Listen to this lesson
Access to Information
In modern society, our access to information is increasing. Citizens in many countries have long had access to "public records," such as criminal records, civil court cases, divorce proceedings, and other information about individuals. In the past, individuals had to visit the courthouse or other governmental agency and find the record that they wanted to see. This could be both time consuming and expensive to do, helping to keep much of this knowledge out of the public limelight.

typing on keyboard
However, like many other areas, this information is increasingly available online, often for free. This may include information from divorce proceedings (which could include financial and family information), criminal records (which could include minor offenses from youth), and voter registration information. The growing "transparent society" means that more of our personal information is available to people and more of it is easier to find. For example, think about the ease with which we can know who has called us (caller ID) and find out information about the person on the other end of the phone through looking up who is connected to the phone number, and call the person back without the person leaving a message. In the past, it would have been much harder to do any of these things and the information that we can gain by having a person's name or a phone number is increasing each day. Many people also post information about their lives and activities on sites like Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and personal blogs.

The greater access to information the potential consequences for individuals may increase as well. For example, employers may look up information online for prospective employees, making adverse decisions based on youthful run-ins with the law or on information from civil or divorce proceedings. The increase of information is also making it easier for identity thieves to find the information that they need in order to use someone's identity to obtain credit or other goods. Finally, the increase in information will make it easier for friends, family, and others to find out private information that you might rather be hidden. For example, what people once wrote in personal "diaries" is now increasingly being written online on social networking sites and personal websites.

Some individuals argue that effects of a more "transparent society" will go beyond these individual issues. They argue that individuals may be less likely to seek justice through the court system because they will not want the information made public (such as in cases of rape or domestic violence). Errors in the information from court records or individuals who have similar names and information may make it harder for some individuals to obtain jobs or other resources. The errors or the acts of other people may create situations in which individuals face discrimination or negative attitudes in their jobs and daily lives.

The answer is probably not the total ban of personal information online. However, the government can limit the amount and type of information to better protect individuals. For example, indexes of court cases could be published online rather than the full transcripts and information like social security numbers, addresses, and other personal information can be kept offline. Some individuals also argue that some types of court cases, such as custody or divorce cases, could be kept offline altogether.

The Digital Divide

As a student in North America, what advantages do you think you have over students in poor countries around the world? You can probably think of a number of different advantages that you have and some of you may have thought about the differences in access to the Internet. The digital divide refers to the gaps in who receives great benefits from information technologies and who receives fewer benefits. In some cases, the digital divide can also refer to the gaps in actual access to information technologies, like the Internet.

global internetWhy does the digital divide matter? The largest reason why the digital divide matters is that it helps continue global inequality. When some people have more access to the benefits of information technologies, they are able to put these benefits to work for them, increasing their wealth and resources. Those who have less access to these benefits are left at a disadvantage, falling behind in knowledge, technology, and resources. Although access is an important part of the digital divide, closing the gap is really more about poor individuals around the world using information technologies to create solutions to the problems that they now face. For example, simply having access to the Internet is one step, but having reliable and quality access to information that will improve the health of individuals in poor parts of the world is a better step in closing the divide.

A number of activists and scholars argue that the world would greatly benefit from closing the digital divide. They argue that closing the gap is one of the ways that societies can combat terrorism. Not only would it give individuals more information about societies around the world, but it would also improve some of the grievances that terrorists have about inequality in the world. Others argue that closing the divide would help businesses, by enlarging the markets for goods and services to individuals who are currently cut off from them because of a lack of access. Information technologies may also offer the poor entry into the world markets. For example, local communities could establish websites to sell locally made products.


Listen to this lesson
Unintended Consequences of Science and Technology
Many new technologies and scientific advances make our lives healthier, more efficient, and better. We can now travel around the world quicker, communicate with friends and family more easily, and take medications that will cure or reduce the symptoms of many illnesses and diseases. Most new technologies and advances, however, require a negotiation between what the technology (or medication, service, or product) is designed to do and the other effects that it can have on our lives. In today's society, where companies are often under pressure to deliver new products and updated technology and scientist's rush to solve health crises before they reach epidemic proportions, the risk of negative and even dangerous unintended consequences has also increased. Unintended consequences are those that are not foreseen or intended for a particular product, technology, or situation. These consequences can be good or bad and sometimes create quite a bit of controversy.

Why do unintended consequences happen? Robert K. Merton proposes that they happen for several different reasons.

Ignorance: it is virtually impossible to anticipate all of the possible consequences for something. For example, capitalists who built factories in the 19th century more than likely didn't anticipate the effects that factories would have on global warming.
Error: scientists and others may make an error in determining the effect that a medication or scientific advance will have. For example, a drug company may incorrectly measure a drug's effects on individuals, which may lead to negative side effects, or they may fail to take into account a possible effect when compiling the safety data.
Immediate Interest: in other words, we may focus on the immediate effects of something and what it can do for us while ignoring the long-term possibilities. For example, we might rush through approval of a drug that would cure AIDS, knowing that it might have long-term side effects for many people.
Basic Values: in some cases, the basic values of a society may encourage or discourage certain actions or situations even if the long-term effects of the decision will be negative.
Self-Defeating Prophecy: at times, society may anticipate a problem and look for a solution for it before the problem even occurs, leading to issues from either the "solution" or the lack of the problem.
The complexity of modern life also contributes to the risk of negative unintended consequences. Dietrich Dorner has suggested that four characteristics of systems make it almost impossible to have a full understanding, and thus, anticipate all of the consequences that might happen.

Complexity: society and the various components of life are increasingly complex, with many interrelated and connected parts. When we try to make predictions about effects, we neglect some of the connections between parts.
Dynamics: many parts of our lives, society, and other parts of the world change over time. For example, think of how fast changes can occur online or in computer technology. These changes may be brought on by some cause or they may happen more spontaneously.
Invisibility: due to the complexity of society and various systems, we may not be able to see all parts of the society or system. In other words, some connections or aspects are invisible to us or obscured in a way that we don't think of the connections and relationships.
Mistakes and Ignorance: human mistakes and ignorance also can influence the consequences as well. We may try to understand the effects of technology and science, but make the wrong assumptions about what will happen.
The unintended consequences that occur can be fairly minor or they can have major effects on society. Let's take a look at several examples of negative unintended consequences that have occurred because of science or technology.

science and technology illustrationIn many places of the world, scientists and other individuals are concerned about the effects of non-native species of animals and plants. These species were often introduced by individuals who moved to the area from another place, bringing the animal or plant along with them on purpose or accidentally. On Macquarie Island, halfway between Australia and Antarctica, the problem was non-native cats, which had been brought to the island in the 19th century. The cats were destroying native burrowing birds and a program was developed to rid the island of these non-native cats. However, the removal of the cats from the island has created another problem: non-native rabbits are now increasing dramatically in population and eating many of the native plants on the island. Although studies were done on the impact that removing the cats might have, the study underestimated the effect that the rabbits would have on the landscape and vegetation of the island.

Unintended consequences can also happen with medical advice and medication. Some scholars argue that low-fat diets have actually contributed to the growing rate of obesity. Low-fat diets were promoted by many doctors, nutritionists, and governments in the 1990s as a healthier way of eating. However, the guidelines were often promoted with the assumption that there were no negative consequences of eating this way. Today, some doctors and scientists have noted that people may have concentrated on eating low-fat foods, failing to take into account the overall calories eaten. For many individuals, this led to increasing weight issues, even though the individuals were eating according to the low-fat guidelines.