Al-Qaeda (Islamic Studies)

Introduction

Al-Qaeda, meaning “The Base,” refers broadly to a group fighting a declared global jihad of holy war against the West, Zionism, and certain Arab regimes with the proclaimed aim of defeating them and placing “Islam” in a position of power, both politically and ideologically. Scholars and analysts differ in opinion as to whether al-Qaeda is an organization with centralized control and command, an umbrella organization that includes a variety of jihadist-minded smaller organizations or movements in different locations, a franchise operation with limited centralized control, or simply a figment of Western imagination that was constructed in order to put a face on the ideology being fought in the ongoing War on Terror.

General Overviews

There are many general texts addressing the concept of jihad from a historical perspective. Some, such as Esposito 1998 and Voll 1994, provide a broad historical context for understanding the rise of jihadism. Bonney 2004 and Cook 2005 discuss the concept of jihad historically, while Furnish 2005 provides analysis of Mahdist movements in history. All include specific references to al-Qaeda.

Bonney, Richard. Jihad: From Qurʾan to bin Laden. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
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A comprehensive historical analysis of the text and meanings, contextual theories, and ideological interpretations of jihad, including Sunni, Shiʿi, and Sufi interpretations and global coverage. Encyclopedic in detail, it reflects a multiplicity of interpretations with sensitivity to time period, geographical location, and political need.
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Cook, David. Understanding Jihad. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
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A comprehensive account of the historical development of the concept of jihad, both greater and lesser, that nevertheless focuses on the lesser jihad of military activity. It includes some contemporary translated primary documents, mostly related to al-Qaeda.
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Esposito, John L. Islam and Politics. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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Provides case studies of a variety of political movements globally, including both those based on jihad and those based on other political ideologies.
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Furnish, Timothy R. Holiest Wars: Islamic Mahdis, Their Jihads, and Osama bin Laden. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
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Analysis of interpretations of the Mahdi throughout Islamic history. Focuses on identifying the signs of the rise of the Mahdi in the contemporary era and what this means to al-Qaeda in particular.
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Voll, John O. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
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Provides a broad world historical approach to developments in Islamic thought and practice, placing the rise of jihadism within its world historical context.
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English Translations

Translations of statements by al-Qaeda leaders have proliferated in recent years. Osama bin Laden’s speeches are presented in Lawrence 2005, while Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri’s can be found in Mansfield 2006. Abu Musab al-Suri’s most pivotal text can be found in Lacey 2008, while that of Abd al-Aziz al-Muqrin is presented in Cigar 2008. Shorter excerpts of a variety of texts may be found in Donohue and Esposito 2006. The most central work for jihadists by Sayyid Qutb is Qutb 1993. Many English translations of al-Qaeda publications and other jihadi texts are also available online, such as those found on Mansfield Report and The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. Because some are translated by scholars and others by the jihadis themselves, care should always be taken to contextualize the translator and the website so as to take into account the potential impact of the translator on the translation produced.

Cigar, Norman, trans. Al-Qaida’s Doctrine for Insurgency: Abd al-Aziz al-Muqrin’s “A Practical Course for Guerrilla War.” Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2008.
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Written as a guide by the now deceased leader of al-Qaeda on the Arabian Peninsula.
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The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point.
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Contains many important translations and studies, as well as a regular electronic periodical, CTC Sentinel.
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Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito, eds. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives, 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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Compilation of primary texts on a variety of topics. Includes important texts by Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Abdus Salam al-Farag, Abdullah Al-Azzam, and Osama bin Laden.
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Lacey, Jim, ed. A Terrorist’s Call to Global Jihad: Deciphering Abu Musab al-Suri’s Islamic Jihad Manifesto. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2008.
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An edited translation of the most important work by al-Qaeda’s most important ideologue, often referred to as the Mein Kampf of al-Qaeda.
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Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden. Translated by James Howarth. London: Verso, 2005.
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Compilation of translated and minimally annotated statements by Osama bin Laden from 1994 to 2004.
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Mansfield, Laura. His Own Words: A Translation of the Writings of Dr. Ayman al Zawahiri. Old Tappan, NJ: TLG Publications, 2006.
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A translated collection of video statements and primary source documents written by Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri.
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Mansfield Report.
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Provides English translations of recently released jihadi statements and materials, including an archive of statements by Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri.
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Qutb, Sayyid. Milestones, rev. trans. Indianapolis, IN: American Trust.,1993.
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The seminal foundational work of jihadist ideology, calling for unending global jihad in participation in the cosmic conflict between good and evil. This book presents Islam as a revolution and true civilization, outlining the distinctive characteristics of jihad and specifying when jihad with the sword is permitted.
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Historical Development

However defined, al-Qaeda did not develop in a vacuum. Pivotal events in its development are often thought to be: (1) the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by extremist militants; (2) the conflict in Afghanistan between the Afghans and the Soviets; and (3) domestic affairs in a variety of Arab countries, most notably Saudi Arabia and Egypt. All of these events have inspired and have been inspired by militant ideologies projecting an ideological battle between Islam and godlessness requiring military jihad.

Events

The pivotal events of 1979 are detailed in Trofimov 2007 and Hegghammer and Lacroix 2007. Rashid 2000 presents a detailed history of Afghanistan in the Soviet and Taliban eras, pointing to the rise of militant Islamic movements before 9/11. Burke 2003 provides a history of al-Qaeda that focuses on the impact of the conflict in Afghanistan, while challenging approaches that lump all Islamic militant groups under the al-Qaeda umbrella. Wright 2006 focuses specifically on events leading to the creation of al-Qaeda as an organization, in order to present the trajectory to 9/11.

Burke, Jason. Al-Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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One of the earliest histories of al-Qaeda that challenges the lumping together of Islamic militant groups as failing to recognize their differing agendas and objectives.
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Hegghammer, Thomas, and Stephane Lacroix. “Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-ʿUtaybi Revisited.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 39 (2007): 103–122.
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The most detailed account of the origins and influences of the leader of the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque, which is considered to be the precursor to al-Qaeda.
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Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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An analysis of the rise of the Taliban in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the repeated failures of the Afghan state to provide security for its citizens. This work pointed to the proliferation of al-Qaeda training camps and activities in Afghanistan before 9/11.
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Trofimov, Yaroslav. The Siege of Mecca: The Forgotten Uprising in Islam’s Holiest Shrine and the Birth of Al-Qaeda. New York: Doubleday, 2007.
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The most comprehensive account of the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque and the events and ideas leading up to it, as well as the ongoing significance of that ideology in the creation of the global jihadist ideology of al-Qaeda.
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Wright, Lawrence. The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Vintage Books, 2006.
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A highly readable, Pulitzer Prize–winning account of the long trajectory to 9/11. Based on extensive research and interviews.
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Ideological Studies

Ideological studies tend to trace the rise of militant jihadism in Egypt and then through its development and mutation in other contexts. Kepel 2000 gives a comprehensive analysis of the rise of jihadism in a post-Islamist context. Moussali 1993 analyzes the writings of the major ideologue of global jihad, Sayyid Qutb. Jansen 1986 is one of the earliest studies of the rise of contemporary jihadism, while Kenney 2006 focuses on the ongoing struggle between the Muslim Brotherhood and the Egyptian government. DeLong-Bas 2008 and Fandy 1999 examine Saudi religious dissent, including the voice of Osama bin Laden, while Scheuer 2006 focuses exclusively on bin Laden.

DeLong-Bas, Natana J. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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The only comprehensive analysis of the foundational writings of the Wahhabi movement with extensive discussion of jihad in the 18th century and its trajectory to the global jihadism of Osama bin Laden in the 21st century.
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Fandy, Mamoun. Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent. London: Palgrave, 1999.
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First comprehensive analysis of the major voices of dissent within Saudi Arabia that places Osama bin Laden within his Saudi context and as one of many voices of dissent who initially called for reform but ultimately turned to the path of jihad.
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Jansen, Johannes J. G. The Neglected Duty. New York: Macmillan, 1986.
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One of the earliest examinations of the rise of contemporary jihadism through the lens of the ideologue behind the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat: Muhammad Abdul Salam al-Farag. Al-Qaeda’s second-in-command, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was among those imprisoned for Sadat’s assassination.
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Kenney, Jeffrey T. Muslim Rebels: Kharijites and the Politics of Extremism in Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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Analysis of the historical group known as the Kharijites and how this term has been invoked in the government’s struggle against both the Muslim Brotherhood and the extremists in Egypt.
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Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: Expansion et declin de l’islamisme. Paris: Gallimard, 2000.
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A comprehensive analysis of political trends in Islam that argued for the rise of jihadism in the post-Islamist era.
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Moussalli, Ahmad S. Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Ideology and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993.
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An analysis of the writings of the major ideologue of global jihad, Sayyid Qutb. Demonstrates the radicalization that resulted from his imprisonment and torture, ending with his execution in 1966.
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Scheuer, Michael. Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006.
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One of the most important analyses of the factors at play in the rise of Osama bin Laden. Written by a former CIA officer and head of the bin Laden unit.
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Structure

Having received extensive media coverage, al-Qaeda is the most famous, if least definitively known, of all jihadist organizations. Scholars vary in opinion about how best to approach al-Qaeda, depending on whether the analysis focuses on organizational matters, branches in different locations, leadership and its levels, both domestic and foreign strategies, and its ideology.

Organization

Analysis of al-Qaeda has branched into several fields, including those such as Greenberg 2005 that characterize al-Qaeda as a broad umbrella organization encompassing all militant organizations that phrase their grievances and goals in Islamic terms; those such as Atwan 2006 that focus on specific individuals who have claimed affiliation with al-Qaeda; and those asserting that al-Qaeda is an invented community that does not exist in reality. Gunaratna 2002 argues for consideration of al-Qaeda as a global network, while Burke 2003 challenges the vision of al-Qaeda as an umbrella group for all Islamic militancy. Riedel 2008 posits that al-Qaeda has metamorphosed over time into a franchise operation.

Atwan, Abdel Bari. The Secret History of al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
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Written by the former editor-in-chief of Al-Quds newspaper. Atwan was the only Western-based journalist to have spent time with Osama bin Laden. Includes discussions of martyrdom, cyberjihad, and the splitting of al-Qaeda into different branches, including branches in Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
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Burke, Jason. Al-Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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One of the earliest histories of al-Qaeda that challenges the idea of lumping together Islamic militant groups as failing to recognize their differing agendas and objectives.
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Greenberg, Karen J., ed. Al Qaeda Now: Understanding Today’s Terrorists. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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This collection of essays presents one of the earliest attempts to bring together experts and scholars who had written on al-Qaeda and to focus on its mutation into different branches, including branches in Europe, under the assumption that al-Qaeda remained a broad umbrella organization in control of networks throughout the world.
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Gunaratna, Rohan. Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror, 3d ed. New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 2002.
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Long considered one of the best works in its field. Gunaratna argues that al-Qaeda is a global network present throughout North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Balkans, South and Southeast Asia, and Australia. Suggests policy recommendations and argues for doctrinal flexibility within al-Qaeda to permit the pursuit of political goals.
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Riedel, Bruce. The Search for Al-Qaida: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
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Provides a brief history of the rise of al-Qaeda but focuses most on how the organization has metamorphosed into a franchise operation. Provides profiles of Ayman al-Zawahiri, Osama bin Laden, Mullah Omar, and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.
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Branches

Although al-Qaeda’s origins are traceable to Afghanistan, as outlined in Rashid 2002, its membership is believed to be global, encompassing both those living in Muslim majority countries and those who have immigrated to non-Muslim majority countries, particularly Europe and the United States, as described by Malik 2006. In some cases, country- or region-specific organizations with domestic agendas have claimed a relationship with al-Qaeda, such as in the Arabian Peninsula (based in Saudi Arabia, but also present in Yemen), Iraq, and the Islamic Maghrib (North Africa). In other cases, the agendas are declared to be more global, seeking to influence domestic policies and politics in both Muslim and non-Muslim majority countries, such as groups claiming affiliation with al-Qaeda based in Europe, as studied by Kohlmann 2004 and Pargeter 2008, or those demonstrating features purportedly in common with al-Qaeda, although with different domestic agendas, such as in Indonesia, as discussed by Barton 2005; Chechnya, as addressed by Hughes 2008; and Saudi Arabia, as analyzed by Al-Rasheed 2007. As observed by Gerges 2005, the differences in agendas reflect the ongoing debate within al-Qaeda as to whether the “near enemy” (domestic regimes) or the “far enemy” (the West) should be engaged as a priority.

Al-Rasheed, Madawi. Contesting the Saudi State: Islamic Voices from a New Generation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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An examination of contemporary understandings of Wahhabism and Salafism within Saudi Arabia that looks at a variety of interpretations of jihad, including those focused on jihad at home versus abroad. Provides a context for evaluating the relative appeal of al-Qaeda within Saudi Arabia.
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Barton, Greg. Indonesia’s Struggle: Jemaah Islamiyah and the Soul of Islam. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2005.
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Discusses the religious, cultural, and political development of Jemaah Islamiyah and analyzes features it shares with other organizations ostensibly linked to al-Qaeda. Provides coverage of the nightclub attack in Bali, arguing that the Indonesian government’s response failed in the long term.
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Gerges, Fawaz A. The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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This work challenges the assumption that al-Qaeda is a unified global network in control of all jihadist organizations, positing instead that the jihadist movement is fractured within due to varying opinions about which enemy is to be attacked first: the near (domestic regimes) or the far (the West). Posits that the most significant conflict is the one occurring within the jihadi movement and that comprehending this is critical to understanding what triggered the events of 9/11.
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Hughes, James. Chechnya: From Nationalism to Jihad. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
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Places the conflict in Chechnya in the broader context of nationalism and ethnic politics, theories of empire, and secession rather than following the Russian government’s portrayal of the conflict simply as an instance of al-Qaeda activity.
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Kohlmann, Evan H. Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network. Oxford: Berg, 2004.
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Demonstrates the movement of the Arab-Afghan mujahideen into the Balkans during the 1992–1995 crisis, resulting in the establishment of a European base for action.
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Malik, Aftab Ahmad, ed. The State We Are In: Identity, Terror and the Law of Jihad. Bristol, UK: Amal, 2006.
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A compilation of essays written by Muslims in the aftermath of the London bombings in order to distinguish and distance themselves from al-Qaeda and to explain where al-Qaeda is incorrect in its interpretation of jihad.
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Pargeter, Alison. The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical Islam in Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
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Based on interviews with European Islamists, argues for understanding radical Islam in Europe through the lens of conditions in the Islamic world; also argues that European jihadism is plagued by divisions, infighting, and struggles for leadership that hinder its power and cohesion. The book provides in-depth coverage of the major terrorist attacks in France, Madrid, and London.
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Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
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Written by a highly experienced journalist, this has been considered the pivotal account of the rise of militant jihadism in Central Asia since 9/11, with particular focus on the ties between al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and the Islamic movement of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
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Leadership

Studies of prominent figures within al-Qaeda have tended to focus on Osama bin Laden, Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Abu Musab al-Suri. In some cases, the focus is exclusively on a single figure, such as Bergen 2006 and Scheuer 2006 for Osama bin Laden; al-Zayyat 2004 for al-Zawahiri; Brisard 2005 and Napoleoni 2005 for al-Zarqawi; and Lia 2008 for al-Suri. In others, such as Post 2004 and Jihad 2007, there are attempts at comparative analysis not only within jihadism but also in comparison to other leaders of militant organizations. Islamic Tube provides a variety of video clips for primary research.

al-Zayyat, Montasser. The Road to Al-Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden’s Right-Hand Man. London: Pluto Press, 2004.
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An intellectually oriented biography of Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri. Written by an Egyptian lawyer who has known him since 1975 and was a close friend until 2003.
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Bergen, Peter L. The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al Qaeda’s Leader. New York: Free Press, 2006.
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The most comprehensive oral history of Osama bin Laden, tracing his transformation from a friend of the Saudi monarchy to an opponent of that government.
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Brisard, Jean-Charles. Zarqawi: The New Face of Al-Qaeda. New York: Other Press, 2005.
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The definitive biography of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi; includes primary documents.
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Islamic Tube.
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This website features postings of various video clips that can be searched by topic or featured individually. There are many clips of various jihadi leaders that can be found by name, often in translation.
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Jihad: The Men and Ideas behind Al Qaeda. PBS, 2007.
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An in-depth look at the three main leaders of al-Qaeda as of 2007—Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi—traced from the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1940s and the radicalization of Sayyid Qutb.
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Lia, Brynjar. Architect of Global Jihad: The Life of Al-Qaida Strategist Abu Musʾab al-Suri. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
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The most comprehensive biography of al-Qaeda’s most important ideologue, which offers further insight into his relationships with other leading jihadist figures from various countries.
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Napoleoni, Loretta. Insurgent Iraq: Al Zarqawi and the New Generation. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005.
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Tracks the development of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi from Jordan to Iraq as the leader of a new faction within al-Qaeda. This work nevertheless contains certain factual errors, most notably the conflation of Wahhabism and Salafism, and little attention to the pivotal figure of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, al-Zarqawi’s mentor and sometimes author of his written communications.
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Post, Jerrold M. Leaders and Their Followers in a Dangerous World: The Psychology of Political Behavior. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
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An examination of the leaders of various militant organizations, including al-Qaeda, through the lens of political psychology that emphasizes the importance of leadership over religious or political influences in attracting followers and determining the direction the movement will take.
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Scheuer, Michael. Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006.
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One of the most important analyses of the factors at play in the rise of Osama bin Laden, written by a former CIA officer and head of the bin Laden unit.
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Strategies

Scholarly attention has also been given to al-Qaeda’s operational tactics and strategies, such as O’Neill 2005, Poole 2004, Rodgers 2008, and Stout, et al. 2008. Sageman 2004 and Nasiri 2006 examine how new recruits are both acquired and trained, while Bunt 2009 and Forest 2006 document how members communicate with each other and the outside world. The question of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) is addressed by Stenersen 2008.

Bunt, Gary R. iMuslims: Rewiring the House of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
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An authoritative account of digital Islam with important descriptions and analyses of cyber-Islamic environments and special attention to militaristic jihad in cyberspace.
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Forest, James J.F., ed. Teaching Terror: Strategic and Tactical Learning in the Terrorist World. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006.
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A comparative analysis of how terrorist networks transfer knowledge and educate terrorists not only in ideology but also in practical operations: including actual fighting, virtual fighting, and use of the media to disseminate messages. Includes (but not limited to) a discussion of al-Qaeda.
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Nasiri, Omar. Inside the Jihad: My Life with Al Qaeda: A Spy’s Story. New York: Basic Books, 2006.
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A biographical account written by a European intelligence agent from inside al-Qaeda from 1994 until 2000, highlighting the importance of transnational networks in recruiting from jihadist organizations and the cross-pollination that subsequently occurs.
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O’Neill, Bard E. Insurgency and Terrorism: From Revolution to Apocalypse. 2d ed. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005.
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A comparative analysis of various insurgency movements and their methods, including al-Qaeda, placing them in the context of military strategies.
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Poole, H. John. Tactics of the Crescent Moon: Militant Muslim Combat Methods. Emerald Isle, NC: Posterity Press, 2004.
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A tactical guide to the military methods, both conventional and unconventional, of various jihadist movements, including al-Qaeda. Concludes with recommendations about how U.S. methods should adapt in order to be victorious.
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Rodgers, Russ. Fundamentals of Islamic Asymmetric Warfare: A Documentary Analysis of the Principles of Muhammad. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2008.
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Written by an expert on modern insurgency doctrine for the U.S. armed forces, this work focuses on the military strategies used by the Prophet Muhammad and discussions of the same issues in medieval Islamic historical sources.
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Sageman, Marc. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
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Analysis of the various reasons given for why people join jihadist networks, concluding that social networks, rather than poverty, ignorance, or ideological conviction, are the key indicators for who joins the jihad, based on interviews with mujahideen and forensic psychology.
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Stenersen, Anne. Al-Qaida’s Quest for Weapons of Mass Destruction: The History behind the Hype. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag, 2008.
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Based on primary source documents, this work claims that al-Qaeda is not as interested in WMDs as they are projected to be and explains why.
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Stout, Mark E., Jessica M. Huckabey, and John R. Schindler with Jim Lacey. The Terrorist Perspectives Project: Strategic and Operational Views of Al Qaida and Associated Movements. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2008.
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Examines the strategic and operational tactics of al-Qaeda, focusing on weaknesses that could be exploited. Sponsored by the U.S. joint forces command.
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Suicide Attacks

Because of their capacity to cause both military and civilian casualties, a number of studies, including Hafez 2007, Khosrokhavar 2005, and Moghadam 2008 have focused specifically on the use of suicide attacks by Muslim militant groups. Pape 2005 and Reuter 2004 place suicide attacks in a broader historical context, particularly noting that this phenomenon is not unique to Islam but is the product of multiple militant ideologies.

Hafez, Mohammad M. Suicide Bombers in Iraq: The Strategy and Ideology of Martyrdom. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2007.
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An analysis of Sunni suicide bombers in Iraq from 2003 until 2006, this work discusses the influence of transnational networks on national conflicts and the ideology, theology, and mythology of suicide terrorism.
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Khosrokhavar, Farhad. Suicide Bombers: Allah’s New Martyrs. London: Pluto Press, 2005.
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Examines the relationship between the suicide bomber and the concept of martyrdom. Argues for variations between jihadist groups according to their political circumstances whereby Third World jihadis are depicted as being excluded from the benefits of modernity; and the minority jihadis of the Western world are depicted as reacting to racism and discrimination.
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Moghadam, Assaf. The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
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Analyzes al-Qaeda’s use of suicide attacks and their shift to center stage through the reinterpretation of Islamic concepts of tawhid (absolute monotheism), takfir (declaring someone else to be an unbeliever), and istishhad (martyrdom).
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Pape, Robert A. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House, 2005.
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This book places suicide attacks within their broad context, making it clear that suicide attacks are neither unique to nor have their origins in Islam. Based on data covering every suicide terrorist attack from 1980 through the present, this book also challenges assumptions about suicide attackers being poor, desperate, and uneducated religious fanatics by showing that many are well-educated, middle-class political activists.
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Reuter, Christoph. My Life Is a Weapon: A Modern History of Suicide Bombing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
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This work focuses largely on Muslim suicide bombers, covering Iran, Lebanon, and Palestine; but also acknowledges the cross-pollination that occurs among terrorist organizations, including separatist movements in Sri Lanka and Kurdistan.
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Ideology

Although scholars agree that al-Qaeda clearly uses Islamic references in presenting its ideology and goals, they differ in assigning relative importance to religion over political and economic concerns. Some conclude that Islam as a religion provides the fodder for fighting, while others assert that Islam has simply become the language of opposition, rendering “Islamic” terrorism part of a broader global phenomenon of terrorism presented in religious guise. General discussions of the use of Islamic references to express opposition include Hafez 2004, Kepel 2008, and Moghaddam 2006. Comparative studies of the use of religious terminology as the language of opposition to oppression include Juergensmeyer 2003, Selengut 2003, and Stern 2003.

Hafez, Mohammed M. Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004.
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This book examines the reasons behind Muslim rebellion globally, placing jihad in the context of political suppression and repression and as a response to political exclusion.
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Juergensmeyer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. 3d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
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Provides case studies for Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, analyzing their engagement in the theater of terror and cosmic warfare in the quest for martyrdom and power.
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Kepel, Gilles. Beyond Terror and Martyrdom: The Future of the Middle East. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2008.
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A broad approach to the question of jihadism that focuses on the political aspects of Islam, this book addresses jihadism as the outcome of internecine fighting between various national and sectarian Muslim groups that has been exacerbated by the War on Terror. This book was written with the goal of marginalizing jihadist radicalism, so it has a didactic flavor absent from other works focused purely on analysis.
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Moghaddam, Fathali M. From the Terrorists’ Point of View: What They Experience and Why They Come to Destroy. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.
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This book examines the phenomenon of jihadism from the perspective of a psychologist, examining five major grievances and approaches—unfair domestic systems, blaming the United States for what is wrong in Muslim societies, the ends justifying the means, an us-against-them mentality, and engaging in heroic acts that will save the world—toward the end of proposing democracy as a solution to terrorism.
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Selengut, Charles. Sacred Fury: Understanding Religious Violence. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2003.
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A sociological and psychological analysis of fighting for God and apocalyptic violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
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Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
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Written as a policy recommendation, this work undertakes analysis of the most frequently cited grievances giving rise to holy war—alienation, humiliation, demographics, history, and territory—for a variety of religious backgrounds, concluding that the greatest threat comes from the Islamic world.
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Development

Specific discussions of the development of jihadist ideology include Gerges 2007 and Habeck 2006. Esposito 2002 examines a variety of contemporary jihadists, including al-Qaeda, while Khosrokhavar 2009 analyzes the major ideological influences on jihadism.

Esposito, John L. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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A broad and accessible work that provides a variety of definitions of jihad in a historical context and examines a variety of jihadist movements in the contemporary era, including al-Qaeda.
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Gerges, Fawaz A. Journey of the Jihadist: Inside Muslim Militancy. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2007.
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Written by a Lebanese Christian academic, this work claims to examine jihadism from within, focusing on jihadism as a political, rather than religious, phenomenon.
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Habeck, Mary. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
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This work examines jihadist ideology through the lens of the “clash of civilizations,” arguing that jihadis believe that America is trying to suppress Islam, thus necessitating a war and the destruction of the United States.
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Khosrokhavar, Farhad. Inside Jihadism: Understanding Jihadi Movements Worldwide. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2009.
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Based on religious texts, Arabic language sources, and interviews with imprisoned jihadis, this work examines two major influences on jihadis: one focuses on the Middle East and emphasizes Islam as both religion and political thought; the other focuses on the Muslim secular experience in the United States and Europe.