudson.
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Definitive publication of an important and controversial monumental building from the Protogeometric period. Presents the archaeological evidence for reconstruction of the building, its construction, and subsequent demolition. The book interprets the structure as a funerary building, but the evidence is ambiguous.
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Rhodes, Robin F. 2003. The earliest Greek architecture in Corinth and the 7th century temple on Temple Hill. Corinth 20:85–94.
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Reassessment of 7th-century temples in the Corinthia as representatives of a “proto-Doric style.” Close examination of limestone architectural blocks leads to the hypothesis that stoneworking reflected carpentry techniques and responded to structural challenges created by monumentality and the invention of the tile roof.
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Verdan, Samuel. 2012. Eretria XXII: Fouilles et recherces: Le sanctuaire d’Apollon Daphnéphoros à l’époque géometrique. Lausanne, Switzerland: École Suisse d’Archéologie en Grèce.
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Comprehensive reevaluation of the architecture and pottery from Swiss excavations at Eretria. Particularly important for its reevaluation of the sanctuary development, architectural phases and function of the temple, and relationship to the community.
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Conferences on Temples and Sanctuaries

Several conferences have considered how the temple and sanctuary express social, political, and economic identity. Roux 1984 is a useful collection of papers comparing the role of sacred space and architecture in Greece and elsewhere from prehistory through the Classical period, while the papers in Marinatos and Hägg 1993 focus exclusively on Greece. Polignac 1995 (originally published in French in 1984) initiated a wide debate on the relationship between the territory of emerging city-states and the establishment of sanctuaries in the 8th century. Responses to Polignac 1995 appear in Alcock and Osborne 1994.

Alcock, Susan E., and Robin Osborne, eds. 1994. Placing the gods: Sanctuaries and sacred space in ancient Greece. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Conceived as a response to the work of François de Polignac, this book presents a collection of essays (including one by de Polignac) addressing the relationship between sanctuaries and cities (or political entities) from the Bronze Age through the Hellenistic period.
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Marinatos, Nanno, and Robin Hägg, eds. 1993. Greek sanctuaries, new spproaches. London: Routledge.
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Collection of eleven papers on Greek sanctuaries. Includes a diverse range of topics such as the definitions and development of the sanctuary, Panhellenism, ritual practices, and the history of scholarship.
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Polignac, François de. 1995. Cults, territory, and the origins of the Greek city-state. Translation by Janet Lloyd, with a new foreword by Claude Mossé. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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Provocative and controversial examination of the role of sanctuaries in establishing influence and defining the relationship between nascent Greek city-states and surrounding territories in the 8th century BC. English translation of Naissance de la cité grecque, first published in 1984.
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Roux, Georges, ed. 1984. Temples et sanctuaries: Séminaire de recherche 1981–1983. Paris: De Boccard.
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Collection of thirteen papers exploring connections between sacred architecture in Greece and the Orient. Useful introduction to temples and sanctuaries from the 3rd to 1st millennium BC from the Near East to the Mediterranean.
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Treasuries

In ancient Greek architecture, “treasury” refers to a building in a sanctuary dedicated to securing and sheltering offerings but that also serves as an offering in itself. Many treasuries were richly decorated with architectural sculpture and ornament. The most restrictive use of the term would identify only the buildings in Panhellenic sanctuaries designated by Greek city-states as treasuries, but Roux 1984 would expand this definition to include other buildings and buildings in other sanctuaries (Acropolis of Athens, Delos, Samos). The greatest number of treasuries was built in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi (c. 30) and Olympia (11), and the works by Partida 2002 and Rups 1986 provide useful descriptions of these examples (see also Conferences on Temples and Sanctuaries). The study of architectural fragments from Olympia (Herrmann 1976) and at Delphi (Laroche and Nenna 1990, have been successful in identifying architectural ensembles from early treasuries in the two Panhellenic sanctuaries. Laroche and Nenna 1990 offers a detailed investigation of the foundations of the Sicyonian treasury that reuse architectural elements from several Archaic structures. Hölscher 2001 addresses the function of the small buildings and concludes that most served as treasuries but suggests the others may have served as dining buildings.

Herrmann, Klaus. 1976. Beobachtungen zur Schatzhaus-Architektur Olympias. In Neue Forschungen im griechische Heiligtümern. Edited by Ulf Jantzen, 321–350. Tübingen, Germany: Wasmuth.
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Important contribution to the study of treasuries at Olympia. Identifies groups of architectural members on the basis of material, scale, technique, and decoration and proposed association with individual treasuries when possible.
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Hölscher, Tonio. 2001. Schatzhauser-Banketthäuser? In Ithake: Festschrift für Jörg Schäfer zum 75. Geburtstag. Edited by Stephanie Böhm and Klaus-Valtin von Eicksted, 143–152. Würtzburg, Germany: Ergon.
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Consideration of terminology (thesaurus, oikos) and function of smaller buildings in Greek sanctuaries. Suggests primary function at Olympia and Delphi is to display large and expensive offerings. Argues against small buildings from Athenian Acropolis as treasuries or temples and suggests they may have been for banqueting—but gives no new evidence to support this claim.
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Laroche, Didier. 1993. Études sur les trésors en poros à Delphes. In Les grands ateliers d’architecture dans le monde égéen du Vie Siècle av. J.-C. Edited by Jacques des Courtils and Jean-Claude Moretti, 227–245. Paris: De Boccard.
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Concise survey of poros (limestone) treasuries and architectural blocks and identification of associated members (based on material, dimensions, and findspot). The authors observe a variety of forms among the elements of the Doric entablature and note that poros was the most common building material throughout the 6th century.
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Laroche, Didier, and Marie-Dominique Nenna. 1990. Le trésor de Sicyone et ses fondations. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique 114:241–284.
DOI: 10.3406/bch.1990.1722Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Important study based upon archival documents and new examination of foundations. Discusses construction and topography of the Classical treasury, the limestone architectural elements, and sculpted metopes from two Archaic buildings reused in its foundations.
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Partida, Elena C. 2002. The treasuries at Delphi: An architectural study. Jonsered, Denmark: Paul Åströms.
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Based on PhD dissertation at Univ. of Birmingham, this is an investigation of the treasury buildings in the sanctuaries of Apollo and Athena Pronoia at Delphi. Dense organization and writing makes this somewhat difficult to use, but it is still a helpful resource.
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Roux, Georges. 1984. Trésors, temples, tholos. In Temples et sanctuaires: Séminaire de recherche 1981–1983 sous la direction de G. Roux. Edited by Georges Roux, 153–171. Paris: De Boccard.
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Thoughtful discussion of identification and function of three building types found in Greek sanctuaries, based upon examination of ancient sources (inscriptions, literature) and archaeological remains. Concludes that despite differences in appearance, these building types have many traits in common, but the distinctions between their functions is not always clear.
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Rups, Mario. 1986. Thesauros: A study of the treasury building as found in Greek sanctuaries. PhD diss., Johns Hopkins Univ.
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Useful compendium of the archaeological remains and ancient sources for the buildings identified as treasuries at Olympia, Delphi, Delos, and elsewhere in ancient Greece. Unfortunately this thesis comes without illustrations, and the bibliography is out of date.
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Round Buildings

The Greek architectural orders were occasionally adapted for use on circular structures. Koenigs, et al. 1980 presents the architecture from three round funerary buildings in the Kerameikos cemetery in Athens. The term “tholos” is also used for circular buildings that function as sacred and civic structures and Seiler 1986 catalogues examples from throughout the Greek world. The large Hellenistic rotunda on Samothrace is discussed in McCredie, et al. 1992. See also Roux 1984 and Laroche and Nenna 1990 (both cited under Treasuries).

Koenigs, W., U. Knigge, and A. Mallwitz. 1980. Rundbauten im Kerameikos. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Description and discussion of the architecture of three round funerary monuments from the Kerameikos dating to the Archaic period, the 5th, and the 4th centuries BC, respectively.
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McCredie, James R., Georges Roux, Stuart M. Shaw, and J. Kurtiche. 1992. Samothrace VII.i: The Rotunda of Arsinoe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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Architectural study of the large Hellenistic rotunda, which had a conical roof originally designed with forty wooden rafters held by a bronze compression ring at the top and a tension ring of wooden timbers at bottom. Rebuilt as a simple octagon in early Roman imperial times.
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Seiler, Florian. 1986. Die griechische Tholos. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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Comprehensive study of the development, typology, and function of round buildings from the Geometric through the Hellenistic periods. Description and analysis of examples from Greek mainland, Aegean Islands, northern Greece, and the Black Sea.
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Stoas

The stoa developed in 7th-century Greece as a long, narrow, freestanding building with a colonnade along one long side and was used in sacred and civic settings. The standard reference for the Greek stoa in English is still Coulton 1976, and Kuhn 1985 offers a more recent study of the stoa in Archaic and Classical Greece.

Coulton, James J. 1976. The architectural development of the Greek stoa. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Comprehensive study of the Greek stoa from the 7th to 1st centuries BC. Investigates typology, structure, use of orders, and decline of stoas in the Roman period as porticos replaced the freestanding stoa in the urban landscape. Although the bibliography is out of date, the catalogue and illustrations make this a valuable reference.
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Kuhn, Gerhard. 1985. Untersuchungen zur Funktion der Säulenhalle in archaische und klassische Zeit. Jahrbuch des Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Athen 100:169–317.
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Investigation of the literary, archaeological, and architectural evidence for the function of the stoa in Archaic and Classical Greek.
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Civic Architecture

The role of monumental architecture in ancient Greek cities is a much-studied subject in its own right, and a variety of buildings were employed throughout the Greek world. Camp 1986 and Camp 2010 provide useful introductions with a description of the buildings in the Athenian Agora. Gneisz 1990 is a more scholarly investigation based on a catalogue of meeting halls in the Greek and early Roman periods. Frederiksen 2011 offers an important study of walls as an expression of civic identity and monumental architecture. The role of harbors and shipsheds has been the subject of recent works, especially Lovén 2011 on the Zea Harbor in Piraeus, and Blackman, et al. 2013, which looks at shipsheds throughout the Mediterranean.

Blackman, David, Boris Rankov, Kalliopi Baika, Henrik Gerding, and Jari Pakkanen. 2013. Shipsheds of the ancient Mediterranean. Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Valuable summary of evidence for shipsheds with chapters on the technical characteristics, civic, economic, and military aspects. Catalogue of shipsheds includes wealth of information, bibliography.
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Camp, J. M. II. 1986. The Athenian Agora: Excavations in the heart of Classical Athens. London: Thames and Hudson.
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Authoritative presentation of the results of excavation in the civic center of Athens by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. This synthesis will be useful to undergraduates and the general public.
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Camp, J. M. II. 2010. The Athenian Agora: Site guide. 5th ed. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Recently updated guidebook to the ancient Athenian Agora provides readable introduction to the history, topography, and monuments of the civic center. Site tour offers description and illustrations of civic buildings such as the tholos, bouleuterion, and stoas.
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Frederiksen, Rune. 2011. Greek city walls of the Archaic period, 900–400 B.C. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199578122.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Thorough study of archaeological evidence and philological information for walls from the Early Iron Age to the 5th century BC. Notes that fortification walls develop earlier than previously recognized and that they should be understood as one form of monumental architecture.
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Gneisz, Doris. 1990. Das antike Rathaus: Die griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia. PhD diss., Univ. of Vienna.
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Investigation of the meeting hall in Greece and early imperial Rome through literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence. Greek examples organized by ground plan, chronological development. Useful catalogue of buildings with description of location, architectural remains, date, and references.
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Lovén, Bjørn. 2011. The ancient harbours of the Piraeus. 2 vol. Athens, Greece: Danish Institute in Athens.
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Results of the work of the Zea Harbor Project led by Lovén under the auspices of the Danish Institute at Athens. The first two volumes (five are planned) present the architecture and topography, as well as the archaeological evidence for shipsheds including slipways and superstructure.
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Dining Buildings

In the ancient Greek world, communal dining was an activity associated with religious festivals and social activities, and special buildings or rooms were designed for this purpose. Leypold 2008 is a survey of dining buildings in Greek sanctuaries. Cooper and Morris 1990 summarizes the ancient evidence for Greek dining practices with some attention to the architectural setting. Bergquist 1990 offers a typological study of dining rooms with attention to their shape and arrangement.

Bergquist, Birgitta. 1990. Sympotic space: A functional aspect of Greek dining-rooms. In Sympotica: A symposium on the symposium. Edited by Oswyn Murray, 37–65. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Valuable survey of Greek dining rooms by shape (square, non-square, and non-standard) as the basis for exploring the optimal interior layout for the symposium. Provides dimensions, descriptions, and references for examples, as well as a general bibliography.
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Cooper, Frederick, and Sarah Morris. 1990. Dining in round buildings. In Sympotica: A symposium on the symposium. Edited by Oswyn Murray, 66–94. Oxford: Clarendon.
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Useful summary of the archaeological, epigraphical, and literary evidence for dining in round buildings. Includes discussion of dining while seated or reclining and segregation by gender, class, and age. Extensive footnotes and bibliography.
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Leypold, Christina. 2008. Bankettgebäude in griechischen Heiligtümern. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
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Thoughtful and well-organized introduction to the subject and the history of scholarship. Based on a descriptive catalogue of buildings from the Greek mainland and Asia Minor (illustrated with black-and-white photos, line drawings), this book proposes a foundation for identifying buildings used for banqueting, typology, architectural forms, and spatial arrangement in sanctuaries.
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Baths

Facilities for communal bathing first appeared in Greek culture in association with the gymnasium before the development of independent buildings for social or ritual bathing. The first general study of the architecture of baths in the classical world was Yegül 1992 and it is still a useful reference, although Hoffmann 1999 and Wassenhoven 2012 are more recent architectural studies. Boussac, et al. 2009 and Lucore and Trümper 2013 address a variety of topics related to baths and bathing. The essays collected in Wikander 2000 address technical aspects of water technology related to baths. Ginouvès 1962 offers a thorough investigation of the cultural and religious aspects of bathing.

Boussac, M.-Fr., T. Fournet, and B. Redon, eds. 2009. Le bain collectif en Egypte. Cairo, Egypt: Institut français d’archéologie orientale du Caire.
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Collection of thirty papers exploring the role of public baths in the eastern Mediterranean from Antiquity to the present. Includes studies of Hellenistic bath buildings in ancient Greece and Egypt.
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Ginouvès, René. 1962. Balaneutiké, recherches sur le bain dans l’Antiquité grecque. Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 200. Paris: Boccard.
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Examines material evidence for bathing such as ceramic vessels used for specific rituals and public baths. But the primary contribution of this work is to understand bathing in ancient Greek society as related to religious ritual, social customs, and hygiene.
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Hoffmann, Michaela. 1999. Griechische Bäder. Munich: Tuduv.
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Detailed study of the Greek bath, its development, architectural form and context (in a gymnasium, palaestra, sanctuary), types of baths, and water sources. Useful presentation of typology, geographical and chronological distribution, as well as a catalogue of examples. Based on a PhD dissertation at the University of Frankfurt, 1995.
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Lucore, Sandra K., and Monika Trümper, eds. 2013. Greek baths and bathing culture: New discoveries and approaches. Walpole, MA: Peeters.
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Collection of fifteen papers on baths and bathing with examples from Greece, Italy, and Egypt. Topics include architectural forms, bathing and medicine, and heating systems. Useful map, including a catalogue of Greek baths and bibliography.
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Wassenhoven, Maria-Evdokia. 2012. The bath in Greece in classical Antiquity: The Peloponnese. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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Introduction to the bath and bathing in the Greek and Roman worlds, the history of scholarship, typology of baths, and bathing traditions. Useful catalogue of baths from south Greece (Peloponnese). Based on a PhD dissertation at the National Technical University of Athens, 2008.
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Wikander, Örjan, ed. 2000. Handbook of ancient water technology. Boston: Brill.
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Collection of essays on water supply, sources, usage, and associated technologies across a wide geographical range, from prehistory to 7th century AD.
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Yegül, Fikret. 1992. Baths and bathing in classical Antiquity. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
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Authoritative and readable introduction to the architecture of baths and practice of bathing in the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine worlds. Survey of baths and related buildings, generously illustrated. Although Greek baths make up only a small part of the book, the comprehensive study places them in a much larger context.
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Domestic Architecture

Studies of houses, or domestic architecture, have proliferated in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Among the papers in Ault and Nevett 2005 and Westgate, et al. 2007, some explore the architectural setting while others are concerned with the social context of household and community. Cahill 2002 draws upon a rich source of archaeological data to study architectural form and activities within the Greek houses at Olynthus. Glowacki and Vogeikoff-Brogan 2011 adopts a diachronic regional approach to domestic architecture and activities on the island of Crete, while Hoepfner and Schwandner 1994 explores the architecture of houses and city planning across a wide geographic area. Nevett 2010 investigates domestic space as a reflection of social and political identity rather than for its architectural qualities. See Hellmann 2010 (cited under Manuals of Greek Architecture).

Ault, B. A., and L. C. Nevett, eds. 2005. Ancient Greek houses and households: Chronological, regional, and social diversity. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Collection of eight essays, with introduction and summary by the editors focusing on case studies in Greece and Asia Minor from Archaic to Hellenistic times. Some focus on architectural design while others are concerned with household industry and social organization.
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Cahill, Nicholas. 2002. Household and city organization at Olynthus. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300084955.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Established, occupied, and abandoned between 432–348 BC, Olynthus provides a unique resource for exploring domestic architecture and economic activities in the Classical Greek city. This volume presents a systematic study of houses and city planning based on careful analysis of archaeological remains. A valuable resource for students and scholars alike.
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Glowacki, Kevin T., and Natalia Vogeikoff-Brogan, eds. 2011. Stega: The archaeology of houses and households in ancient Crete. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Collection of thirty-seven papers from an international conference exploring the archaeological evidence for houses (architectural forms, construction, spatial analysis) and household activities (including industry and cult) on Crete from prehistory to the Roman period.
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Hoepfner, W., and E. -L. Schwandner. 1994. Haus und Stadt im klassischen Griechenland. Wohnen in der klassischen Polis 1. 2d ed. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag.
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Encyclopedia of the best-preserved examples of houses and cities from early colonies in western Greece, the Hellenistic cities of Asia Minor, Alexandria, and Dura Europos. Features a discussion of city planning and house typology, and the book’s generous illustrations (line drawings, photographs, reconstructions) make this a useful reference for students.
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Nevett, Lisa C. 2010. Domestic space in classical Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511780103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines domestic organization of houses as basis for observing the emergence of complex society in the Early Iron Age and discusses evidence for the domestic symposium in houses from Olynthos and Delos. Illustrations are limited to plans, a few photos, and diagrams. Less emphasis here on architectural analysis than on sociocultural interpretations of domestic space.
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Westgate, Ruth, Nick Fisher, and James Whitley, eds. 2007. Building communities: House, settlement and society in the Aegean and beyond. Proceedings of a Conference held at Cardiff University, 17–21 April 2001. London: British School at Athens.
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Collection of forty papers exploring a diverse range of issues in relation to domestic architecture and society across a broad chronological and geographic range, including Greece from the prehistoric through Roman periods. Useful for comparing domestic architecture of many cultures, this study also includes an extensive bibliography.
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Hellenistic Architecture

The Hellenistic period begins with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the death of Cleopatra VII, who was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers in Egypt, in 31 BC. During this time, Greek culture reached a large geographic area and developed in response to existing cultures, as well as changing political, social, and artistic conditions. In architecture, as in other arts, this period did not receive focused attention until the late 20th century and was often treated as an appendage to the Classical period or as a forerunner to the Romans. Lauter 1986 was the first to present a volume dedicated exclusively to this period and has been followed more recently by Winter 2006. These works present the architecture of this period as part of a continuous process of development and emphasize its innovations in design and the urban environment. The development of palaces reflects changes to society and the contribution of domestic architecture to status and prestige. Recent archaeological excavations, especially in northern Greece and Asia Minor, have revealed examples of palatial buildings and complexes that contribute to our understanding. Nielsen 1994 investigates the function of palaces based on a catalogue of examples from a wide geographic area, while Kutbay 1998 adopts a formal analysis of architectural space. The papers presented in Hoepfner and Brands 1996 offer an informed perspective on the architecture and meaning of the palaces.

Hoepfner, Wolfram, and Gunnar Brands, eds. 1996. Basileia: Die Paläste der hellenistischen Könige. International Symposion in Berlin vom 16.12.1992 bis 20.12.1992. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.
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Collection of twenty-eight papers examining the architecture, function, and cultural context of palaces. Primary emphasis is on Hellenistic Greece and Macedonia with a few studies of buildings from the Near East, the Black Sea, Italy, and elsewhere.
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Kutbay, Bonnie Lea. 1998. Palaces and large residences of the Hellenistic age. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.
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Description and formal analysis of space in Hellenistic palaces in Greece (Demetrias, Pella, Palatitsa), Asia Minor (Larisa on the Hermos, Pergamon), and Egypt (Alexandria). Seeks origins in earlier Greek architecture (including hostels and banqueting facilities) and early palace in Cyprus. Limited analysis, only illustrations are plans.
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Lauter, Hans. 1986. Die Architektur des Hellenismus. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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Exploration of Hellenistic architecture, architects, architectural design, materials, and construction techniques. Discusses relationship of buildings in the urban environment, building types, spatial analysis, interior decoration and use of the orders. Bibliography is out of date but the overall discussion is still relevant.
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Nielsen, Inge. 1994. Hellenistic palaces: Tradition and renewal. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
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Approaches study of Hellenistic palaces by defining functions and sources of influence in Egypt, Babylonia, Achaemenid Empire, mainland Greece, and Sicily. Includes description and catalogue of Hellenistic (Macedonia, Pergamon, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic kingdoms) and early Roman palaces (Italy, Roman Palestine). Emphasizes the complex character of palaces and the variety of functions they have.
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Winter, Frederick E. 2006. Studies in Hellenistic architecture. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
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This successor to Lauter 1986 explores a wide variety of building types (sacred, civic, domestic, funerary) in Greece, Asia Minor, and Italy. Emphasizes the importance of setting and vista, the Hellenistic style in Italy, and the relationship between the classical orders in Greek and Roman buildings.
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Greek Architecture of the Mainland and Islands

Many cities and sanctuaries throughout the ancient Greek world have been the subject of systematic excavation and publication. A selection of monographs, articles, and excavation publication series is provided below with citations for works that focus primarily on Greek architecture.

Aegina

The island of Aegina was visited by Spon and Wheler in 1675, followed by members of the Society of Dilettanti (Chandler, Stuart, Revett, and Pars) in 1765, Leake and Dodwell around 1800, Cockerell and Haller von Hallerstein in 1811, and the Expédition Scientifique de Morée in 1829. There are two sanctuaries, one near the port that is dedicated to Apollo, and another in the northeast part of the island that is dedicated to Aphaia. Excavations in the sanctuary of Aphaia were carried out by Adolf Furtwängler from 1901–1904 and initially published in Furtwängler 1906. More recent architectural studies include Schwandner 1985, which presents the remains of the early Archaic temple of Aphaia, and Bankel 1993 for the late Archaic temple. Wurster led the excavations in the sanctuary of Apollo and published a study of the third Apollo temple in Wurster 1974 and a study of the late Roman wall built of spolia in Wurster 1975. Hoffelner 1999 presents a more recent evaluation of the architectural material from the Apollo sanctuary.

Bankel, Hansgeorg. 1993. Der spätarchaische Tempel der Aphaia auf Aegina. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Comprehensive reexamination of the architecture from the late Archaic temple, including materials and techniques (curvature and entasis), planning and execution, and the reconstruction of the roof frame and marble tiles. Useful comparison to contemporary buildings in Delphi and Paros.
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Furtwängler, A. 1906. Aegina: Das Heiligtum der Aphaia. Munich: Verlag der K.B. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
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Primary publication of the early excavations in the sanctuary of Aphaia. Presentation of architecture and sculpture of the late Archaic temple, remains from earlier buildings, inscriptions, and dedications. Surpassed by more recent architectural studies, this volume remains useful for understanding the history of research in the sanctuary of Aphaia.
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Hoffelner, Klaus. 1999. Alt-Ägina I, 3: Das Apollon-Heiligtum: Tempel, Altäre, Temenosmauer, Steingeräte. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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Valuable presentation of the fragmentary architectural and sculptural remains from the sanctuary including three temples dedicated to Apollo, one to Artemis, and the Thearion, a combination oikos and banqueting hall. Includes excellent illustrations and technical documentation of architectural remains.
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Schwandner, Ernst-Ludwig. 1985. Der ältere Porostempel der Aphaia auf Ägina. Berlin: De Gruyter.
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Architectural study of an Archaic temple that was destroyed and replaced in the 5th century BC. A thorough presentation of architectural fragments, reconstruction of plan and elevation, and analysis of Archaic architecture make this an invaluable reference for anyone interested in early Doric temples.
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Wurster, W. W. 1974. Alt-Ägina I, 1: Der Apollontempel. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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Publication of the third Apollo temple built in the sanctuary that includes a catalogue of architectural elements and hypothetical reconstruction.
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Wurster, W. W. 1975. Alt-Ägina I, 2: Architektur und Spolien: Die Spätromische Akropolismauer. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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Study of acropolis wall built in the Late Roman period with architectural elements from several earlier Greek buildings.
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Arcadia

This mountainous region in the Peloponnese is a byword for a rural or rustic ideal, but in the ancient Greek world it was home to many diverse communities and their sanctuaries. The best source for any investigation of Arcadian religious architecture is Jost 1985. The sanctuary of Apollo at Bassae is well known as home to the first temple to incorporate elements of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The publication of the temple at Bassae in Cooper 1996 focuses on the architecture of the Classical temple but also includes a detailed history of scholarship and presentation of archival material. Madigan and Cooper 1992 presents the architectural sculpture from the Classical temple. The sanctuary of Athena Alea at Tegea has been subject to excavation and research for many years. Nordquist, et al. 2014 is the first in a new excavation series published by the Norwegian Institute at Athens and has a chapter on the pre-Classical sanctuary. Norman 1984 offers an important study of the 4th-century temple.

Cooper, Frederick A. 1996. The temple of Apollo at Bassae. 3 vols. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Architectural study of the Classical temple of Apollo at Bassae. Introductory chapters discuss the previous scholarship, history of the sanctuary, and earlier forms of the temple. Discussion of Corinthian capital includes details of discovery, documentation, subsequent damage, and proposed reconstructions.
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Jost, M. 1985. Sanctuaires et cultes d’Arcadie. Études péloponnésiennes 9. Paris: De Boccard.
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Comprehensive, authoritative volume on the sanctuaries and cults of Arcadia. Includes description and analysis of the sanctuaries, discussion of divinites, and regional cult practices. Generously illustrated with photographs and plans.
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Madigan, Brian C., and Frederick A. Cooper. 1992. The temple of Apollo Bassitas. The Sculpture. Vol. 2. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Detailed scholarly publication of the Doric metopes from the pronaos and opisthodomos and the Ionic frieze from the cella.
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Nordquist, Gullög C., Mary E. Voyatzis, and Erik Østby. 2014. Tegea I: Investigations in the temple of Athena Alea 1991–1994. Athens, Greece: Norwegian Institute at Athens.
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First volume in a new publication series on the excavations in the temple of Athena Alea. Chapter by Ostby discusses architecture and topography of the pre-Classical sanctuary.
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Norman, Naomi. 1984. The temple of Athena Alea at Tegea. American Journal of Archaeology 88:169–194.
DOI: 10.2307/504994Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Study of the architectural remains from the 4th century (345–335 BC) temple that proposes reconstruction of cella with three-sided, two-story colonnade with Corinthian half-columns below and Ionic half-columns above. Useful comparisons to 4th-century architecture.
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Argolid

The French School at Athens publishes the series Études Péloponnésiennes that is dedicated to fieldwork in the Peloponnese, including Argos. The first volume in the series, Vollgraff 1956, presents the excavation of the sanctuary of Pythean Apollo. Many others are focused architectural studies, including Bommelaer and Courtils 1994 on the hypostyle hall, and Ginouvès 1972 on the Greek “theatron” and Roman odeon. These volumes are available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online. Pfaff 2003 offers a comprehensive presentation of the architecture and history of the temple of Hera and the Argive Heraion, the first in a new excavation series to be published by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens.

Bommelaer, Jean-François, and Jacques des Courtils. 1994. La sale hypostyle d’Argos. Études Péloponnésiennes 10. Paris: De Boccard.
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Architectural study of an unusual building based on archival records and excavations. Although few elements of the superstructure remain, the proposed reconstruction is a mixture of Doric and Ionic characteristics and may belong to an Argive-Arcadian style. Possibly functioned as a bouleuterion.
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Ginouvès, René. 1972. Le théâtron à gradins droits et l’odéon d’Argos. Études Péloponnésiennes 6. Paris: Vrin.
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Important study of the archaeological remains from the Greek and Roman period. The 5th-century structure, with a rectilinear shaped cavea (possibly a public meeting place) was destroyed by the construction of a Roman Odeon in the same location in the early 2nd century.
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Pfaff, Christopher A. 2003. The architecture of the classical temple of Hera. Argive Heraion 1. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Presentation of the history and architecture of the temple of Hera. Provides evidence for reconstruction of plan and elevation, dating, and decorative details. Argues that the building reflects influence from Attica as well as the Peloponnese.
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Vollgraff, Wilhelm. 1956. Le sanctuaire d’Apollon Pythéen à Argos. Études Péloponnésiennes 1. Paris: Vrin.
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Publication of the excavations in the sanctuary of Apollo Pytheos on the Aspis includes the few architectural remains from the temple, the Great Altar, the Manteion, the Tholos, a stoa, and the Athena sanctuary. Discussion of the cult of Apollo and other divinities worshipped on the Aspis.
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Attica

With a wealth of extant archaeological, epigraphical, historical, and literary evidence, Athens is perhaps the most intensively studied city of the ancient Greek world. Three areas of the city are presented here for their contribution to Greek architecture, the sanctuary on the Acropolis, the civic center in the Agora, and the Kerameikos cemetery. Building activity on the Acropolis in the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods contributes to an Athenian architectural style that was recognized and emulated in both the ancient and modern times. Brouskari 1997 is an excellent introduction to this Acropolis, and Hurwit 1999 is the best introduction in English to the sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens. Readers can also consult the Oxford Bibliographies entry on The Acropolis of Athens. The excavations of the American School of Classical Studies in the Athenian Agora have brought to light the buildings and civic space where Athenian civic life (see also under Civic Architecture). The Kerameikos was the most important cemetery of Athens from the sub-Mycenaean period onward and has been excavated by the Greek Archaeological Service (1870–1913) and the German Archaeological Institute in Athens (1913 to present). Although best known for its sculpted grave markers and funerary offerings, several built tombs contribute to our understanding of funerary architecture, including a round building from the Archaic period presented in Koenigs, et al. 1980. Knigge 1991 provides an authoritative and accessible introduction to its history and monuments. Some of the Attic demes had important temples, but few of those have been the subject of (recent) study. Travlos 1988 offers brief descriptions and illustrations of the remains from sites throughout Attica. Miles 1989 provides a thorough study of the temple of Nemesis from Rhamnous, in eastern Attica.

Brouskari, M. 1997. The monuments of the Acropolis. Athens, Greece: Archaeological Receipts Fund, Ministry of Culture.
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Authoritative and readable guide to the Acropolis: includes summary of scholarship and historical outline. Detailed description of principal buildings and shrines, their excavation, study, and conservation. Beautifully illustrated with paintings, photographs, and drawings. English translation by David Hardy.
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Hurwit, Jeffrey M. 1999. The Athenian Acropolis: History, mythology, and archaeology from the Neolithic Era to the present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Chronological study of the topography and monuments of the sanctuary. A valuable reference for students, this book is also generously illustrated with an extensive bibliography.
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Knigge, Ursula. 1991. The Athenian Kerameikos: History, monuments, excavations. Athens, Greece: Krene.
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Authoritative guidebook to the principal cemetery of Athens and its monuments. Chronological overview and site guide that gives a brief history of excavation and a bibliography.
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Koenigs, W., U. Knigge, and A. Mallwitz. 1980. Rundbauten im Kerameikos. Kerameikos 12. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Description and discussion of the architecture of three round funerary monuments from the Kerameikos dating to the Archaic period, the 5th, and the 4th centuries BC.
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Miles, Margaret M. 1989. A reconstruction of the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnous. Hesperia 58:133–249.
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Comprehensive study of the architecture of the temple with valuable observations on material and techniques of construction, its place in Attic architecture of the 5th century BC. Stylistic analysis of architectural proportions suggests date c. 430–420 BC. The temple was restored and rededicated to Livia, perhaps in 45–46 AD.
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Travlos, John N. 1988. Bildlexikon zur Topographie des antiken Attika. Tübingen, Germany: Wasmuth.
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Authoritative encyclopedia of the sites and monument of ancient Attica. Includes descriptions, photographs and drawings. Bibliography out of date but useful to students and non-specialists.
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Corinth

The American School of Classical Studies in Athens has been excavating at the site of ancient Corinth since 1896 and the results have appeared in the Corinth excavation series, and the journal Hesperia (cited under Foreign Schools and Institutes in Greece). Among the volumes in the Corinth publication series that are dedicated to architectural studies, Fowler and Stillwell 1932 present the architecture and topography of the site, including the temple of Apollo, for which see Rhodes 2003 (cited under Early Monumental Architecture). Bookidis and Stroud 1997 is now the definitive source of information for the architecture and phases of development in the sanctuary of Demeter and Kore.

Bookidis, Nancy, and Ronald S. Stroud. 1997. Corinth XVIII, iii: The sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Topography and architecture. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies in Athens.
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Comprehensive publication of the sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on the slope of Acrocorinth above the ancient city, including architecture and history from Mycenaean through Roman times.
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Fowler, Harold North, and Richard Stillwell. 1932. Corinth I: Introduction, topography, architecture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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The first volume in the excavation series includes a brief chapter on the temple of Apollo, as well as other monuments, mostly Roman. Presentation of evidence is brief by current standards, but it offers insight into the process of discovery and the history of scholarship.
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Cycladic Islands

Although Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder suggest that Ionic architecture originated in Asia Minor, excavation and research on the Cycladic islands of Paros, Naxos, and Delos have shown that this region played a leading role in the development of monumental architecture, especially the Ionic order and construction in marble. The French School in Athens (École Française d’Athènes) began excavations on Delos in 1873 and has been publishing the results of their research in this series of monographs since 1909. Individual volumes focus on architectural and sculptural studies, topography, and specific buildings. Available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online. Courbin 1980 was the first to study the architecture of the 7th-century Oikos of the Naxians in the sanctuary of Apollo on Delos. Gruben 1997 presents an overview of architecture on Naxos, while the contributions in Yeroulanou and Stamatopoulou 2005 publish the results of more recent research. Gruben, et al. 2007 includes Cycladic architecture in a volume of essays on classical construction. Schuller’s research on the island of Paros has focused attention on the Doric Order in the Cyclades, and Schuller 1991 presents the architectural remains of the temple of Artemis with comparisons to other Doric buildings. Müller 2003 assembles information about the Hellenistic period on Paros from architectural blocks that were reused in later structures.

Bruneau, P., and J. Ducat. 2005. Guide de Délos. Sites et monuments 1. 4th ed. Paris: De Boccard.
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Expansive archaeological guide to the island of Delos. Three sections included are (1) geography, history, and legends; (2) archaeological remains, including architecture, topography, sculpture, and inscriptions; and (3) a description of the ruins in the sanctuary. Useful reference with updated bibliography and adequate illustrations.
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Courbin, Paul. 1980. L’Oikos des Naxiens. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
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Publication of the architecture from the 7th-century building, perhaps the first temple of Apollo, dedicated by the Naxians in the sanctuary on Delos. Has a detailed presentation of architectural elements and phases of development, but the conclusions are often too brief.
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Gruben, Gottfried. 1997. Naxos und Delos. Studien zur archaischen Architektur der Kykladen. Jahrbuch des deutsches archaeologischen Institut 112:261–461.
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Detailed reexamination of the architecture of the Naxian Oikos, propylon, poros temple, and other buildings from the sanctuary of Apollo on Delos. Concludes that Oikos is not the temple of Apollo (contra Courbin 1980). Extensively illustrated with archival documents, line drawings, black-and-white photographs.
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Gruben, Gottfried, Irene Ring, and Wolf Koenigs. 2007. Klassische Bauforschung. Munich: Hirmer.
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Collection of essays examining the role of the architect and buildings technology across a wide geographic and chronological range. Major emphasis on Greek temples, sanctuaries, and Cycladic architecture on the islands of Naxos and Paros.
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Müller, K. 2003. Hellenistische Architektur auf Paros. AF 20. Berlin: Gebr. Mann.
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Study of Greek architectural blocks that were reused in the medieval Kastro and Byzantine church of Katapoliani, attributed to several structures (stoa, theater, gymnasium). Offers new understanding of Hellenistic architecture on Paros.
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Schuller, Manfred. 1991. Der Artemistempel im Delion auf Paros. Berlin: De Gruyter.
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Comprehensive publications of the architectural elements and reconstruction of the early-5th-century Doric temple of Artemis built on the island of Paros. Presentation of the marble roof, altar, and topography of the sanctuary. Particularly useful comparison of the temple to other examples of Doric architecture in the Cyclades.
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Yeroulanou, Marina, and Maria Stamatopoulou. 2005. Architecture and archaeology in the Cyclades. Papers in Honour of J. J. Coulton. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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Collection of nine papers by distinguished scholars presenting results of archaeological excavations and architectural studies of Cycladic site. Includes recent discoveries from new excavations such as Despotiko as well as reflections on well-known sanctuaries on Naxos and Delos.
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Delphi

The French School in Athens (École Française d’Athènes) has been excavating at Delphi since the 19th century and has uncovered a large part of the Panhellenic complex including the monuments in the sanctuary of Apollo, the sanctuary of Athena Pronoia in the Marmaria, the gymnasium and other structures. Publications include Amandry 1991, Bommelaer 1997, and Bommelaer and Laroche 1991 in the series Sites et monuments. Publication of individual buildings have appeared in the Fouilles de Delphes, including Michaud 1973 on the Theban treasury, and Daux and Hansen 1987 on the Siphnian treasury. Both of these series are available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online. Detailed examination of the reused and out of context architectural blocks from the Archaic and early Classical sanctuary by Laroche and Nenna 1990 and Laroche and Nenna 1993 provide a model for evaluating fragmentary architectural remains in order to reconstruct a more complete understanding of the early sanctuary of Apollo.

Amandry, P. 1991. Guide de Delphes: Le Musée. Sites et monuments 6. Paris: De Boccard.
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Authoritative guide to the archaeological museum including architecture and sculpture from the sanctuaries of Apollo and Athena Pronoia.
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Bommelaer, J. -F, ed. 1997. Marmaria: Le sanctuaire d’Athéna à Delphes. Sites et monuments 16. Paris: De Boccard.
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In addition to chapters on history of the site, its divinities, and visiting the site, this guidebook focuses on developments in archaeological research and the methods and resources that contribute to the study of the ancient sanctuary.
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Bommelaer, J. -F., and D. Laroche. 1991. Guide de Delphes: Le Site. Sites et monuments 7. Paris: De Boccard.
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Archaeological guide to the topography and monuments in the sanctuaries of Athena Pronoia and Apollo at Delphi. Includes introduction to the history of the site, the oracle of Apollo, and associated religious institutions.
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Daux, G., and E. Hansen. 1987. Le Trésor de Siphnos. Fouilles de Delphes II: Topographie et architecture 12. 2 vols. Paris: De Boccard.
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Detailed presentation of architecture from one of the most significant Archaic Ionic buildings. Includes a history of research and new observations leading to reconstruction of the treasury.
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Fouilles de Delphes. 1902–. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
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The publications by the French School in Athens (École Française d’Athènes) include topographical and architectural studies, with volumes dedicated to specific buildings. Available at Collections de l’École française d’Athènes en ligne online.
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Laroche, Didier, and Marie-Dominique Nenna. 1990. Le trésor de Sicyone et ses fondations. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique 114:241–284.
DOI: 10.3406/bch.1990.1722Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Important study of the architectural blocks reused in the foundations of the treasury of Sicyon that come from 6th-century buildings destroyed in the fire of 548–547 BC.
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Laroche, Didier, and Marie-Dominique Nenna. 1993. Études sur les trésors en poros à Delphes. In Les grands ateliers d’architecture dans le monde égéen du Vie Siècle av. J.-C. Edited by Jacques des Courtils and Jean-Claude Moretti, 227–245. Istanbul: Varia Anatolica III.
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Important study of unpublished architectural blocks and the extant treasury foundations. By establishing dates for the foundations and attempting to reconstruct the superstructure, a clearer understanding of the architectural development of the sanctuary emerges.
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Michaud, Jean-Pierre. 1973. Le trésor de Thèbes. Fouilles de Delphes II: Topographie et architecture 8. 2 vols. Paris: De Boccard.
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Detailed examination of preserved foundations and architectural elements provide evidence for identification, date, and reconstruction of 4th-century Doric treasury. Although less elaborate than others, the Theban treasury exhibits technical innovations in its foundations and a refined use of material and Doric forms.
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Eretria

The Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece has conducted excavations in Eretria since 1964 and published over twenty volumes in the series Eretria Fouilles et recherches 1968–. Some volumes focus on individual buildings such as the temple of Apollo, the gymnasium, the theater, and the Thesmophorion, as well as a guide to the ancient city and its monuments, Rendall 2004. See also Verdan 2012, cited under Early Monumental Architecture.

Eretria Fouilles et recherché. 1968–. Lausanne: Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece.
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Publication of research conducted by the Swiss School of Greece in Eretria since 1964. Volumes dedicated to architecture, urbanism, pottery, history, and epigraphy. In French and German.
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Rendall, Steven, trans. 2004. Eretria: A guide to the ancient city. Gollion, Switzerland: École Suisse d’Archéologie en Grèce.
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Beautifully produced and informative introduction to the history and monuments of Eretria. Three sections offer background on the ancient city and its rediscovery, ancient society, and the archaeological remains. Intended for a general audience and visitors to the site and provides references and bibliography for further inquiry.
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Isthmia

Excavations in the Panhellenic sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia and surrounding area have been carried out under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Preliminary results have been published in Hesperia (cited under Foreign Schools and Institutes in Greece) and the excavation series Isthmia. Among the latter are Broneer 1971 on the temples of Poseidon and Broneer 1973 on the topography of the sanctuary, although his conclusions must be reevaluated in light of the excavations by Gebhard and Hemans 1992. See also Rhodes 2003 (cited under Early Monumental Architecture) on early monumental architecture in the Corinthia. Gebhard 1973 is a study of the theater at Isthmia, and Sturgeon 1987 publishes the Greek and Roman figural sculpture from the sanctuary.

Broneer, Oscar T. 1971. Isthmia I: Temple of Poseidon. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Publication of the (astonishingly few) architectural remains from the 7th century temple that was destroyed by fire and its 5th century successor.
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Broneer, Oscar T. 1973. Isthmia II: Topography and architecture. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Topography and monuments from the sanctuary (with the exception of the temples) and surrounding area, including the sanctuary of Palaimon and the stadia used for the Panhellenic competitions.
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Gebhard, Elizabeth R. 1973: The theater at Isthmia. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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Archaeological evidence for the theater from the 4th century BC through the Roman period.
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Gebhard, Elizabeth R., and Frederick P. Hemans. 1992. University of Chicago excavations at Isthmia, 1989: I. Hesperia 61:1–77.
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First of three articles on the results of excavation and research in the sanctuary of Poseidon. Important presentation of stratigraphy and pottery used to date construction of the first temple to the first half of the 7th century.
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Sturgeon, Mary C. 1987. Isthmia IV: Sculpture I: 1952–1967. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
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Presentation of the figural sculpture in a variety of materials (marble, terracotta, ivory) from the 7th century BC through the 3rd century AD discovered in the excavations of the University of Chicago in the sanctuary at Isthmia. Includes a marble perirrhanterion associated with the 7th-century temple of Poseidon.
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Olympia

Excavations in the Panhellenic sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia by the Deutsches Archäeologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute) began in the 19th century. The first study of the architecture was published in Adler, et al. 1892, which despite its age is still a useful source for drawings and plans. Since 1937, reports on the excavations have been published in the Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia, while the Olympische Forschungen 1964– presents monographs on focused topics, including specific buildings in the sanctuary. Mallwitz 1966 is an important contribution to our understanding of the architecture and date of the Hera temple. The study by Herrmann 1976 is an important study of the architectural remains from the treasuries and is comparable to Laroche and Nenna 1993 (cited under Delphi) for the treasuries at Delphi. Löcht 2013 is a recent reappraisal of the architectural remains from the bouleuterion buildings. The guidebook Mallwitz 1972 offers an introduction to the sanctuary that is still useful for students and scholars.

Adler, F., R. Borrmann, W. Dörpfeld, F. Graeber, and P. Graef. 1892. Olympia: Die ergebnisse der von dem Deutschen Reich veranstalteten ausgrabung II: Die Baudenkmäler. Berlin: Asher.
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Original publication of the excavation and architectural remains from the sanctuary at Olympia. Superseded in many ways by later studies, the drawings and plans make this a useful reference even in the 21st century.
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Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia. 1937–. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Publication of reports on the archaeological excavations conducted by the German Archaeological Institute in the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia.
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Herrmann, Klaus. 1976. Beobachtungen zur Schatzhaus-Architektur Olympias. In Neue Forschungen in griechischen Heiligtumern: Internationales Symposion in Olympia vom 10. bis 12. Oktober 1974 anlasslich der Hundertjahrfeier der Abteilung Athen und der deutschen Ausgrabungen in Olympia. Edited by U. Jantzen, 321–350. Tubingen, Germany: Ernst Wasmuth.
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Valuable study of architectural fragments discovered in the sanctuary. Establishes groups of blocks on basis of material, scale, and decorative details and evaluates the basis for connections to existing foundations.
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Löcht, H. van de. 2013. Zum Buleuterion von Olympia. In Olympia-Bericht XIII: Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia, 2000 bis 2005. Edited by H. Kyrieleis, 229–277. Tübingen, Germany and Berlin: Wasmuth.
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New study of the foundations and superstructure of the apsidal buildings to the south of the Altis at Olympia.
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Mallwitz, Alfred. 1966. Das Heraion von Olympia und seine Vorgänger. Jahrbuch des deutsches archaeologischen Institut 81:310–376.
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Important study of the archaeological evidence for the date and reconstruction of the temple of Hera at Olympia.
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Mallwitz, Alfred. 1972. Olympia und seine Bauten. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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Archaeological guide to the topography and monuments in the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Chapters focus on the worship of Zeus, history of the sanctuary, and its buildings. Illustrated by drawings and photographs from the German excavations in the sanctuary. Bibliography is out of date but has yet to be replaced.
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Olympische Forschungen. 1964–. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Individual volumes present studies on buildings (workshop of Pheidias, Echo Stoa), objects (Geometric tripods, terracotta figurines, bronze sculpture), and pottery from the sanctuary.
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Samos

The sanctuary of Hera on Samos is an important source for understanding monumental architecture and cult practice in the eastern Mediterranean. Walter 1990 offers a good introduction to the history of the island, while Gruben 2014 is a comprehensive study of the history and architecture of the temple of Hera, one of the most famous temples of the ancient world.

Gruben, Gottfried. 2014. Die polykratische Temple in Heraion von Samos. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
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Definitive publication of 6th-century temple of Hera on Samos by a leading scholar of Cycladic architecture. Includes detailed presentation of architectural elements, catalogue of extant fragments, and reconstruction of temple accompanied by beautiful line drawings and photographs. Valuable discussion of building history and context.
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Walter, Hans. 1990. Das griechische Heiligtum, dargestellt am Heraion von Samos. Stuttgart: Urachhaus.
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Scholarly introduction to the sanctuary of Hera on the island of Samos. Short thematic chapters examine aspects of the history, religious practices and institutions, topography, and monuments from prehistory through the early Christian period. Generously illustrated with line drawings and photographs of the architecture and sculpture found in the sanctuary.
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Samothrace

The island of Samothrace in the northeast Aegean is home to the sanctuary of the Great Gods, whose worship belongs to the category of mystery religions. Although there are earlier remains, the sanctuary benefited from Macedonian patronage and was enhanced by gateways, rotundas, stoas, altars, and a variety of buildings for the process of initiation. It was also where the famous dedication known as the Nike of Samothrace was found. The sanctuary has been excavated since the 19th century and the results are published in Lehmann and Lehmann 1959–. Lehmann 1975 is the most recent guidebook to the sanctuary. See also McCredie, et al. 1992, cited under Round Buildings. Emory University now hosts a dynamic website, Samothrace Framing the Mysteries in the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, with information about current research, bibliography, and digital resources.

Lehmann, Karl. 1975. Samothrace: A guide to the excavations and the museum. 4th rev. ed. Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin.
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Useful introduction to the history of excavations, the sanctuary, and the museum.
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Lehmann, Karl, and Phyllis Williams Lehmann. Samothrace: Excavations conducted by the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University. 1959–. New York University Institute of Fine Arts. New York: Pantheon.
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Excavation series with volumes dedicated to the ancient literary sources, inscriptions, pottery, topography and architecture (Hieron, Hall of Votive Gifts, Rotunda of Arsinoe, and Propylon of Ptolemy II).
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Samothrace: Framing the Mysteries in the Sanctuary of the Great Gods.
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Exciting online resource for exploring the sanctuary. Information about current research, bibliography, and digital resources including an interactive plan and panoramic views of the sanctuary.
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Greek Architecture of Asia Minor

Many of the cities of Asia Minor fall within the sphere of Greek culture influence, especially with regard to monumental architecture and sculpture. A selection of publications from some of these cities and sanctuaries is provided below.

Assos

The city of Assos in northwest Turkey was excavated by J. T. Clarke in the 19th century and work resumed under Turkish archaeologists in 1981. A well-preserved Archaic temple with non-traditional forms of Doric architecture is the subject of Wescoat 2012.

Wescoat, Bonna. 2012. The temple of Athena at Assos. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Scholarly publication of an unusual temple with characteristics of Doric, Ionic, and Anatolian architecture. Presents history of discovery and scholarship, description of site, architecture, and sculpture. Valuable consideration of architectural parallels and basis for dating.
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Ephesos

This city on the west coast of Asia Minor was famous for its temple of Artemis, originally built in the 6th century and rebuilt after a fire in the 4th century. Although the later Roman city has largely eclipsed its Greek predecessor, the excavations by the Austrian Archaeological Institute have uncovered remains from the early city as well as the sanctuary of Artemis. Results of their work are published in Forschungen in Ephesos 1906–. Ohnesorg 2007 provides a thorough look at the architecture from the 6th-century temple of Artemis.

Forschungen in Ephesos. 1906–. Vienna: A. Holder.
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Excavation series includes monographs on the temple of Artemis, the theater, the bouleuterion, the prytaneion, and the houses in the ancient Greek city of Ephesos.
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Ohnesorg, Aenne. 2007. Der Kroisos-Tempel: neue Forschungen zum archaischen Dipteros der Artemis von Ephesos. Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
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Comprehensive study of architecture including the Archaic temple of Artemis at Ephesos. This history of scholarship outlines discovery and early reconstructions of the temple. Includes catalogue of architectural elements and revised reconstruction of temple illustrated with line drawings and photographs. Also features observations on material and technique and evidence for date and identity of architects.
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Halicarnassus

The monumental tomb of Mausolus at Halikarnassos was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world but was badly damaged by earthquakes before being reused by the Knights Hospitallers to build their castle. Jeppeson 2002 is an invaluable resource, written by a scholar who has dedicated many years to understanding the fragmentary remains of the famous structure.

Jeppeson, Kristian. 2002. The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos: Reports of the Danish archaeological expedition to Bodrum: The superstructure, a comparative analysis of the architectural, sculptural, and literary evidence. Vol. 5. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
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Fundamental study of the architectural and sculptural fragments from the Mausolleion provides a history of excavations and scholarship, analysis of the text of Pliny the Elder, and its contribution to the reconstruction. Detailed discussion of architectural and sculptural remains.
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Ilion (Troy)

The site of Ilion (Troy), on the northwest coast of Turkey at the southern end of the Dardanelles, is most famous for the discovery of a series of Bronze Age cities that Heinrich Schliemann identified as Homeric Troy. In 1988 excavations at Troy were renewed by an international team including the University of Cincinnati and the University of Tübingen, and have contributed to our understanding of its development from prehistory onward. The results of this work have been published in Studia Troica 1991–2011, including the study in Rose 2003 of the temple of Athena at Ilion, and Özgünel 2003 on the sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus at Chryse.

Özgünel, C. 2003. Das Heiligtum des Apollo Smintheus und die Ilias. Studia Troica 13:261–291.
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Study of the sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus at Chryse and the Ionic temple dating to the 2nd century BC.
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Rose, Charles Brian. 2003. The temple of Athena at Ilion. Studia Troica 13:27–88.
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Examination of the archaeological evidence for the Doric temple of Athena that stood on the Classical acropolis of the city.
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Studia Troica. 1991–2011. Mainz am Phein, Germany: Philip von Zabern.
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Publication of results from the excavations at Troy carried out by the University of Cincinnati and the University of Tübingen.
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Miletus

The city of Miletus and the oracular sanctuary at nearby Didyma on the west coast of Asia Minor are renown for their architecture—especially the temple of Apollo, the earliest remains of which date to the early 6th century. The mid-6th century temple was an Ionic dipteros and walls surrounding an internal courtyard and naiskos. Construction on colossal temple began in the third century but was never completed. Early architectural studies are published in Knackfuss 1941. Gruben 1963 presented a new study on the Archaic sanctuary. Monographs on the Hellenistic temple are published as supplementary volumes to the journal Istanbuler Mitteilungen (cited under Journals: Turkey). See also Haselberger 1985 and Haselberger 1991 (both cited under Architectural Design and Construction: Architectural Drawings and Models) for the discovery and analysis of architectural drawings that were incised on the walls of the Hellenistic temple. Held 2000 is a recent investigation of the sanctuary of Athena in Miletus.

Gruben, G. 1963. Das archaische Didymaion. Jahrbuch des Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Athen 78:78–177.
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Examination of the archaeological evidence and architectural remains from the 6th-century sanctuary at Didyma.
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Held, W. 2000. Das Heiligtum der Athena in Milet. Milesische Forschungen 2. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.
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Reinvestigation of the excavated remains in the sanctuary of Athena, includes discussion of stratigraphy, architectural remains, and other evidence for its development from Mycenaean period onward. Architectural analysis of Archaic and Classical buildings considers of influence from variety of sources.
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Knackfuss, Hubert. 1941. Didyma 1: Die Baubeschreibung. 3 vols. Berlin: Mann.
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Primary publication of the architecture from the early excavations by the German Archaeological Institute. Still a useful reference for its drawings and plans.
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Pergamon

As the capital city of the Attalid rulers from the 3rd to the 2nd centuries BC, Pergamon was an important Hellenistic center. The architecture of the Acropolis, including the 3rd-century temple of Athena, stoas, a propylon, library, and the altar of Zeus, contributed to the prestige and cultural influence of the Attalids. Lower terraces were occupied by other sanctuaries as well. The German Archaeological Institute has been excavating at the site since the 19th century, and results appear in Altertümer von Pergamon 1885–. Koester 1998 includes architectural studies of domestic and sacred buildings from the citadel of Pergamon.

Altertümer von Pergamon. 1885. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Series of monographs presenting the results of excavation by the Deutsches Archäologisches Instituts. Includes architectural studies of buildings and sanctuaries.
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Koester, Helmut, ed. 1998. Pergamon, citadel of the gods: Archaeological record, literary description, and religious development. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International.
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Collection of essays exploring recent research on Pergamon from the Hellenistic to the Byzantine period. Architectural studies of the Great Altar, the sanctuary of Demeter, and houses.
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Priene

This city in southwest Asia Minor was refounded in the mid-4th century and is one of the most widely studied examples of an orthogonal plan promoted by Hippodamus of Miletus. In the center of the city is the sanctuary of Athena with a temple designed by Pytheos. Hennemeyer 2013 provides an important study of this temple and the development of the sanctuary.

Hennemeyer, Arnd. 2013. Athenaheiligtum von Priene: Die Nebenbauten—Altar, Halle und Propylon—und die bauliche Entwicklung des Heiligtums. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
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Comprehensive study of the architectural development of the sanctuary of Athena, including the history of scholarship, description of the architectural remains of the altar, terrace wall, stoa, and propylon. Catalogue of architectural elements from each structure is provided.
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Xanthos

Xanthos is an ancient Lycian city in southwest Asia Minor, and its architecture reflects a variety of influences from Lycian, Greek, and Persian sources. The sanctuary of Leto has several temples, stoas, and a propylon that date to the Hellenistic period. Demargne and Laroche 1974 presents the sculpted funerary monuments, including stone sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs that imitate wooden architecture. The most famous example is the Nereid Monument, which is an elaborate tomb in the form of a small peripteral temple. Coupel and Demargne 1969 provides a detailed examination of the architecture, while Childs and Demargne 1992 discusses richly sculptural decoration, including the free-standing figures and reliefs that decorated the building and the podium.

Childs, William A. P., and Pierre Demargne. 1992. Le monument des Néréides: le décor sculpté. Fouilles de Xanthos 8. 2 vols. Paris: Klincksieck.
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Comprehensive study of the sculpture from the Nereid monument includes catalogue of pieces, stylistic analysis, and iconographic study.
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Coupel, Pierre, and Pierre Demargne. 1969. Le monument des Néréides: L’architecture. Fouilles de Xanthos 3. 2 vols. Paris: Klincksieck.
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Definitive publication of the architecture from the Nereid monument, now in the British Museum.
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Demargne, Pierre, and Emmanuel Laroche. 1974. Tombes-maison, tombes rupestres et sarcophages and Les Épitaphes Lyciennes. Fouilles de Xanthos 5. Paris: Klincksieck.
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Important study of the free-standing tombs and rock-cut tombs that imitate wooden buildings. Analysis of the architectural forms, particularly the representation of roof structure, suggests a connection to Lycian practices, although the influence from monumental Ionic architecture may also play an important role.
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Greek Architecture of Sicily and South Italy

The temples of Sicily and South Italy were visible reminders of the glories of ancient architecture and served as an inspiration to the artists and architects of the Renaissance and following, including the Prix de Rome winners from the Académie des Beaux Arts in Paris who visited in the 19th century, as documented in Paris-Rome-Athens (Hellmann 1982, cited under Architectural Polychromy). Koldewey and Puchstein 1899 offered the first detailed examination of the Greek temples, and is still a valuable resource today. Mertens 2006 offers a contemporary evaluation of the architecture of Greek cities in Sicily and South Italy.

Koldewey, Robert, and Otto Puchstein. 1899. Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien. Berlin: A. Ascher and Co.
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This foundational study of the Greek architecture in Southern Italy and Sicily is still a valuable source of information and especially drawings.
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Mertens, Dieter. 2006. Städte und Bauten der Westgriechichen von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus. Munich: Hirmer.
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Chronological discussion of Greek cities in southern Italy and Sicily from 8th through the 5th centuries BC. Emphasizes the development of city planning and monumental architecture, including regional style with Doric and Ionic elements found in Achaean colonies. Authoritative volume useful to students and scholars alike.
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Akragas (Agrigento)

Greek colony on the south coast of Sicily, founded in the 6th century from the city of Gela. Several sanctuaries were built in and around the city, and it has an impressive number of temples from 5th century onward. Early studies of the architecture are found in Koldewey and Puchstein 1899 (cited under Greek Architecture of Sicily and South Italy.) De Miro 2000 focuses on the urban sanctuary and is the first in a new series devoted to publishing the results of excavations that begen in the mid-20th century. Zoppi 2001 presents the results of excavations in the sanctuary of the chthonic divinites, while De Miro, et al. 2003 covers the extramural sanctuary of Asklepios.

De Miro, E. 2000. Agrigento. I santuari urbani: L’area sacra tra il Tempio di Zeus a Porta V. Vol. 1. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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Publication of excavations since the mid-20th century that uncovered the urban sanctuary. Traces architectural forms and development from Classical through Hellenistic periods.
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De Miro, E., V. Calì, S. C. Sturiale, and E. Oteri. 2003. Agrigento. I santuari extraurbani: L’Asklepieion, Soveria Mannelli. Vol. 2. Italy: Rubbettino.
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Results of excavations in the extramural sanctuary of Asklepios including its architectural development in the Hellenistic period.
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Zoppi, C. 2001. Gli edifice arcaici del sanctuario della divinità ctonie di Agrigento. Problemi di cronologia e di architettura. Alessandria, Italy: Orso.
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Publication of excavations in the sanctuary of the chthonic divinities at Agrigento. Topographical presentation of architectural remains, phases of development beginning in the 6th century. Analysis of sanctuary with respect to other sites in Sicily such as Gela and Selinus.
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Paestum (Poseidonia)

The colony of Poseidonia was founded by Achaean colonists from Sybaris. It was controlled by the Lucanians after 410 BC and Rome in the 3rd century BC. Within the city, a sacred precinct was established with 6th century temples dedicated to Hera (so-called Basilica) and Athena, and a 5th-century temple of Poseidon. Krauss 1959 was the first to publish the architecture of the Athena temple, while Mertens 1993 is a more recent, comprehensive publication of the first temple of Hera. Greco 2001 provides an introduction to the extramural sanctuary of Hera at the mouth of the Sele River (Foce del Sele), and Pedley 1993 presents the results from recent excavations in the sanctuary of Aphrodite (Santa Venera).

Greco, G. 2001. Il Santuario di Hera alla foce del Sele. I quaderni del museo 2. Salerno, Italy: Società Ingegneria per la Cultura.
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Guidebook to the sanctuary and museum at Foce del Sele. Includes history of excavation and development of the sanctuary beginning in the 6th century BC.
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Krauss, Friedrich. 1959. Die Tempel von Paestum. Die archaische Tempel. Pt. 1. Der Athenatempel. Vol. 1. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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Fundamental study of the architectural remains from the temple of Athena. Includes description of architectural remains and proposes reconstruction.
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Mertens, Dieter. 1993. Der alte Heratempel in Paestum und die archaische Baukunst im Unteritalien. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.
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Definitive publication of the first temple of Hera at Paestum, an important example of the early Doric temple. Second part of the book explores the temple within the context of south Italian architecture in the Archaic period.
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Pedley, John Griffiths, ed. 1993. The Sanctuary of Santa Venera at Paestum. Archaeologica 104, Archaeologia perusina 11. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider.
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Results of the excavations from 1981–1985 of extramural sanctuary dedicated to Aphrodite-Venus that was used from the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD. Chapters address history of excavation, topography, architecture, pottery and inscriptions.
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Segesta

This Elymian city in western Sicily dates to the 6th century BC and has buildings from the civic center (bouleuterion, theater, gymnasium) as well as two Doric temples. Mertens 1984 established a new standard of scholarship and publication with an extensively illustrated catalogue of architecture from Segesta along with an analysis of building design.

Mertens, Dieter. 1984. Der Tempel von Segesta und die dorische Tempelbaukunst des griechischen Westens in klassischer Zeit. 2 vols. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.
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Authoritative presentation of architecture from the temple at Segesta. Provides convincing evidence for the reconstruction of the temple and its place in the development of 5th-century architecture in western Greece.
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Selinus

The city of Selinus in southwest Sicily was founded in the 7th century by settlers from Megara Hyblaea. Numerous well-preserved temples in a sanctuary on the Acropolis and a temenos to the east provide valuable information about architectural forms from the early 6th through 5th centuries. Koldewey and Puchstein 1899 (cited under Greek Architecture of Sicily and South Italy) studied many of the temples at Selinus. Gabrici 1927–1928, Gabrici 1935, and Gabrici 1956 offer descriptions and analysis of the temples from Selinus against the larger backdrop of Sicilian architecture. Tusa, et al. 1986 notes the recent discovery of another early-6th-century temple near the Malophoros sanctuary. See also Marconi 2007 (cited under Architectural Sculpture) for the sculpted metopes from Selinus.

Gabrici, E. 1927–1928. Il santuario della Malophoros a Selinunte. Monumenti Antichi 32, cols. 5–406.
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Study of the sanctuary of Demeter Malophoros to the west of the Acropolis of Selinus. Important study of the architectural remains from the early temple.
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Gabrici, E. 1935. Per la storia dell’architettura dorica in Sicilia. Monumenti Antichi 35, cols. 137–262.
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Important study of the Doric architecture in Sicily, including many of the temples at Selinus. The drawings are still an important source of information.
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Gabrici, E. 1956. Studi archeologici selinuntini. Monumenti Antichi 43, cols. 205–408.
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Publication of supplemental information regarding the architecture and architectural terracottas from Selinus.
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Tusa, S., L. Ferruzza, G. Fanara, et al. 1986. Selinunte-Malophoros: Rapporto preliminare sulla II campagna di scavi. Sicilia Archeologia 19.60–61: 13–88.
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Preliminary report on excavations to the south of the Malophoros sanctuary and the discovery of an early-6th-century temple.
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Greek Architecture of the Black Sea

Greek culture was brought into the Black Sea area by trade and colonization and combined with local traditions to create innovative results. Although our current understanding of Greek architecture in this region is in its infancy, the volume Bujskich 2010 presents a tantalizing glimpse of what exists and suggests the value of further research.

Bujskich, A. 2010. Die antiken Architekturformen im nördlichen Schwarzmeergebiet: Herkunft und Entwicklung. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
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Important presentation of Classical architectural fragments dating from the late Archaic period to the 1st centuries AD discovered in the cities of the northern Black Sea, including Olbia, Chersonesos, and Panticapeum. Analysis considers sources of influence including Attica, Asia Minor, imported elements from Miletos and Chios, and local imitations.