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Punic Carthage

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Founded in the 8th century BCE on the North African littoral by Phoenician settlers from Tyre, Carthage had by 500 BCE become the major naval and commercial power in the central and western Mediterranean. Carthage also came to wield considerable influence over a Punic bloc consisting of old western Phoenician colonies as well as new Carthaginian foundations across North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearics, and southern Spain. Carthage’s overseas involvement, which some scholars view as a form of imperialist expansion, led it into frequent military conflict on the island of Sicily with the powerful Greek city of Syracuse, and later with the rising regional power, Rome. The First Punic War (264–241 BCE) against the Romans eventually led to Carthage’s defeat and, with it, the loss of its overseas assets and near bankruptcy. Peace, however, between the two states was short-lived. By the late 220s BCE relations had once more reached breaking point, mainly over the military activities of the Carthaginian Barcid clan in southern Spain. The Second Punic War (218–201 BCE) is best known for the military exploits of the Carthaginian general Hannibal, who after crossing the Alps with his army inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Roman legions, and had the opportunity to capture the city of Rome itself. The conflict, however, concluded with another Carthaginian defeat and the imposition of an extremely exacting set of conditions and reparations. By the 160s BCE, however, Carthage was on course for another successful economic comeback. An influential faction within the Roman Senate was sufficiently concerned about this renaissance to start actively seeking justification for carrying out Carthage’s final destruction. In 146 BCE, after a brutal three-year siege, Roman forces under the general Scipio Aemilianus broke through Carthage’s defenses. Once the city had been completely brought under Roman control, Roman forces began to carry out the Senate’s orders that the city should be razed to the ground and rendered uninhabitable. Despite a curse on any future attempts to build on the site, a new Carthage eventually rose there. After a few false starts, the emperor Augustus built Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago as a symbol of the peace and concord that his regime promised. Carthage became the capital of the Roman province, Africa Proconsularis, and was regarded as one of the foremost cities of the empire, and later an important center of Christianity.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. There are several good studies that provide a useful historical synthesis of Punic Carthage, taking account of archaeological, epigraphic, numismatic, and literary sources. Lancel 1995 is much admired because it introduced new archaeological data from the excavations that had taken place under the umbrella of the UNESCO “Save Carthage” campaign. Huss 1985 is particularly good on the Carthaginian constitution and politics but suffers from a lack of engagement with the archaeological evidence. Hoyos 2010 is a good, brief introduction to Punic Carthage. Dridi 2006 covers similar ground but in less detail than Hoyos 2010. Miles 2011 is a detailed but readable study that incorporates the most recent archaeological data and analysis from Carthage and the wider Punic Mediterranean world.
  8.  
  9. Dridi, Hédi. 2006. Carthage et le monde punique. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  11. A brief guide to Carthage and the Punic world.
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  13. Hoyos, Dexter. 2010. The Carthaginians. New York: Routledge.
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  15. Brief introduction to Punic Carthage.
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  17. Huss, Werner. 1985. Geschichte der Karthager. Munich: Beck.
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  19. Detailed political history of Carthage, but makes little use of the archaeological material.
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  21. Lancel, Serge. 1995. Carthage: A history. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
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  23. Particularly good on the archaeology and material remains of the city of Carthage. New edition with new maps, illustrations, and introduction by Richard Miles published in 2012 (London: Folio Society).
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  25. Miles, Richard. 2011. Carthage must be destroyed: The rise and fall of an ancient superpower. New York: Viking.
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  27. The most recent comprehensive study of Punic Carthage and its role within the ancient Mediterranean World.
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  29. Reference Works
  30.  
  31. Krings 1995 is the most comprehensive of the reference works on the Punic world, with a wide variety of synthetic studies by experts. Lipiński 1993 is another detailed reference work. Moscati 1988 is a lavishly illustrated companion to an exhibition held at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice. The volume provides a useful series of introductory articles written by scholars on a wide range of different aspects of Carthaginian history and Punic culture. Lancel 1990, although by no means an exhaustive study, offers a range of papers on different aspects of ancient Carthage. Ennabli 1992 brings together the research of many of the archaeologists who were involved in the UNESCO “Save Carthage” campaign. Peters 2004 is the well-assembled catalogue of an exhibition on Carthage staged in Karlsruhle, replete with a series of articles written by mainly German academics. Ben Abed and Aillagon 1995 is a catalogue from an exhibition on Carthage held in Paris, with exhibits loaned from the Bardo and Carthage Museums. It is also accompanied by a series of articles on different aspects of the history and culture of the city in the Punic, Roman, and Late Antique periods, as well as its later reception.
  32.  
  33. Ben Abed, Aïcha, and Jean-Jacques Aillagon, eds. 1995. Carthage: I’histoire, sa trace et son echo. Paris: Paris musées/Association Française d’Action Artistique.
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  35. Although the organization of this volume is slightly idiosyncratic, it contains useful contributions on the later reception of Carthage in the Medieval and Modern periods.
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  37. Ennabli, Abdelmajid, ed. 1992. Pour sauver Carthage: Exploration et conservation de la cité punique, romaine et byzantine. Paris: UNESCO.
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  39. Useful summaries written by the archaeological teams who conducted excavations in Carthage as part of UNESCO’s Save Carthage campaign in the 1970s and 1980s.
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  41. Krings, Véronique, ed. 1995. La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  43. Research handbook written by many of the leading figures in Phoenician and Punic studies. Part I focuses on the sources and evidence. Part II centers on social, cultural, economic, religious, and political themes. Part III takes the geographical approach.
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  45. Lancel, Serge, ed. 1990. Histoire et archéologie de l’Afrique du nord: Actes du IVe colloque international (Strasbourg 5–9 Avril 1988). Vol. 1, Carthage et son territoire dans l’antiquité. Paris: Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques.
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  47. Sixteen mainly archaeological papers on different aspects of Punic and Roman Carthage.
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  49. Lipiński, Edward, ed. 1993. Dictionnaire de la civilisation Phénicienne et Punique. Paris: Brepols.
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  51. Exhaustive reference work edited by one of the leading figures in Punic studies.
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  53. Moscati, Sabatino, ed. 1988. The Phoenicians. New York: Abbeville.
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  55. Although its title suggests a focus on the Phoenicians, many of the articles in this volume concentrate on their activities and heritage in the central and western Mediterranean. Particularly good on Punic art and architecture.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Peters, Sabine, ed. 2004. Hannibal ad portas: Macht und Reichtum Karthagos. Begleitband zur großen Sonderausstellung in Karlsruhe. Karlsruhe, Germany: Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhle.
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  59. Catalogue of an exhibition on Carthage held at the Landesmuseum, Karlsruhle, 25 September 2004–1 October 2005. The volume also contains a number of short articles on the history of the city and its reception in later times.
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  61. Punic Dictionaries and Grammars
  62.  
  63. Before using a Punic research resource, it is important to bear in mind how little we now about the language. At present only around two thousand words of Phoenician, Punic, and Neo-Punic are known, and a considerable number of these are proper names. A fair number of the meanings ascribed to particular words are speculative and do not enjoy universal consensus among scholars. Hoftijzer and Jongeling 1985, although a broader dictionary of Northern Semitic inscriptions, includes Phoenician and Punic. Tomback 1978 is a useful lexicon of Phoenician and Punic words. Friedrich, et al. 1999 is a well-respected Phoenician/Punic grammar. Krahmalkov 2000 and Krahmalkov 2001, a Phoenician/Punic dictionary and grammar, respectively, have attracted some scholarly criticism for being too personalized.
  64.  
  65. Friedrich, Johannes, Wolfgang Röllig, Amadasi Guzzo, and Maria Giulia. 1999. Phönizisch-punische Grammatik. 3d ed. Rome: Pontifical Institute.
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  67. Widely recognized as the most authorative of the Phoencian-Punic grammars.
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  69. Hoftijzer, Jacob, and Karel Jongeling. 1985. Dictionary of the north-west Semitic inscriptions. With appendices by R. C. Steiner, A. Mosak-Moshavi, and B. Porten. 2 vols. Handbuch der Orienatlistik, Erste Abteilung: Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  71. Useful dictionary of Phoenician-Punic inscriptions.
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  73. Krahmalkov, Charles R. 2000. Phoenician-Punic dictionary. Studia Phoenicia 15. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
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  75. Before use, it is necessary to read the robust review of Karel Jongeling and Robert Kerr (“A Personal Phoenico-Punic Dictionary.” Orientalia 71 (2005): 173–181), who question a number of its interpretations and the decision to include personal names.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Krahmalkov, Charles R. 2001. A Phoenician-Punic grammar. Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section One, the Near East and the Middle East 54. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  79. Before use, it is necessary to read the critical review of Karel Jongeling and Robert Kerr (“The Grammar of Krahmalkov’s Phoenicians.” Folia Orientalia 39 (2004): 197–205), who question a number of its interpretations and readings.
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  81. Tomback, Richard S. 1978. A comparative Semitic lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic languages. Missoula, MT: Scholars.
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  83. Based on the author’s doctoral thesis, this lexicon is still useful. Published by Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature
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  85. Greek and Latin Literary Sources
  86.  
  87. There is no surviving Carthaginian literature. Our knowledge of Carthage and its people comes predominantly from often hostile Greek and Roman sources. While there is no doubt that the Roman destruction of Carthage and the subsequent distribution of the contents of its libraries to Rome’s Numidian allies undoubtedly played its part in this depressing state of affairs, it is also unlikely that Carthage was a producer of literature, philosophy, history, and science on the same scale as the Greeks. Listed here is a selection of major sources for the history of Carthage. It is not, however, a comprehensive list.
  88.  
  89. Greek Sources
  90.  
  91. Herodotus 1920–1925 and Diodorus Siculus 1960–1967 provide useful information about the Carthaginian’s involvement on Sicily. The Athenian political thinker Aristotle delivers a favorable account of the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics (Aristotle 1932). Polybius 1922–1927 and Appian 1912–1913 are histories that cover the period of the Punic Wars. The work of Silenus and Sosylus, who were close confidantes of the Carthaginian general Hannibal, only survive in fragments; see Silenus 1849 and Sosylus 1926–1930.
  92.  
  93. Appian. 1912–1913. Roman history. 4 vols. Translated by Horace White. Loeb Classical Library 2–5. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  95. Second-century CE Greek writer from Alexandria. His Roman History covers the Punic Wars down to the destruction of the city and on to the city’s refounding by Julius Caesar and Augustus.
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  97. Aristotle. 1932. Politics. Translated by Harris Rackham. Loeb Classical Library 264. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  99. In the Politics (2.11), Aristotle turned his attention to the Carthaginian constitution, for which he shows considerable admiration.
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  101. Diodorus Siculus. 1960–1967. The Library of History. 12 vols. Translated by Charles Oldfather, Charles Sherman, Charles Bradford Welles, Russel Greer, and Frances Walton. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  103. First-century BCE Sicilian Greek whose monumental “Library of History” contains a large amount of information on Carthage, particularly in relation to its interventions on the island of Sicily. Much of the information that Diodorus uses comes from the now mostly lost work of the 3rd-century BCE Sicilian-Greek historian Timaeus.
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  105. Hanno the Carthaginian. 1977. Periplus or circumnavigation (of Africa). Translated by Alkis Oikonomides. Chicago: Ares.
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  107. Later Greek rendering of the voyage supposedly undertaken by a 5th-century BCE Carthaginian navigator, Hanno, through the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic and down the coast of West Africa. The account claims to be a translation of the Punic inscription erected by Hanno in the Temple of Baal on his return to Carthage.
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  109. Herodotus. 1920–1925. The Persian wars. Translated by Alfred Godley. Loeb Classical Library 117–120. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  111. Book 7 recounts the circumstances of the famous Battle of Himera in 480 BCE.
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  113. Polybius. 1922–1927. Histories. Translated by William Paton. Loeb Classical Library 128, 137, 138, 159–161. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  115. History that covers the tumultuous period from the outbreak of the First Punic War and ends with the destruction of Carthage. As well as historical narrative, Book 6 contains a comparison between Roman and Carthaginian political bodies.
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  117. Silenus. 1849. Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum. Vol. 3. Edited by Karl Müller. Paris: A. Firmin Didot.
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  119. Collected Greek fragments of the Greek-Sicilian historian Silenus of Calacte, who was a confidante of Hannibal. There is no translation. See pp. 100–101.
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  121. Sosylus. 1926–1930. Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker. Edited by Felix Jakoby. Berlin: Weidmann.
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  123. Collected fragments of the Greek historian Sosylus who was a confidante, tutor, and biographer of Hannibal. See Volume 2, Part B, p. 176.
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  125. Latin Sources
  126.  
  127. Justin 1994 contains often fanciful but still historically useful information about the foundation and early history of Carthage. Plautus 2012 presents an important snapshot of Roman stereotyping of Carthaginians in the period of the Punic Wars. Livius 1961–1967 provides a detailed account of the Second Punic War. Cornelius Nepos 1929 includes short biographies of Hamjicar and Hannibal Barca. Avienus 1977 contains an empirically dubious but fascinating tale about a Carthaginian expedition into the northern Atlantic and North Sea. Virgil 1916–1918 (the Aeneid) shows the importance of Carthage in the construction of Roman political and cultural identities in the Augustan epoch. The Flavian era Roman senator Silius Italicus highlights the enduring popularity of the Punic Wars as a poetic theme in his Punica (1934).
  128.  
  129. Avienus, Festus Rufus. 1977. Ora maritima: A description of the seacoast from Brittany to Marseilles [Massilia]. Translated by John Murphy. Chicago: Ares.
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  131. Fourth-century CE Roman poem that purports to cite an account of the voyage made by a Carthaginian navigator Himilco along the Atlantic coast of Europe and the North Sea.
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  133. Cornelius Nepos. 1929. On great generals. Translated by John Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library 467. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  135. First-century BCE Roman biographer whose work includes sketchy biographies of both Hamilcar and Hannibal Barca.
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  137. Justin. 1994. Epitome of the Philippic history of Pompeius Trogus. Translated by John Yardley; introduction by Robert Develin. Atlanta: Scholars.
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  139. Epitome of the work of the 1st-century BCE Roman historian of Pompeius Trogus, which contains useful if factually dubious information, particularly on Carthage’s origins and later history.
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  141. Livius, Titus. 1961–1967. History of Rome. Translated by Benjamin Foster, Frank Moore, Evan Sage, and Alfred Schlesinger. Loeb Classical Library 114, 133, 172, 191, 233, 355, 381, 295, 301, 313, 332, 396, 404. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  143. Books 21–30 contain a full historical account of the Second Punic War. Accounts of the First (Books 16–20) and Third Punic Wars (Books 48–51) have been lost and only exist in very abbreviated form in a 4th-century CE summary, the Periochae.
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  145. Plautus. 2012. The little Carthaginian (Poenulus). Translated by Paul Nixon. Loeb Classical Library 260. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  147. Roman play dating to the late 3rd/early 2nd centuries BCE. Contains a stock Carthaginian character and a supposed excerpt of the Punic language (although this claim is not supported by many scholars).
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  149. Silius Italicus. 1934. Punica. 2 vols. Translated by James Duff. Loeb Classical Library 277–278. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  151. Baroque 1st-century CE epic poem that takes the Second Punic War as its theme. Useful as an indication of the continuing importance of the Punic Wars to Roman elite identity.
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  153. Virgil. 1916–1918. Aeneid. Translated by Henry Rushton Fairclough. Loeb Classical Library 63–64. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  155. See Book 2 for the famous doomed romance between Dido and Aeneas.
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  157. Conference Proceedings
  158.  
  159. There are several regular conferences on Punic studies whose papers and proceedings are subsequently published. As with all very large congresses the quality of the published papers varies considerably. Africa Romana is an annual congress that is mainly associated with Roman North Africa, but the proceedings also contain articles on Punic North Africa. Atti del Congresso internazionale di studi fenici e punici concentrates exclusively on Phoenicjan and Punic studies. Both congresses are heavily weighted toward southern European scholarship, with far fewer Anglophone contributions.
  160.  
  161. Africa Romana. 1983–. Sassari, Italy: Centre of Interdisciplinary Studies on the Roman Provinces, Univ. of Sassari.
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  163. Italian-organized biannual congress that attracts mostly Italian, French, and North African researchers. Papers focus on the history, epigraphy and archaeology of Punic, Roman, Late Antique, and Byzantine North Africa.
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  165. Atti del Congresso internazionale di studi fenici e punici. 1983–. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche.
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  167. Large-scale published conference with a wide selection of papers on different aspects of the Phoenician and Punic Worlds.
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  169. Journals
  170.  
  171. There are few journals that focus exclusively on Carthage or the Punic world. However, there are a number that include it within the scope of the wider Phoenician diaspora. A number of other publications that concentrate on Mediterranean and North African archaeology have also carried a considerable number of articles on Carthage and the wider Punic diaspora. Antiquités africaines is broad-ranging archaeological journal whose focus is the ancient Maghreb until the Arab Conquest. Bulletin du CEDAC Carthage, Cahiers des études anciennes, BABesch: Annual Papers on Mediterranean Archaeology, and Karthago all contain useful excavation reports and other articles on the archaeology of Carthage. Rivista di Studi Fenici is particularly focused on Punic Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain.
  172.  
  173. Antiquités africaines. 1967–.
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  175. Annual journal that publishes articles on the archaeology of North Africa from prehistory to the Arab Conquest.
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  177. BABesch: Annual Papers on Mediterranean Archaeology. 1926–.
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  179. Annual journal that publishes articles on the archaeology of the classical world. In recent years it has produced a number of important articles on the archaeology of Carthage.
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  181. Bulletin du CEDAC Carthage. 1978–.
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  183. Essential annual journal on archaeological research in Carthage. It often carries the annual field reports of current excavations.
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  185. Cahiers des études anciennes. 1972–.
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  187. French Canadian ancient archaeological and historical journal that carried many articles on archaeological excavations in Carthage from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s.
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  189. Carthage Studies. 2007–.
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  191. A Belgian peer-reviewed periodical covering archaeological studies relating to ancient Carthage. So far it has published a number of extremely useful long articles on Punic pottery.
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  193. Karthago: Revue d’archéologie méditerranéenne. 1950–.
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  195. Occasional series focusing on the archaeology of ancient North Africa.
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  197. Les Cahiers de Tunisie. 1953–.
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  199. Trimesterial Tunisian journal that has published a number of important articles on Punic Carthage and Africa.
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  201. Rivista di Studi Fenici. 1973–.
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  203. Biannual Italian journal that focuses on Phoenician and Punic archaeology. Particularly strong on Punic Sicily and Sardinia.
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  205. Inscriptions
  206.  
  207. The inscriptions from Punic Carthage and the Punic World are found in several different collections.
  208.  
  209. Punic Inscriptions
  210.  
  211. Most Punic and Phoenician inscriptions are to be found in wider collections of Semitic inscriptions. When using translations of Punic inscriptions, it is important to bear in mind that the lack of known Phoenician and Punic words severely hampers interpretation, and meanings are often disputed among the scholarly community. Amadasi Guzzo 1995 usefully places Punic epigraphy within its historical, cultural, and linguistic contexts. Donner and Röllig 1964 and Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum 1881 are the two major collections of Punic inscriptions.
  212.  
  213. Amadasi Guzzo, Maria Giulia. 1995. Les inscriptions. In La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 19–30. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  215. Useful synthetic article on Punic epigraphy.
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  217. Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. 1881. Pars prima inscriptiones Phoenicias continens. Paris: Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
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  219. Collection of Punic inscriptions within wider collection of Phoenician inscriptions.
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  221. Donner, Herbert, and Wolfgang Röllig, eds. 1964. Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften (KAI). 3d ed. 3 vols. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Harrassowitz.
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  223. Collection of Punic inscriptions within a wider collection of northern Semitic inscriptions.
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  225. Neo-Punic Inscriptions
  226.  
  227. Neo-Punic was a form of the Punic dialect that continued to be used after North Africa and the other Punic territories had been incorporated into the Roman Empire. Neo-Punic is known almost exclusively from inscriptions. Jongeling and Kerr 2005 is an introduction to Neo-Punic epigraphy and discusses over one hundred Neo-Punic texts. Jongeling 2008 is the most up-to-date collection of Neo-Punic texts. Kerr 2010 takes as its subject a series of Larin-Punic inscriptions from Roman North Africa. Jongeling 1994 is a study of Punic names in Roman literature and inscriptions.
  228.  
  229. Jongeling, Karel. 1994. North-African names from Latin sources. Leiden, The Netherlands: CNWS Publications.
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  231. Study of the survival of Punic names in Roman literature and inscriptions.
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  233. Jongeling, Karel. 2008. Handbook of Neo-Punic inscriptions. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
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  235. Essential collection and guide to very wide range of Neo-Punic inscriptions.
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  237. Jongeling, Karel, and Robert M. Kerr. 2005. Late Punic epigraphy: An introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino-Punic inscriptions. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
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  239. Useful introduction to Neo-Punic and Latin-Punic inscriptions.
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  241. Kerr, Robert M. 2010. Latino-Punic epigraphy: A descriptive study of the inscriptions. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2.42. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
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  243. A study of Latin-Punic inscriptions.
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  245. Prosopography
  246.  
  247. Prosopography is a less effective historical tool for Carthage than it is for some other ancient societies because of the lack of variety in Carthaginian names, and because the lack of evidence makes it difficult to separate out individuals with the same nomenclature. Geus 1994 is the only detailed prosopographical study of Punic Carthage.
  248.  
  249. Geus, Klaus. 1994. Prosopographie der literarisch Bezeugten Karthager. Studia Phoenicia 23. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
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  251. A useful study that is hamstrung by the decision to separate out “historical” from “literary” figures, a distinction that is very difficult to enforce in the case of individuals such as Hannibal, who appears in both Roman history and epic.
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  253. Coinage
  254.  
  255. In a discipline that has been so starved of any kind of literary evidence, numismatics has understandably played a major role in scholarly exploration of Carthage’s military, diplomatic, political, and diplomatic history. Jenkins and Lewis 1963 is a catalogue of Carthaginian gold and electrum coinage. Jenkins 1997 is the classic study of Punic coinage minted in Sicily. Villaronga 1973 catalogues the coins minted by the Barcids in Spain. Manfredi 2009 argues that Carthage’s first coins were designed to fit into existing Greek monetary systems. Mildenberg 1989 highlights changes in Carthaginian monetary policy on the eve of the First Punic War. Manfredi 1999 investigates the development of Carthaginian foreign policy through coinage. Visona 1998 is a useful overview of Carthaginian monetary policy.
  256.  
  257. Jenkins, G. Kenneth. 1997. Coins of Punic Sicily. Zurich, Switzerland: Schweizerische Numismatische Gesellschaft.
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  259. Important catalogue of coins from Punic Sicily. Includes coins that appear to have been specifically minted for the Carthaginian army.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Jenkins, G. Kenneth, and R. B. Lewis. 1963. Carthaginian gold and electrum coins. London: Royal Numismatic Society.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Catalogue of gold and electrum coins minted in Carthage.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Manfredi, Lorenza. 1999. Carthaginian policy through coins. In Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean. Edited by Giovanna Pisano, 69–78. Rome: Università degli studi di Roma “Tor Vergata.”
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Study of Carthaginian policy in Sicily and Sardinia through coinage issues.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Manfredi, Lorenza. 2009. Iconografia e leggenda: Il linguaggio monetale di Cartagine. Mediterranea 7:203–216.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Argues that Carthaginian monetary policy in its earliest period (5th century BCE) was designed to fit in with the monetary systems of the Greek cities of Sicily.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Mildenberg, L. 1989. Punic coinage on the eve of the First War against Rome: A reconsideration. In Punic wars: Proceedings of the conference held in Antwerp from the 23th to the 26th of November 1988 in cooperation with the Department of History of the Universiteit Antwerpen. Edited by Hubert Devijver and Edward Lipiński, 5–14. Studia Phoenicia 10. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Emphasizes the production of high value coinage in both Carthage and Sicily for the war effort against Rome.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Villaronga, Leandre. 1973. Las Monedas Hispano-Cartaginesas. Barcelona: Circulo Filatélico y Numismático.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Catalogue of the important series of coinage minted by the Barcids in Southern Spain.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Visona, Paolo. 1998. Carthaginian coinage in perspective. American Journal of Numismatics 10:1–27.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Important summary that draws out the significance of Carthaginian coinage issues throughout the history of the Punic city.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Early Carthage
  286.  
  287. Aubet 2001 and Niemeyer 1982 concentrate on the Phoenician commercial exploitation and colonization of the western Mediterranean, a process that led directly to the foundation of Carthage. Niemeyer 1990 emphasizes how Carthage, unlike many western Phoenician foundations, appears to have been founded as a colony, not just as a trading station. Docter, et al. 2006 highlights how recent excavations in Carthage have found no evidence that stretches the foundation of the city earlier than the 8th century BCE, despite ancient textual references to an earlier date. Scholarship is divided over whether it is possible to glean any empirical information on the foundation of the city from the foundation myths found in Greek and Roman authors. Scheid and Svenbro 1985 argues that much of the famous Elissa myth appears to conform to Greek and Roman stereotypes about Carthaginians. Kourou 2002 suggests that its reference to Cyprus might actually reflect the reality of close connections between early Carthage and that island. Baurain 1987 argues that the Carthage mentioned in the Elissa myth is in fact the Cypriot settlement of the same name. Bordreiul and Ferjaoui 1987 highlights how titles used in the Punic world reflect the continuing strength of historic connections with Phoenicia.
  288.  
  289. Aubet, Maria Eugenia. 2001. The Phoenicians and the west: Politics, colonies and trade. 2d ed. Translated by Mary Turton. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Useful study that places early Carthage into the wider context of the Phoenician colonization of the central and western Mediterranean.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Baurain, Claude. 1987. Le rôle de Chypre dans la fondation de Carthage. In Carthago, Acta Colloquii Bruxellensis habiti diebus 2 et 3 mensis Maii anni 1986. Edited by Edward Lipinski, 15–28. Studia Phoenicia 6. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Contends that the Elissa myth relates to the city of Carthage on the island of Cyprus, rather than its North African namesake.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Bordreiul, Pierre, and Ahmed Ferjaoui. 1987. À propos des “fils de Tyr” et des “fils de Carthage.” In Carthago, Acta Colloquii Bruxellensis habiti diebus 2 et 3 mensis Maii anni 1986. Edited by Edward Lipinski, 137–142. Studia Phoenicia 6. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Argues for the continuing importance to the Carthaginians of their Tyrian inheritance through the conferral of certain titles and statuses.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Docter, Roald, Fethi Chelbi, Boutheina Maraoui Telmini, et al. 2006. Carthage Bir Massouda: Second preliminary report on the bilateral excavations of Ghent University and the Institut national du Patrimoine (2003–2004). BABesch 81:37–89.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Reports on Belgian-Tunisian excavations on the lower eastern slopes of the Byrsa Hill, where early traces of the city and perhaps the city wall have been found.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Kourou, N. 2002. Phéniciens, Chypriotes, Eubéens et la fondation de Carthage. Cahier du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 32:89–114.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Highlights how by the late 8th century, Carthage was an important coordinate on trans-Mediterranean trading routes.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Niemeyer, Hans-Georg. 1990. The Phoenicians in the Mediterranean: A non-Greek model for expansion and settlement in antiquity. In Greek colonists and native populations: Proceedings of the First Australian Congress of Classical Archaeology, held in honour of emeritus professor A. D. Trendall. Edited by Jean-Paul Descœudres, 469–489. Oxford: Clarendon.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Influential study that argues for a clear distinction between Phoenician and Greek colonization patterns, with the former being more interested in controlling the supply chain of raw materials rather than territory, but that also acknowledges that Carthage appears to have been established as colonial settlement rather than just a trading post.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Niemeyer, Hans-Georg, ed. 1982. Phonizier im Westen: Die Beiträge des Internationalen Symposiums über “Die phönizische Expansion im westlichen Mittelmeerraum” in Köln vom 24. bis 27. April 1979. Mainz am Rhein, West Germany: Zabern.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Useful volume of collected papers from a conference on the Phoenician expansion into the western and central Mediterranean.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Scheid, John, and Jesper Svenbro. 1985. Byrsa, la ruse d’Elissa et la fondation de Carthage. Annales (Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations) 40.2: 328–342.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. An analysis of the famous Elissa foundation myth of Carthage and how it conforms to Greek and Roman stereotypes about Carthaginians.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. The Archaeology of the Punic City
  322.  
  323. The destruction of Carthage’s administrative and religious center by the Roman legions after its capture in 146 BCE has made the task of excavating the Punic levels of the city difficult. The task has been made harder by Carthage’s refoundation by Augustus and subsequent long history as a Roman city. Since the UNESCO-backed Save Carthage campaign of the 1970s, a number of major excavations have taken place that have greatly increased what is known about the Punic city. Rakob 1984 investigates evidence for the earliest archaeological traces of the city. Lancel and Morel 1992 gives a synthetic account of the Pubic structures on the Byrsa Hill. Hurst 1994 concerns the Late Punic harbors. Rakob 1995 reports the discovery of a burnt late Punic temple and archive. Niemeyer, et al. 2007 provides a detailed report of a multiphase Punic housing on the lower eastern slopes of the Byrsa Hill. Tang 2005 provides an analysis of housing at Carthage. Mezzolani 1999 investigates the prevalence of bathrooms in Punic houses. Docter, et al. 2007 is a very useful summary of the archaeological excavations that have greatly increased our knowledge of Punic city in the past few decades.
  324.  
  325. Docter, Roald, Fethi Chelbi, Boutheina Maraoui Telmini, et al. 2007. Punic Carthage: Two decades of archaeological investigations. Paper originally presented at the III Coloquio Internacional de CEFYP held in Adra, Spain on 12–14 December 2003. In Las ciudades fenicio-púnicas en el Mediterráneo Occidental. Edited by José Luis López Castro, 85–104. Almería, Spain: Editorial Universidad de Almería.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Useful summary of recent archaeological excavations in Carthage and what they reveal about the early development of the city.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Hurst, Henry, ed. 1994. Excavations at Carthage: The British mission. Vol. 2, Part 1: The circular harbour, north side: The site and finds other than pottery. Oxford: British Academy Publications.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Report of the British Excavations of the famous Late Punic Circular Naval Harbor.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Lancel, Serge, and Jean-Paul Morel. 1992. La colline de Byrsa: Les vestiges puniques. In Pour sauver Carthage: Exploration et conservation de la cité punique, romaine et byzantine. Edited by Abdelmajid Ennabli, 43–68. Paris: UNESCO.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Helpful summary of the French excavations on the Byrsa Hill and the discovery of a late Punic neighborhood that was still occupied until the last days of the city.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Mezzolani, Antonella. 1999. L’espace privé chez les Puniques: Remarques sur les salles d’eau. In Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean. Edited by Giovanna Pisano, 107–124. Rome: Università degli studi di Roma “Tor Vergata.”
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Interesting study on bathrooms in Punic housing and what they reveal about attitudes toward private space.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Niemeyer, Hans-Georg, Roald Docter, Karin Schmidt, and Babette Bechtold, eds. 2007. Karthago: Die Ergebnisse der Hamburger Grabung unter dem Decumanus maximus. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Key excavation of a series of Punic houses, including what might be a private shrine.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Rakob, Friedrich. 1984. Deutsche Ausgrabungen in Karthago: Die punischen Befunde. Römische Mitteilunge 91:1–22.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. German rescue excavations that revealed traces of the early Phoenician settlement.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Rakob, Friedrich. 1995. Forschungen im Stadtzentrum von Karthago: Zweiter Vorbericht. Römische Mitteilungen 102:413–461.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Important German excavations in Carthage. Of particular interest was the discovery of a late Punic temple.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Tang, Birgitte. 2005. Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: The housing of three Mediterranean trading centres. Analecta Romana Instituti Danici: Supplementum 28. Rome: L’Erma di Bretscheider.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Useful discussion of housing in Punic Carthage.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Punic Culture
  358.  
  359. There has been considerable academic debate about the transition from a Phoenician to a Punic western Mediterranean, and about a definition of Punic culture. Moscati 1988 takes a chronological approach, arguing that the Punic epoch began in the mid-6th century with the decline of Phoenician influence in the region and the rise of Carthage to fill the resultant power vacuum. Prag 2006 argues that such an approach is problematic because it assumes a strong association with Carthage. Franko 1994 shows how “Punic” is a problematic term because it is derived from a term only found in Roman literature, and there is no evidence of Carthaginians or others using the term to define themselves. However, other scholars have continued to use the term, not least because there appears to be no satisfactory alternative (van Dommelen and Gómez Bellard 2008). Research into the Punic language might provide a better lens through which to view these changes (Amadasi Guzzo 2011; Baurain, et al. 1991). Krandel-Ben Younès 2002 views the increased influence of Punic culture across Numidia through the presence of religious sanctuaries that display Punic features.
  360.  
  361. Amadasi Guzzo, Maria Giulia. 2011. On the beginnings of the Punic Scripts. Vicino & Medio Oriente 15:119–132.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Article that traces the emergence of the Punic Script in the 6th century BCE and its adoption by other Phoenician colonies in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Baurain, Claude, Corrine Bonnet, and Veronique Krings, eds. 1991. Phoinikeia Grammata: Lire et écrire en Mediterranean: Actes du colloque de Liège, 15–18 novembre 1989. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Important collection on the development of the Phoenician and Punic languages.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Franko, George Fredric. 1994. The use of Poenus and Carthaginiensis in early Latin literature. Classical Philology 89.2: 153–158.
  370. DOI: 10.1086/367405Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Looks at the development of the negative stereotyping associated with “Carthaginian” and “Punic” in mid- and late-Republican Latin literature.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Krandel-Ben Younès, Alia. 2002. La présence punique en pays de numide. Tunis, Tunisia: Institut National du Patrimoine.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Study of the Punic presence through religious sanctuaries across what are now Algeria and Tunisia.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Moscati, Sabatino. 1988. Fenicio o punico o Cartaginese. Rivista di Studi Fenici 16:3–13.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Classic chronological definition of the transition between the Phoenician and Punic epochs.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Prag, Jonathan R. W. 2006. Poenus plane est: But who were the “Punickes”? Papers of the British School at Rome 74:1–37.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Sets out just how problematic a term “Punic” is, and argues that because Punic is usually associated with Carthage, it is problematic when used in relation with the other Old Phoenician colonies of the central and western Mediterranean because it assumes Carthaginian political or cultural domination.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. van Dommelen, Peter, and Carlos Gómez Bellard. 2008. Defining the Punic world and its rural contexts. In Rural landscapes in the Punic world. Edited by Peter van Dommelen and Carlos Gómez Bellard. Oakville, CT: Equinox.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Contains a lucid discussion on the academic debate over the use of the term “Punic.”
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Trade and Economy
  390.  
  391. The upsurge in archaeological excavation in Carthage since the 1970s has created a vast body of important new evidence on trade. Docter 2000a highlights the early significance of Carthage as a coordinate on trans-Tyrrhenian trade routes. Docter 2000b shows the importance of mainland Greek olive oil imports into Carthage during the early centuries of its existence. Docter and Bechtold 2010 provides a useful study on the provenance of transport amphorae from Middle-Punic-period Carthage. The traditional economic model that has been ascribed to Carthage has been one of mercantile trade and the systematic exploitation of markets throughout the western and far western Mediterranean, particularly across North Africa, southern Spain, the Balearics, Sicily, and Sardinia. However, Bechtold 2007, Bechtold 2008, Morel 1983, and Morel 1986 all emphasize the importance of other previously underestimated trading links, particularly with mainland Greece and central and southern Italy.
  392.  
  393. Bechtold, Babette. 2007. Nuovi dati basati sulla distribuzione di ceramiche campane e nordafricane/cartaginesi. BABesch 82.1: 51–76.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Highlights the importation of considerable quantities of ceramics and general kitchenware from Campania and other parts of Central Italy into Carthage in the early decades of the 2nd century BCE.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Bechtold, Babette. 2008. Observations on the Amphora Repertoire of middle Punic Carthage. Carthage Studies 2. Ghent, Belgium: Department of Classical Archaeology, Ghent Univ.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Important analysis of transport amphorae in which foodstuffs were carried, indicating that the early settlement had to import the majority of its sustenance from a wide variety of locations, including Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece, the Aegean, and the Levant.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Docter, Roald. 2000a. Carthage and the Tyrrhenian in the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. central Italian transport amphorae and fine wares found under the Decumanus maximus. In Actas del IV Congreso Internacional de Estudios Fenicios y Púnicos Cádiz, 2 al 6 de Octubre de 1995. Vol. 1. Edited by Maria Eugenia Aubet and Manuela Barthélemy, 329–338. Cádiz, Spain: Universidad de Cádiz.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Shows the early importance of Carthage as a player in trans-Tyrrhenian trade.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Docter, Roald. 2000b. East Greek fine wares and transport amphorae of the 8th–5th century B.C. from Carthage and Toscanos. In Ceràmiques jonies d’època arcaica: Centres de producció i comercialització al Mediterrani occidental; Actes de la Taula Rodona celebrada a Empúries, els dies 26 al 28 de maig de 1999. Edited by Paloma Cabrera Bonet and Marta Santos Retolaza, 63–88. Barcelona: Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Highlights the importance of olive oil exports from eastern Greek settlements into Carthage during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Docter, Roald, and Babette Bechtold. 2010. Transport amphorae from Carthage: An overview. In Motya and the Phoenician Ceramic Repertoire between the Levant and the West, 9th–6th Century BC: Proceedings of the International Conference held in Rome, 26 February 2010. Edited by Lorenzo Nigro, 85–116. Quaderni di Archeologica Fenici-Punica 5. Rome: Missione Archeologica a Mozia.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Important overview that uses material from recent archaeological excavations in Carthage. Argues that after being initially strongly dependent on imports, Carthage was by the late 7th century exploiting its hinterland for agriculture. A change in food source strategy can be detected in the 5th and 4th centuries with more reliance on foreign imports. This development was itself reversed from the 3rd century onward with an increasing reliance on agricultural produce from the city’s hinterland.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Morel, Jean-Paul. 1983. Les importations de céramiques grecques et italiennes dans le monde punique. In Atti del I Congresso internazionale di studi fenici e punici: Roma, 5–10 Novembre 1979. Edited by Piero Bartoloni, 731–740. Rome: Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Highlights the export of large quantities of mainland Greek and southern Italian pottery into Carthage and other Punic towns from the second half of the 5th century BCE onwards.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Morel, Jean-Paul. 1986. La céramique à vemis noir de Carthage, sa diffusion, son influence. Cahiers des études anciennes 18:25–68.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Traces the marked increase in trade between Carthage and Central Italy in the first decades of the 2nd century BCE, which has important ramifications for the buildup to the Third Punic War.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Atlantic Exploration
  422.  
  423. There is good archaeological evidence of Punic commercial exploitation of the North African littoral beyond the Pillars of Hercules (González Antón, et al. 2008). What has proved to be less easy to verify has been the account in a later Greek text recounting a Carthaginian voyage led by a certain Hanno into the Atlantic Ocean as far as the West African coast (Jimenez Bello 2005). Despite this skepticism on the part of most scholars, Demerliac and Meirat 1983 argues that Hanno’s voyage shows how Atlantic trade and colonization had become part of Carthaginian policy in the 5th century BCE.
  424.  
  425. Demerliac, Jean-Gabriel, and Jean Meirat. 1983. Hannon et l’Empire Punique. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Argues that the voyages of Hanno and Himilco were part of a coordinated attempt by Carthage in the 5th century BCE to control Atlantic trade.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. González Antón, Rafael, Fernando López Pardo, and Victoria Peña Romo, eds. 2008. Los fenicios y el Atlántico: IV Coloquio del CEFYP, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 8–10 de noviembre de 2004. Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A Spanish collection of papers looking at the commercial exploitation of the Atlantic coast by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and at commercial activities on the Canary Islands, in this period.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Jimenez Bello, Victor. 2005. Allende las Columnas: La presencia cartaginesa en el Atlántico entre los siglos VI y III A.C. Las Palmas, Spain: Anroart Ediciones.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A study of all the literary and archaeological evidence for Carthaginian presence in the Atlantic region.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Agriculture
  438.  
  439. Heurgon 1976 argues that due to the fame of Mago, a Carthaginian agronomist mentioned in Roman texts, the Carthaginians were widely assumed to have achieved excellence in the field of agriculture. Krings 2008 doubts this lionization of Mago, pointing to the lack of actual physical evidence in Carthage’s North African hinterland. Van Dommelen and Gómez Bellard 2008 shows that Punic Sardinia experienced an increase in agricultural exploitation, perhaps to sate Carthaginian demand. Fentress and Docter 2008 and Greene 2000 highlight the importance of agriculture in Carthage’s North African hinterland.
  440.  
  441. Fentress, Elizabeth, and Roald Docter. 2008. North Africa: Rural settlement and agricultural production. In Rural landscapes in the Punic world. Edited by Peter van Dommelen and Carlos Gómez Bellard, 101–128. Oakville, CT: Equinox.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Study that presents the latest survey and archaeological data across Carthaginian territory in North Africa. Highlights evidence of an increase in Carthage’s agricultural exploitation of its hinterland between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE in contrast to other cities in Punic North Africa, where this process appears to start later in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Also highlights an emphasis on commercial exploitation of agriculture, such as oil and wine production.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Greene, Joseph. 2000. The beginnings of grape cultivation and wine production in Phoenician/Punic North Africa. In The origins and ancient history of wine. Edited by Patrick McGovern, Stuart Fleming, and Solomon Katz, 311–322. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Study of the earliest evidence for, and further development of, wine production in Punic North Africa.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Heurgon, Jacques. 1976. L’agronome carthaginois Magon et ses traducteurs en latin et en grec. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres 120.3: 441–456.
  450. DOI: 10.3406/crai.1976.13274Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. A study of the importance of the famous Carthaginian agronomist Mago and his importance to the Greco-Roman World.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Krings, Véronique. 2008. Rereading Punic agriculture: Representation, analogy and ideology in the classical sources. In Rural landscapes in the Punic world. Edited by Peter van Dommelen and Carlos Gómez Bellard, 22–43. Oakville, CT: Equinox.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Argues the traditional view of Carthaginians as excellent agricultural practitioners found in Roman texts was part of an attempt by Roman authors to portray Carthage as having conventional (Roman aspirations).
  456. Find this resource:
  457. van Dommelen, Peter, and Carlos Gómez Bellard, eds. 2008. Rural landscapes in the Punic world. Oakville, CT: Equinox.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Edited volume of essays on agriculture and rural landscapes right across the Punic Mediterranean, with a comprehensive geographical reach.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. The Military
  462.  
  463. Ameling 1993 argues that militarism did play an important role in Carthage’s external and internal politics. Fariselli 2002 and Hoyos 2007 highlight the benefits and dangers of Carthage’s extensive use of mercenaries. Frost 1989 and Bartoloni 1995 concentrate on Carthage’s much vaunted naval supremacy. Medas 1999 looks at the ethnic makeup of Carthage’s naval crews. Brizzi 1995 provides a useful general overview of Carthage’s military capacity.
  464.  
  465. Ameling, Walter. 1993. Karthago: Studien zu Militär, Staat und Gesellschaft. Munich: Beck.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Important book that recognizes the importance of militarism among the Carthaginian elite and the state institutions of Carthage.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Bartoloni, Piero. 1995. Navires et navigation. In La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 282–289. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Brief article on ships and seacraft.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Brizzi, Giovanni. 1995. L’armée et la guerre. In La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 303–315. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Brief summary study of Carthage’s military forces and tactics.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Fariselli, Anna Chiara. 2002. I mercenari di Cartagine. La Spezia, Italy: Agorà.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Study of Carthaginians’ frequent use of mercenaries for warfare.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Frost, Honor. 1989. The prefabricated Punic warship. In Punic Wars: Proceedings of the conference held in Antwerp from the 23th to the 26th of November 1988 in cooperation with the Department of History of Universiteit Antwerpen. Edited by Hubert Devijers and Lipiński Edward, 127–135. Studia Phoenicia 10. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Study of a wrecked Punic military craft from the era of the First Punic War discovered off Sicily.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hoyos, Dexter. 2007. Truceless war: Carthage’s fight for survival, 241 to 237 BC. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  486. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004160767.i-294Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Account of the great mercenaries’ revolt after the end of the First Punic War.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Medas, Stefano. 1999. Les équipages des flottes militaires de Carthage. In Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean. Edited by Giovanna Pisano, 79–106. Rome: Università degli studi di Roma “Tor Vergata.”
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Study of the ethnic origins of Carthage’s naval crews. Argues that while most officers were Carthaginians, its crewmen came from its North African hinterland and their allies.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Art
  494.  
  495. Scholarly interest in Punic art has tended to concentrate on its diverse (Near Eastern, Egyptian, Greek, among others) influences (see the articles collected in Moscati 1988 and Krings 1995). There is still more scholarly research to be done, however, into quite what constitutes “Punic art.” Bartoloni 1995 concentrates on the question of Punic craftsmanship. Charles-Picard 1967 and Charles-Picard 1979 argue for the growing influence of Hellenistic Art in the 3rd century BCE. Debergh 1976 recognizes Hellenistic Greek influences on Punic art but argues that these imported motifs are placed into a uniquely Punic context. Lézine 1959 views the continuation of traditional forms of Punic religious architecture as a conscious rejection of Hellenistic Greek influences. Wagner 1986 also questions the extent of Hellenistic Greek influence on Carthage.
  496.  
  497. Bartoloni, Piero. 1995. Techniques et sciences. In La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 354–361. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Looks at the tradition of Phoenicio-Punic craftsmanship.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Charles-Picard, Colette. 1967. Thèmes hellénistiques sur les stèles de Carthage. Antiquités Africaines 1.1: 9–30.
  502. DOI: 10.3406/antaf.1967.880Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A study of growing Hellenistic influence on the iconography of Carthaginian stele.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Charles-Picard, Colette. 1979. Les représentations du cycle dionysaque à Carthage dans l’art punique. Paris: CNRS.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. A study of representations of Dionysiac iconography in Punic Art.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Debergh, Jacques. 1976. Image grecque, interprétation carthaginoise. Revista de la Universidad Complutense 25.101: 91–112.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. A study of possible Punic reinterpretations of Hellelnistic artistic motifs.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Krings, Veronique, ed. 1995. La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Contains a series of short summary articles on different aspects of Punic and Phoenician art, including metalwork, ceramics, sculpture, reliefs, stelae, gold and silverware, glyptic art, glass work, ivories, painting, ostrich eggs, and amulettes. See pp. 426–552.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Lézine, Alexandre. 1959. Resistance a 1’hellenisme de 1’architecture religieuse de Carthage. Les Cahiers de la Tunisie 7:247–261.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Sees continued resistance to the influence of the Hellenistic world in the continuation of traditional Punic religious architecture.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Moscati, Sabatino, ed. 1988. The Phoenicians. New York: Abbeville.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Contains entries on many different areas of Punic and Phoenician art, including glass, jewelry, ostrich eggs, stelae, pottery, metalwork, bronzes, scarabs and amulets, terracottas, masks, painting, and statuary.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Wagner, Carlos. 1986. Critical remarks concerning a supposed Hellenization of Carthage. Revista: Revue du Centre d’ Etudes de la Civilisation Phénicienne-Punique et des Antiquités Libyque 2:357–375.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. An article that is skeptical of claims that Carthaginian culture became extensively Hellenized.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Religion
  530.  
  531. Bonnet1988 and Bonnet1996 concentrate on Carthaginian religion’s ancestral ties to its Phoenician founders and how those religious traditions were transformed by contacts with Greek settlers and indigenous populations across the Mediterranean region. Benichou-Safar 1982 is a study of Carthaginian funerary practices. Barré 1983 argues that 3rd-century Carthage maintained its traditional religious traditions despite the considerable influence of Hellenistic Greek culture. Hòlbl 1986 highlights Egyptian influences on Carthaginian fertility rituals. Bonnet and Xella 1995 provides a brief general overview of Phoenicio-Punic religion. Bonnet and Niehr 2010 and Lipiński 1995 provide the most detailed and comprehensive overviews of Phoenicio-Punic religious traditions and practice.
  532.  
  533. Barré, Michael. 1983. The God-list in the treaty between Hannibal and Philip V of Macedonia: A study in light of the ancient Near Eastern treaty tradition. Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Interesting study that takes Polybius’s account of the treaty and attempts to retranslate the Hellenized list of gods presented by the Carthaginian delegation into their original Punic forms.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Benichou-Safar, Hélène. 1982. Les tombes puniques de Carthage: Topographie, structures, inscriptions et rites funéraires. Paris: CNRS.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Extensive study of the Punic tombs discovered in Carthage and the information that they provide on funerary rites.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Bonnet, Corinne. 1988. Melqart: Cultes et mythes de l’Héraclès tyrien en Méditerranée. Studia Phoenicia 8. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Influential study of the importance of the god Melqart, patron divinity of Tyre, in Carthage and the Punic world, particularly in relation to his syncretistic relationship with the Greek hero Heracles.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Bonnet, Corinne. 1996. Astarté: Dossier documentaire et perspectives historiques. Collezione di studi fenici 37. Rome: CNR-Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Extensive study of the important Phoenician/Punic deity Astarte.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Bonnet, Corinne, and Herbert Niehr. 2010. Religionen in der Umwelt des Alten Testaments II: Phönizier, Punier, Aramäer. Studienbücher Theologie 4.2. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Bonnet’s section on Phoenician and Punic religion is the best synthetic account available at present.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Bonnet, Corinne, and Paolo Xella. 1995. La religion. In La civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 316–333. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Short but useful synthetic study of Punic and Phoenician religion.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Hòlbl, Günther. 1986. Egyptian fertility magic within Phoenician and Punic culture. In Archaeology and fertility cult in the ancient Mediterranean: Papers presented at the First International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean, University of Malta, 2–5 September 1985. Edited by Anthony Bonanno, 197–206. Msida, Malta: Univ. of Malta Press.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Study of the influence of Egyptian fertility magic on the Punic world.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Lipiński, Edward. 1995. Dieux et déesses de l’univers Phénicien et Punique. Studia Phoenicia 14. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
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  563. Major study of the deities of the Phoenician and Punic pantheons.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. The Tophets and Child Sacrifice
  566.  
  567. Although an important part of Carthaginian religious practice, the activities that took place in the Tophets (a modern word for open air sacrificial enclosures found in a number of Punic cities) deserves its own section because of the controversy that surrounds it. Scholarship is divided between those who argue for and those who argue against child sacrifice being part of the rites that took place there. Benichou-Safar 2004 argues that they were merely child cemeteries. Brown 1991 and Stager and Wolff 1984 consider that child sacrifice was a significant aspect of the activities that took place in the Tophets. Bonnet 2011 and Crawley Quinn 2011 attempt to move the academic debate on from its narrow focus on child sacrifice. However, Schwartz, et al. 2010 and Schwartz, et al. 2012 present new scientific analysis of the human remains associated with the Tophet at Carthage, arguing that such practices cannot have been common. Schwartz’s arguments have been challenged in Smith, et al. 2012.
  568.  
  569. Benichou-Safar, Hélène. 2004. Le tophet de Salammbô à Carthage: Essai de reconstitution. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Study and archaeological reconstruction of the Tophet at Carthage. Views Tophet as a necropolis and sanctuary for children who died naturally but where child sacrifice might have been occasionally practiced.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Bonnet, Corinne. 2011. On gods and earth: The Tophet and the construction of a new identity in Punic Carthage. In Cultural identity in the ancient Mediterranean. Edited by Erich S. Gruen, 373–387. Los Angeles: Getty.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Article which points out that there has tended to be an oversimplification of the religious activities that took place in the Tophet, and that the reality was that a whole range of practices took place there.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Brown, Susanna Shelby. 1991. Late Carthaginian child sacrifice and sacrificial monuments in their Mediterranean context. JSOT/ASOR Monographs 3. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press.
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  579. Detailed monograph that argues that the surviving evidence strongly points to the practice of child sacrifice by the Carthaginians. Argues that the case for child sacrifice remains unproven.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Crawley Quinn, Josephine. 2011. The Cultures of the Tophet: Identification and identity in the Phoenician diaspora. In Cultural identity and the peoples of the ancient Mediterranean. Edited by Erich Gruen, 388–413. Los Angeles: Getty.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Argues for the activities that took place in the Tophets of the Punic diaspora as acting as a strong maker of cultural identity and community cohesion.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Schwartz, Jeffrey, F. Houghton, R. Macchiarelli, and L. Bondioli. 2010. Skeletal remains from Punic Carthage do not support systematic sacrifice of infants. PloS One 5.2: e9177.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. The extremely important results of the most recent scientific analysis on the human remains found in the Tophet at Carthage.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Schwartz, Jeffrey, F. Houghton, R. Macchiarelli, and L. Bondioli. 2012. Bones, teeth, and estimating age of perinates: Carthaginian infant sacrifice revisited. Antiquity 86.333: 738–745.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Response to Smith, et al. 2012 arguing that the case for child-sacrifice remains unproven.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Smith, Patricia, G. Avishai, J. A. Greene, and L. E. Stager. 2012. Aging cremated infants: The problem of sacrifice at the Tophet of Carthage. Antiquity 85.329: 859–874.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Questions findings in Schwartz 2012, and argues that child sacrifice was very probable.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Stager, Lawrence, and Samuel Wolff. 1984. Child sacrifice at Carthage, religious rite or population control? Biblical Archaeology Review 10.1: 30–51.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Article that is strongly in favor of child sacrifice being practiced at the Tophet.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Government and Society
  602.  
  603. Bondì 1995a illustrates how the dearth of Punic literature is felt most keenly in relation to what is known about Carthaginian society and, in particular, private life. Jahn 2004 and Bondì 1995b show how Carthage’s political structure is better understood, not least because of the interest shown by the Athenian philosopher Aristotle in its constitution. However, Huss 1992 highlights how our knowledge of many areas of Carthaginian political life is still very limited. Huss 1985 (cited under General Overviews) is still the best study of Carthage’s constitution and political structures. Manfredi 2003 provides a useful overview of Carthage’s political administration over North Africa.
  604.  
  605. Bondì, Sandro Fillipa. 1995a. La Société. In Civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 345–353. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Brief account of what is known of Punic and Phoenician society.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Bondì, Sandro Fillipa. 1995b. Les institutions, l’organisation politique et administrative. In Civilisation Phénicienne et Punique: Manuel de recherché. Edited by Veronique Krings, 290–302. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  611. Brief synthetic account of government across the Punic world.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Huss, Werner. 1992. Probleme der karthagischen Verfassung. In Karthago. By Werner Huss, 239–261. Wege der Forschung 654. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Important article on the Carthaginian constitution.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Jahn, Kirsten. 2004. Die Verfassung Karthagos: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Dike: Rivista di storia del diritto greco ed ellenistico 7:179–208.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Article that scrutinizes the Greco-Roman sources for the Carthaginian constitution.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Manfredi, Lorenza-Ilia. 2003. La politica amministrativa di Cartagine in Africa. Rome: Accademia nazionale dei Lincei.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Detailed study of the political administration of Carthage and its North African territories.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Carthage and Imperialism
  626.  
  627. The question of whether Carthage was an imperial power or even had an imperialist agenda continues to be an important area of academic debate. Acquaro 1988 shows the strength of Punic influence in western Sicily and Sardinia. Whittaker 1978 concludes after surveying the literary evidence that the Carthaginians never held what could be called a conventional empire, but they were ready to use diplomacy and warfare to enforce trade monopolies and economic dominance. This viewpoint is very similar to that found in Wagner 1989. In the case of Sicily, Anello 1986 and Tusa 1982–1983 both accept the view expressed in Greek sources that Carthage exercised a form of eparchy over some western areas of the island in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Van Dommelen 1998 jettisons many of the old arguments over Carthaginian imperialism in favor of a focus on the economic and cultural impact of Punic settlers on already resident communities in Sardinia.
  628.  
  629. Acquaro, Enrico. 1988. Gli insediamenti fenici e punici in Italia. Rome: Poligrafico dello Stato.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Accessible overview of the archaeological material from Punic settlements in Sicily and Sardinia.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Anello, Pietrina. 1986. Il trattato del 405/4a.C. e la formazione della “eparchia” punica di Sicilia. Kokalos 32:115–179.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Argues for the establishment of a Carthaginian eparchy at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Tusa, Vincenzo. 1982–1983. I Cartaginesi nella Sicilia occidentale. Kokalos 28–29:131–146.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Article that looks at the evidence for Carthaginian interventions in western Sicily from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. van Dommelen, Peter. 1998. In colonial grounds: A comparative study of colonialism and rural settlement in first millennium BC west central Sardinia. Leiden, The Netherlands: Univ. of Leiden.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Excellent study of colonization and rural settlements in Punic Sardinia.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Wagner, Carlos. 1989. The Carthaginians in ancient Spain: From administrative trade to territorial annexation. In Punic wars: Proceedings of the conference held in Antwerp from the 23th to the 26th of November 1988 in cooperation with the Department of History of Universiteit Antwerpen. Edited by Hubert Devijver and Edward Lipiński, 145–156. Studia Phoenicia 10. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Argues for light-touch economic imperialism on the Iberian Peninsula with a series of trade agreements rather than conquest, which only changed after the end of the First Punic War, when the Barcids had to secure markets and raw materials through military force.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Whittaker, C. R. 1978. Carthaginian imperialism in the fifth and fourth centuries. In Imperialism in the ancient world: The Cambridge University research seminar in ancient history. Edited by Peter Garnsey and Richard Whittaker, 59–90. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Still influential study of Carthaginian overseas involvement in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Carthage and the Western Greeks
  654.  
  655. Asheri 1988 shows how throughout much of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Carthage and the Greek-Sicilian city of Syracuse were locked in a fierce rivalry for economic and political influence on Sicily. It was a rivalry that often spilled over into war. This long-term conflict had other repercussions for Carthage. Prag 2010b shows it was Sicilian-Greek rulers and writers who really established the pervasive negative stereotyping of Carthaginians as duplicitous, effeminate, cruel, and irreligious. However, as Krings 1998 points out, this was never a simple geopolitical dichotomy between Punic and Greek blocs. Prag 2010a highlights the complexity of these relationships through the Punic coinage that was minted on the island during this period. Sicilian-Greek city-states proved themselves to be more than willing to ally themselves with Carthage against Syracuse. Malkin 2005 presents compelling evidence of religious and cultural syncretism between Punic and Greek populations on the island.
  656.  
  657. Asheri, David. 1988. Carthaginians and Greeks. In The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Edited by John Boardman, N. G. L. Hammond, D. M. Lewis, and M. Ostvald, 739–780. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  658. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521228046Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Accessible study of the developing relationship between Greek and Punic communities in Sicily in the early 5th century BCE.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Krings, Veronique. 1998. Carthage et les Grecs c. 580–480 av. J-C. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  663. A detailed study of Carthage’s relationship with the western Greeks in the 5th century BCE. Argues that behind the layers of later Greek propaganda that portrayed Carthage as the Persia of the western Mediterranean was a far more complex picture of constantly shifting alliances that often belied ethnic identities.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Malkin, Irad. 2005. Herakles and Melqart: Greeks and Phoenicians in the middle ground. In Cultural borrowings and ethnic appropriations in antiquity. Edited by Eric S. Gruen, 238–258. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
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  667. Influential study that looks at the role played by the syncretistic cult of Heracles/Melqart in relations between Greeks and Punic populations in Sicily.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Prag, Jonathan R. W. 2010a. Siculo-Punic coinage and Siculo-Punic interactions. In Meetings between cultures in the ancient Mediterranean: Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Rome, 22–26 September 2008. Edited by Martina Della Riva. Bollettino di Archeologia Online 1.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Looks at the possibilities and limitations of Siculo-Punic coinage as a means of illuminating the relationship between Punic and other populations in Sicily and the role of Carthage on the island.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Prag, Jonathan. 2010b. Tyrannizing Sicily: The despots who cried “Carthage!” In Private and public lies: The discourse of despotism and deceit in the Graeco-Roman world. Edited by Andrew Turner, James H. Kim On Chong-Gossard, and Frederik Vervaet, 51–71. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  674. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004187757.i-439Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. A study of the negative stereotyping of the Carthaginians in the Western-Greek literary tradition down to the Punic Wars.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Carthage and Its North African Neighbors
  678.  
  679. Punic-Libyan relations have focused on the Mercenaries’ War (241–237 BCE), when Libyans joined with disgruntled mercenaries who had been evacuated back from Sicily at the end of the First Punic War (Barcelo 2001). Loreto 1995 has claimed that this was really a Libyan-led rebellion designed to rid them of Carthaginian hegemony. Hoyos 1999 questions the validity of Loreto’s position on this matter. Kunze 2011 concentrates her study of relations between Carthage and the Numidian kingdoms to the Second and Third Punic Wars. However, Alföldi 1979 and Rakob 1979 provide more general background on the Numidian kingdoms. Manfredi 2010 is a study of Carthaginian strategy in North Africa during the 3rd century BCE.
  680.  
  681. Alföldi, Maria. 1979. Die Geschichte desnumidischen Königreiches und seiner Nachfolger. In Die Numider: Reiter und Könige nördlich der Sahara. Edited by Heinz Günther Horn and Christoph Ruger, 43–74. Bonn, West Germany: Rheinisches Landesmuseum.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Brief historical account of the Numidian kingdoms.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Barcelo, Pedro. 2001. Die Folgen der nordafrikanischen Revolte fur die Geschichte Karthagos. In Punica-Libyca-Ptolemaica: Festschrift fur Werner Huss. Edited by Klaus Geus and Klaus Zimmermann, 253–264. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. 2001.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Article looking at the longer-term consequences of the North African revolt for Carthage.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Hoyos, Dexter. 1999. A modern view of Carthage’s truceless war (241–237 BC). Electronic Antiquity 5.1.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Skeptical review of Loreto 1995.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Kunze, Claudia. 2011. Carthage and Numidia 201–149 BC. In A companion to the Punic wars. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 395–411. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  694. DOI: 10.1002/9781444393712Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. A survey of Carthaginian-Numidian relations between the Second and Third Punic Wars.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Loreto, Luigi. 1995. La grande insurrezione libica contro Cartagine del 241–237 A.C. Una storia politica e militare. Rome: École française de Rome.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. An attempt to view the great mercenary rebellion that broke out at the end of the First Punic War as part of a Libyan revolt for independence from Carthage.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Manfredi, Lorenza-Ilia. 2010. Cartagine e l’assetto territoriale del Nord Africa. In Carthage et les autochtones de son empire du temps de Zama: Hommage à Mhamed Hassine Fantar; Colloque international organisé à Siliana et Tunis du 10au 13 mars 2004. Edited by Ahmed Ferjaoui, 329–335. Tunis, Tunisia: Institut National du Patrimoine.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Article looking at Carthaginian territorial expansion and structural consolidation in North Africa in the 3rd century BCE.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Rakob, Frederick. 1979. Numidische Königsarchitektur in Nordafrika. In Die Numider: Reiter und Könige nördlich der Sahara. Edited by Heinz Günther Horn and Christoph Ruger, 119–171. Bonn, West Germany: Rheinisches Landesmuseum.
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  707. Study of Numidian royal monuments in North Africa.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Carthage and Rome
  710.  
  711. Palmer 1997 and Scardigli 2011 present evidence of the peaceful relationship that had existed between Carthage and Rome prior to the Punic Wars. Serrati 2006 concentrates on the series of treaties between Carthage and Rome and argues for the existence of a treaty in 306 BCE, which Polybius explicitly rejects. Hoyos 1998 (cited under Punic Wars) argues that Polybius’s claims about the so-called 306 BCE treaty are likely to be correct.
  712.  
  713. Palmer, Robert E. A. 1997. Rome and Carthage at peace. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
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  715. Ingenious study of the little-known relationship that existed between Carthage and Rome prior to the Punic Wars.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Scardigli, Barbara. 2011. Early relations between Carthage and Rome. In A companion to the Punic wars. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 28–38. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  718. DOI: 10.1002/9781444393712Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. Article that sets out the diplomatic relations that existed between Carthage and Rome prior to the First Punic War.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Serrati, John. 2006. Neptune’s altars: The treaties between Rome and Carthage (509–226 B.C.). Classical Quarterly 56.1: 113–134.
  722. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838806000103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. A study of the series of treaties that were drawn up between Carthage and Rome. Argues for the authenticity of 306 BCE treaty between Carthage and Rome.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. The Punic Wars
  726.  
  727. The Punic Wars have understandably attracted the attention of military historians. Goldsworthy 2000 takes all three Punic Wars as its subject. Lazenby 1996 focuses on just the First Punic War. Daly 2002 concentrates solely on the Battle of Cannae and uses it to make broader points about the Carthaginian and Roman militaries and the experience of battle in this period. The causes of the wars and what they reveal about Carthage’s wider geopolitical ambitions during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE have also been the subject of scholarly studies. Hoyos 1998 views the outbreak of both the First and Second Punic Wars as being at least partly the result of both Carthage and Rome misunderstanding each other’s intentions and ambitions. Hoyos 1998 and Hoyos 2011 are also skeptical of the claim that the Second Punic War was provoked by the hatred of the Barcids for Rome viewing it as propaganda created by those in the Roman Senate who wanted to portray the Barcids as rogue operators. Rich 1996 argues that the Roman attitude toward Carthage before the outbreak of the Second Punic War was an essentially defensive one. Bellen 1985 thinks that fear played an important role in Roman hostility toward Carthage. Miles 2011 (cited under General Overviews) argues that both sides were led into war by belligerent factions within their ruling elites.
  728.  
  729. Bellen, Heinz. 1985. Metus Gallicus, metus Punicus: Zum Furchtmotiv in der römischen Republik. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Interesting study that looks at the impact that fear of Carthage had on the collective Roman psyche, and fueled its aggressive actions.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Daly, Gregory. 2002. Cannae: The experience of battle in the Second Punic War. New York: Routledge.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Interesting military study that focuses on the most famous of the great defeats that Hannibal inflicted on the Romans in the Second Punic War.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Goldsworthy, Adrian. 2000. The Punic Wars. London: Cassell.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Well-written and thorough military-historical account of the Punic Wars.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Hoyos, Dexter. 1998. Unplanned wars: The origins of the First and Second Punic Wars. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  742. DOI: 10.1515/9783110808353Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. In-depth study that argues the reasons for the outbreak of both the First and Second Punic Wars included misunderstandings and miscalculations on both sides.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Hoyos, Dexter, ed. 2011. A companion to the Punic Wars. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  746. DOI: 10.1002/9781444393712Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. A very useful collection of essays that provides a comprehensive coverage of the Punic Wars.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Lazenby, J. F. 1996. The First Punic War: A military history. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Military history of the First Punic War.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Rich, John. 1996. The origins of the Second Punic War. In The Second Punic War: A reappraisal. Edited by Tim Cornell, Boris Rankov, and Philip Sabin, 27–54. London: Univ. of London, Institute of Classical Studies.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. Article that opposes the view that the Second Punic War was ultimately the result of Roman aggression.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. The Barcids in Spain
  758.  
  759. Blázquez Martinez and García-Gelabert 1991 and Wagner 1999 argue that military intervention of the Barcids in southern Spain marked a departure in Carthaginian interactions with the region, and was prompted by the urgent need to restore Carthage’s economic fortunes after its disastrous defeat in the First Punic Wars and the vast reparations that had been forced to pay to Rome. Barcelo 1988 highlights how southern Spain had historically been an area the Carthaginians had turned to for resources. Ferrer Maestro 2006 reveals how successful the Barcid intervention on the Iberian Peninsula was with regards to amassing huge wealth. There is disagreement, however, as to quite what the relationship was between the Barcids in Spain and the government in Carthage. Hoyos 2003 and Hoyos 2004 portray the Barcid strategy as being one of maintaining their political dominance over both Carthage and the territories in southern Spain. Lancel 1999 (cited under Hannibal) is also skeptical of this claim and sees it as spin propagated by a Roman faction who wanted to avoid war by disassociating the activities of the Barcids from Carthage. This position is challenged in Miles 2011 (cited under General Overviews), which argues that Barcid Spain increasingly acted as a quasi-independent fiefdom, and that there were growing tensions between the Barcids and many of the governing elite in Carthage.
  760.  
  761. Barcelo, Pedro. 1988. Karthago und die Iberische Halbinsel vor den Barkiden. Bonn, West Germany: R. Habelt Verlag.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. Detailed history of Carthage’s long involvement on the Iberian Peninsula before the Barcid intervention.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Blázquez Martinez, Jose Maria, and Pérez García-Gelabert. 1991. Los Bárquidas en la Península Ibérica. In Atti del II Congresso Internazionale di Studi Fenici e Punici, Roma, 9–14 novembre 1987. Edited by Enrico Acquaro, 27–50. Rome: Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Study of Barcid strategy on the Iberian Peninsula.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Ferrer Maestro, Juan José. 2006. El aprovechamiento financiero de los Bárquidas en Hispania. Trabajos del Museo Arqueologico de Ibiza y Formentera 58:107–126.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Interesting article that looks at the economic strength of the Barcids in Spain.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Hoyos, Dexter. 2003. Hannibal’s dynasty: Power and politics in the western Mediterranean 247–183 BC. New York: Routledge.
  774. DOI: 10.4324/9780203417829Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Sweeping history of the rise to power of the Barcid clan from Hamilcar Barca to Hannibal.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Hoyos, Dexter. 2004. Barcid “proconsuls” and Punic politics, 237–218 B.C. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 137.3–4: 246–274.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. Argues that the political and military activities of the Barcids fitted more into the conventions of Carthaginian clan-based politics than has often been argued.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Wagner, Carlos. 1999. Los Bárquidas y la conquista de la península Ibérica. Gerión 17:263–294.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Detailed study of Barcid strategies and activities in Spain, which views the incursion in terms of colonization and the need for human and economic resources.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Hannibal
  786.  
  787. The scholarly bibliography on Hannibal is understandably huge. Many of the military histories, such as Lazenby 1998 and Goldsworthy 2000 (cited under Punic Wars), concentrate on Hannibal as a charismatic general and brilliant military strategist. Seibert 1993, while acknowledging Hannibal’s talent as a soldier, also highlights his shortcomings as a tactician. Brizzi 1984 and Fronda 2011 emphasize how Hannibal fitted quite conventionally into the established parameters of Hellenistic generalship. Miles 2011 and Rawlings 2005 highlight how Hannibal utilized many of the propagandistic strategies adopted by Hellenistic military leaders. There has also been renewed interest in the question of just how “Carthaginian” Hannibal, a man who spent very little of his life in Carthage, actually was (Lancel 1999; Hoyos 2003, cited under Barcids in Spain; Miles 2011, cited under General Overviews).
  788.  
  789. Brizzi, Giovanni. 1984. Annibale, strategia e immagine. Perugia, Italy: Città di Castello.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. Interesting Italian biography of Hannibal that sees him in the role of Hellenistic general.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Fronda, Michael P. 2011. Hannibal: Tactics, strategy and geostrategy. In A companion to the Punic wars. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 242–259. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  794. DOI: 10.1002/9781444393712Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. Overview of Hannibals’ overall strategy during the Second Punic War.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Lancel, Serge. 1999. Hannibal. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. Classic biographical study of Hannibal.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Lazenby, J. F. 1998. Hannibal’s war: A military history of the Second Punic War. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. Study of Hannibal the military tactician.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Miles, Richard. 2011. Hannibal and propaganda. In A companion to the Punic wars. Edited by Dexter Hoyos, 260–279. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
  806. DOI: 10.1002/9781444393712Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. Argues for the importance of propaganda in Hannibal’s campaign against Rome.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Rawlings, Louis. 2005. Hannibal and Heracles. In Herakles and Hercules: Exploring a Graeco-Roman divinity. Edited by Louis Rawlings and Hugh Bowden, 153–184. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811. Exploration of the identification of Hannibal with the Greek hero Heracles.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Seibert, Jakob. 1993. Hannibal. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. Excellent German biography of Hannibal.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Carthage’s Destruction
  818.  
  819. The final destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BCE has attracted scholarly interest not only with regards to the events associated with it but also the wider motivations for the Romans to carry out such a brutal act. Baronowski 1995 argues the Roman Senate’s actions prior to the Third Punic War to be acquisitive, vindictive, and calculating. Purcell 1995 makes the case for the destruction of Carthage as a statement of Rome’s future intentions and a warning to potential opponents. Ridley 1986 tackles the long-held myth that the site was ploughed with salt after is destruction.
  820.  
  821. Baronowski, Donald Walter. 1995. Polybius on the causes of the Third Punic War. Classical Philology 90.1: 16–31.
  822. DOI: 10.1086/367442Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. Important article that tests Polybius’s analysis of the reasons for the outbreak of the Third Punic War.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Purcell, Nicholas. 1995. On the sacking of Carthage and corinth. In Ethics and rhetoric: Classical essays for Donald Russell on his seventy fifth birthday. Edited by Doreen Innes, Harry Hine, and Christopher Pelling, 133–148. Oxford: Clarendon.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. Important article that argues for the destruction of Carthage as a carefully considered statement by Rome.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Ridley, Ronald. 1986. To be taken with a pinch of salt: The destruction of Carthage. Classical Philology 81.2: 140–146.
  830. DOI: 10.1086/366973Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  831. Shows how the story of the Romans ploughing the site of Carthage with salt is a modern invention.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Carthage after 146 BCE
  834.  
  835. The rebuilding of Carthage by the Roman emperor Augustus has understandably fascinated scholars. Recent archaeological excavation has greatly increased our knowledge of the beginnings of the Roman city (Rakob 2000, Wightman 1980). Gros 1990 wrote powerfully about the ideological attractions of refounding Carthage for Augustus. Hurst 2010 reminds us of the logistical advantages of rebuilding the city. Starks 1999 highlights how the Fides Punicia still remained an important juxtaposition to Roman virtues. Miles 2004 shows how centuries later Greek and Roman writers were still supplanting the character of the old Punic city onto Roman Carthage. Jiménez 2010 and López Castro 2000 both highlight the continuation of Punic culture in the western Mediterranean long after the destruction of Carthage.
  836.  
  837. Gros, Pierre. 1990. Le Premier urbanisme de la colonia Julia Carthago: Mythes et réalités d’une fondation césaro-augustéenne. In L’Afrique dans l’Occident Romain, 1er siècle av. J.-C.-Ive siècle ap. J.-C. Actes du colloque Rome, 3–5 decembre 1987, 547–573. Collection de l’Ecole Francaise de Rome 134. Rome: l’Ecole Francaise de Rome.
  838. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  839. Important paper that investigates the foundation of Carthage as vehicle for Augustan ideology.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Hurst, Henry. 2010. Understanding Carthage as a Roman port. In Meetings between cultures in the ancient Mediterranean: Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Rome, 22–26 September 2008. Edited by Martina Dalla Riva. Bolletino di Archeologia Online 1. Rome: Direzione Generale per le Antichità.
  842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  843. Important paper by the excavator of the Roman harbors of Carthage that partly explains the Roman interest in rebuilding Carthage.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Jiménez, Alicia. 2010. Introduction: Colonising a colonised territory: Settlements with Punic roots in Roman times. In Meetings between cultures in the ancient Mediterranean: Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Rome, 22–26 September 2008. Edited by Martina Dalla Riva. Bollettino di Archeologia Online 1. Rome: Direzione Generale per le Antichità.
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847. Interesting study that highlights how the destruction of Carthage did not bring an end to the Punic World, and how Rome’s relationship with those old Punic settlements was a far more subtle and varied one.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. López Castro, José Luis. 2000. The western Phoenicians under the Roman republic: Integration and persistence. In Articulating local cultures: Power and identity under the expanding Roman republic. Edited by Peter van Dommelen and Nicola Terrenato, 103–125. Supplementary Series 63. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  850. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851. Important article highlighting the continuation of Punic (López Castro prefers the term Western Phoenician) in the Roman Empire, long after the destruction of Carthage.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Miles, Richard. 2004. Rivalling Rome: Carthage as cosmopolis. In Rome the cosmopolis. Edited by Catherine Edwards and Greg Woolf, 123–146. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. Shows how Roman and Greek writers were still willing to ascribe Punic stereotypes onto the Roman city of Carthage.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Rakob, Friedrich. 2000. The making of Augustan Carthage. In Romanization and the city: Creation, transformations, and failures: Proceedings of a conference held at the American Academy in Rome, 14–16 May 1998. Edited by Elizabeth Fentress, 72–82. Supplementary Series 38. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Article outlining the Augustan vision for Carthage.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Starks, John H., Jr. 1999. Fides aeneia: The transference of Punic stereotypes in the Aeneid. Classical Journal 94.3: 255–283.
  862. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863. Highlights how Virgil undercuts the Roman self-image of a bastion of fides by ascribing Punic stereotypes of perfidy onto Aeneas because of his desertion of Dido.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Wightman, Edith. 1980. The plan of Roman Carthage: Practicalities and politics. In New light on ancient Carthage. Papers of a symposium sponsored by the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, the University of Michigan, marking the fiftieth anniversary of the museum. Edited by John Griffiths Pedley, 29–46. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. Article on the layout and dimensions of the panned new Roman city of Carthage.
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