The Spanish Netherlands. 1598-1700

Introduction

The Dutch Revolt split the Habsburg possessions in the Low Countries into two new and very different polities. The northern provinces broke away to form the Dutch Republic. South of the great rivers, Alexander Farnese succeeded in restoring Habsburg rule with a blend of compromise and conquest. The entity that was thus called into being corresponded more or less to present-day Belgium (without, however, the prince-bishopric of Liège, but still with those parts that would eventually be annexed by France) and has been variously described as the Spanish, Southern, Catholic, Royal or Habsburg Netherlands. In contrast with its northern neighbor, its regime was based on the twin pillars of a monarchy tempered by traditional liberties and the religious monopoly of Roman Catholicism. Initially a composite state of eleven principalities, it witnessed a period of limited independence under the Archdukes Albert and Isabella (1598–1621) before its reintegration in the Spanish monarchy. Over the course of the 17th century, the Spanish Netherlands suffered severely from their geopolitical position. In the hands of a declining monarchy and surrounded by three of the major powers, they became one of the habitual battlegrounds of early modern Europe. As a consequence, the Spanish Netherlands have often been depicted as languishing in the shadows of the Dutch Golden Age. Their fate was anchored in the popular imagination as the Ongelukseeuw (the Century of Misfortunes). Without necessarily belittling the setbacks and the suffering, historians have come to question the almost uniformly dark hues in which the period was customarily represented. Their exercise in revision has revealed a country with an agrarian sector that was experimenting with new forms of crop rotation, had one of the highest levels of urbanization in Europe, and was known throughout the continent for the arts and luxuries it produced. Reconstituted into a bulwark of the Catholic Reformation, the Spanish Netherlands played a pivotal role in propagating the teachings of the Council of Trent. Their sense of mission found its artistic expression in the Flemish baroque. With a strange twist of fate, they also became the birthplace of the Jansenist controversy.

General Overviews

The grand narrative that Belgian historians put together after the country’s independence typified most of the early modern period in terms of foreign occupation. Events were depicted in sharply contrasting colors. Having failed to wrest their independence from an oppressive regime, the southern provinces were subjected to Spanish absolutism and religious bigotry. By branding the powers in Madrid (and subsequently in Vienna) as alien, historical research has generally tended to avoid the broader context of the composite monarchies to which the Southern Netherlands belonged. Instead, it concentrates mainly on subjects where the regional or local autonomy came into play. More recent scholarship has taken a more nuanced stance, but that has not necessarily led to a broadening of horizons. For those who have little or no previous knowledge on the subject, three collaborative works offer introductions that cater for various needs. Blok 1977–1983, a multivolume general history of the Netherlands, provides the most extensive treatment of the period. A synthesis that is solely devoted to the Spanish Netherlands, Janssens 2006 is somewhat shorter but more up to date, and it benefits from the input of scholars from outside the Low Countries. The concise History of the Low Countries (Blom and Lamberts 2006) mainly aims at an audience of undergraduates.

Blok, D. P. Algemene geschiedenis der Nederlanden. 15 vols. Haarlem: Fibula-Van Dishoek, 1977–1983.
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A collaborative effort of Belgian and Dutch scholars reflecting the state of historical research at the time of publication. The chapters about the Spanish Netherlands are to be found in Volumes 6 to 8, with bibliographical essays at the end of each volume. Somewhat older, but more or less in the same league as Janssens 2006.
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Blom, J. C. H., and Emiel Lamberts, eds. History of the Low Countries. New York: Berghahn, 2006.
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A handbook for undergraduate students that was originally published in Dutch in 1993. The English translation came out in 1998, the paperback edition in 2006. The chapters on the Spanish Netherlands are by Paul Janssens. A brief sketch of the international situation precedes longer sections on the internal political development, the economy, religion, and art. A worthy first introduction to the subject.
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Janssens, Paul, ed. La Belgique espagnole et la principauté de Liège, 1585–1715. 2 vols. Brussels: Banque Dexia, 2006.
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This volume was conceived to reflect the state of historical research on the period and written for the historian as well as for an informed reader by a team of Belgian specialists and three leading foreign scholars (Jonathan Israel, Robert Muchembled, and Geoffrey Parker). It contains a valuable bibliographical orientation at the end of the second volume. This is an obvious starting point for any newcomer to the subject who has a command of Dutch or French. Dutch version:België in de 17de eeuw: De Spaanse Nederlanden en het prinsbisdom Luik (2 vols., Brussels: Dexia Bank, 2006).
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Journals

There is no specific journal dealing with the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch journal De Zeventiende Eeuw (The Seventeenth Century) focuses on the Dutch Republic but pays ample attention to the Southern Netherlands. Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, Bijdragen en mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis der Nederlanden, and Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis are general history journals covering several periods and specific fields of history, and they often contain important articles on the Spanish Netherlands. Tijdschrift voor sociale en economische geschiedenis and Trajecta: Religie, cultuur en samenleving in de Nederlanden are indispensable journals for everyone who wants to follow recent scholarship on the economic, social, and religious history of the Spanish Netherlands.

Bijdragen en mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis der Nederlanden – Low Countries Historical Review.
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A Dutch journal covering all historical disciplines and every period of history since the Middle Ages, including the Spanish Netherlands. Also contains discussion articles on important new books and an online book review session. Since 2012 the journal provides an immediate open access.
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De Zeventiende Eeuw: Cultuur in de Nederlanden in interdisciplinair perspectief.
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De Zeventiende Eeuw deals with the long 17th century. It focuses on Netherlandish culture from an interdisciplary perspective covering the history of culture, art, and literature of both the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. There are often special issues dealing with specific topics, and it contains a useful review section.
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Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire/Belgisch tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis.
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This Belgian journal deals with the history and philology of Belgium and its geographical predecessors. It regularly publishes articles on the Spanish Netherlands and contains an extensive annual bibliography covering all periods and fields. Issues of RBPH/BTFG and the annual bibliography are available online up to 2007–2008.
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Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis.
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A leading Dutch history journal, publishing articles on the Low Countries and on other parts of Europe and the world. Also includes review articles and a good book review section. Older issues will be available digitally in the near future.
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Tijdschrift voor sociale en economische geschiedenis.
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Excellent journal focusing on the social and economic history of the Low Countries and later Belgium and the Netherlands. The articles reflect very well the recent trends in Belgian (especially Flemish) and Dutch social and economic history. With a good book review section. Digital access is only available for subscribers.
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Trajecta: Religie, cultuur en samenleving in de Nederlanden.
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A Dutch-Belgian journal dealing with the religious history of the Low Countries, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Since the start of the journal in 1993 the focus was on the history of the Catholic Church, but recently there has been an effort to cover other churches and religions as well. All the issues are digitally accessible, although the last three years only for subscribers.
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War and Peace

The cession of the Spanish Netherlands by Philip II to the archdukes was the cornerstone of a policy of appeasement. A permanent settlement with the Dutch proved impossible though. Exhausted by decades of war, the parties settled for a long breathing space in the Twelve Years’ Truce (1609–1621). Alternative interpretations of that peace process are put forward by Allen 2000 and Duerloo 2012. The latter study also deals with how the partisans of war came to power in The Hague and Madrid, and how they resumed hostilities at the end of the Truce. The second phase of the Eighty Years’ War (1621–1648) by and large coincided with the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire. Whereas Elliott 1989 is the seminal study of Spanish policy during this phase, the Dutch perspective is dealt with in Israel 1982. By the time the two conflicts were brought to a close with the Treaties of Westphalia (1648), the Spanish monarchy was already engaged in its struggle with Bourbon France for mastery in Europe. A longer-term view on the shifting balance of power in the Low Countries is developed in Israel 1997. In the last third of the 17th century, it became all too apparent that Habsburg rule in the Spanish Netherlands could only be maintained by the grace of the Dutch Republic and England. In all, the decline of Spanish power cost the Habsburg Netherlands a considerable loss of territory—first to the Dutch Republic, then to the France of Louis XIV. By the turn of the century, more than a quarter of the original lands and population had been lost to one or the other rival. Even then, the Spanish Netherlands were still considered a worthy prize, as shown by de Schryver 1996.

Allen, Paul C. Philip III and the Pax Hispanica, 1598–1621: The Failure of Grand Strategy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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Retraces how the Spanish monarchy sought to disengage from the conflict in the Low Countries between 1598 and 1609. With varying persuasiveness, Allen develops the thesis that Philip III broke with his father’s bellicose policies to pursue a grand strategy of appeasement that was more suited to Spain’s needs.
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de Schryver, Reginald. Max Emanuel von Bayern und das spanische Erbe: Die europäische Ambitionen des Hauses Wittelsbach. Mainz, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1996.
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In stark contrast with the international scholarly interest for the first half of the 17th century, little work is presently done on the twilight years of Spanish rule over the Habsburg Netherlands. One laudable exception is De Schryver’s monograph on the Elector Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria and his lifelong quest to acquire the Spanish Netherlands for his own dynasty.
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Duerloo, Luc. Dynasty and Piety: Archduke Albert (1598–1621) and Habsburg Political Culture in an Age of Religious Wars. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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Analyzes the opening decades of the 17th century from the perspective of the archducal regime and its diplomatic activities. A middling power beholden to the military might of the Spanish monarchy, the Archducal Netherlands, according to the author, nonetheless contributed to overall Habsburg policies and succeeded in influencing international politics at several critical junctures.
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Elliott, John H. The Count-Duke of Olivares: The Statesman in an Age of Decline. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
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Explores the role of the quintessential royal favorite in the domestic and foreign policymaking of the Spanish monarchy and his ultimate failure. The culmination of decades of research, it is essential reading to understand Spanish policies in the second phase of the Eighty Years’ War.
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Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World, 1606–1661. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.
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An insightful account of the second phase of the Eighty Years’ War. The confrontation between the Spanish monarchy and the Dutch Republic is considered as one that took on an increasingly global scale. As such, this accessible book brings a refreshing treatment of a conflict that is often dealt with in stereotypes.
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Israel, Jonathan. Conflicts of Empires: Spain, the Low Countries and the Struggle for World Supremacy, 1585–1713. London: Hambledon, 1997.
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A collection of interpretative essays analyzing the logic behind Spain’s determination to hold on to its possessions in the Low Countries. Unusual in its long-term and global perspective, it argues that the monarchy’s goals were still attainable as late as 1659.
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Warfare

For over a century the Spanish Netherlands witnessed one war after another. In order to sustain the successive campaigns, state finances were strained to—and even beyond—the breaking point in Madrid and Brussels alike. More than in most other regions, local communities had to come to terms with the almost permanent presence of the military. Time and again they were confronted with the devastation wrought by war. While their experience was not entirely unique, it nevertheless constitutes a privileged field of research for historians that study the relationship between war and society. Any study in this field has to take Parker 2004 as its point of departure. To this groundbreaking interpretation, Esteban Estríngana 2002 adds a wealth of detail on the financing of the war. Rooms 2003 should be consulted for the logistics of the Spanish Army of Flanders. Finally, González de León 2009 seeks the decline of Spanish military might in failing leadership.

Esteban Estríngana, Alicia. Guerra y finanzas en los Países Bajos católicos: De Farnesio a Spínola, 1592–1630. Madrid: Labertino, 2002.
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A minute description of the financing of the Spanish Army of Flanders, based on extensive archival research.
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González de León, Fernando. The Road to Rocroi: Class, Culture and Command in the Spanish Army of Flanders, 1567–1659. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004170827.i-408Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Analyzes the role of leadership in determining victory and defeat in the Army of Flanders. The author argues that the meritocratic composition of Alva’s officer corps was gradually eroded through court patronage and bad management.
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Parker, Geoffrey. The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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Originally published in 1972, this seminal study of the logistics of the Spanish Army of Flanders has set an entirely new frame of reference for studies in the field.
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Rooms, Etienne. “Bezoldiging, bevoorrading en inkwartiering van de koninklijke troepen in de Spaanse Nederlanden, 1567–1700.” Bijdragen en mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis der Nederlanden 118 (2003): 519–544.
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An extended study of the logistics of the army in the Spanish Netherlands right up to the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession.
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Status within the Spanish Monarchy

Much has been written about the balance of power between Madrid and Brussels. Denying all forms of autonomy for the Spanish Netherlands was the stock in trade of the classical view that saw the early modern period as a series of foreign occupations. There were a few dissenting voices, but the prevailing narrative was one in which the Spaniard put the process of state formation on hold if not in reverse. Arguments to take a fresh look at the relationship were first tabled in the 1960s and have since gained momentum. With the revision came a greater sense that the relationship varied markedly over time. The reign of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella was built on a significant devolution of power, albeit that contemporaries and historians have always disagreed as to its real content. Thomas 2002 sums up the restrictive interpretation. Duerloo 2012, on the other hand, argues that the relationship should be understood as a symbiosis between unequal partners. After the return of the Southern Netherlands to the Spanish monarchy, the contractual nature of the regime and the practicalities of running these distant dominions ensured that the authorities in Brussels retained a certain margin of autonomy. The transition from the archducal regime to reintegration in the Spanish monarchy is the subject of Esteban Estríngana 2005. Vermeir 2001 and Vermeir 2012 investigate the impact of the return to the monarchy on the political sphere of the Spanish Netherlands.

Duerloo, Luc. Dynasty and Piety: Archduke Albert (1598–1621) and Habsburg Political Culture in an Age of Religious Wars. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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Offers an alternative interpretation that takes the activity of the archducal regime in the international arena into account. The archdukes’ autonomy evolved over the two decades of their reign and was in essence that of a middling power confronted with mightier neighbors.
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Esteban Estríngana, Alicia. Madrid y Bruselas: Relaciones de gobierno en la etapa postarchiducal, 1621–1634. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2005.
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Covers the reintegration of the Spanish Netherlands into the monarchy after the deaths of Archduke Albert (1621) and the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (1633). An erudite work that emphasizes the importance of military finances.
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Thomas, Werner. “La corte de los archiduques Alberto de Austria y la infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia en Bruselas (1598–1633): Una revisión historiográfica.” In España y las 17 provincias de los Países Bajos: Una revisión historiográfica (XVI–XVIII). Vol. 1. Edited by Ana Crespo Solana and Manuel Herrero Sánchez, 355–386. Cordoba, Spain: Universidad de Córdoba, 2002.
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Sums up the traditional views on the autonomy of the archducal regime. Based on the attitudes of the Spanish governing councils, Thomas’s conclusions, on the whole, tend to severely circumscribe the freedom of maneuver enjoyed by the Archdukes.
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Vermeir, René. In staat van oorlog: Filips IV en de Zuidelijke Nederlanden, 1621–1648. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Shaker, 2001.
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Traces the impact of Spanish policies in the latter phase of the Eighty Years’ War on the Southern Netherlands. Vermeir defends the thesis that constitutional constraints and administrative practicalities secured a notable degree of autonomy for Brussels. Originally published in Dutch, the Spanish translation appeared five years later, titled En estado de guerra: Felipe IV y Flandes, 1621–1648 (Cordoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 2006).
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Vermeir, René. “How Spanish Were the Spanish Netherlands?” Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies 36 (2012): 3–18.
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A concise rendering of the arguments on the autonomy of the Southern Netherlands presented in Vermeir 2001.
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Domestic Politics

Over the course of the 17th century, the Spanish Netherlands saw gradual but important shifts in the balance of power between central, provincial, and local authorities. With the decline of Spanish power came a growing penury and concomitant impotence of the central institutions in Brussels. As a result, the provincial institutions and the city councils succeeded in recuperating some of the powers that they had lost either before or at the outcome of the Revolt. These political developments within the borders of the Southern Netherlands have inspired a tradition of institutional historiography that is based on extensive archival research. Parker 1971 provides a general overview of archival holdings that have a relevance to the Spanish Netherlands. Aerts, et al. 1995 has more detailed notices on all institutions of the central government and on their archival holdings. Similar repertories have been devoted to the regional and local institutions of the duchy of Brabant (van Uytven 2000), the county of Flanders (Prevenier and Augustijns 1997) and the county of Namur (de Moreau de Gerbehaye 2014). The practice of institutional historiography is represented well by the group portrait that Thomas 2014 paints of the principal office holders of the Spanish Netherlands. In recent years, historians have also ventured into the domain of the political culture of the Spanish Netherlands. Raeymaekers 2014 brings the approaches of court history to the Spanish Netherlands. The urban context of politics is represented in its festive mode by Thøfner 2007, and in its tradition of resistance by van Honacker 1994.

Aerts, Eric, Claude de Moreau de Gerbehay, Archives générales du Royaume, et al., eds. Les institutions du gouvernement central des Pays-Bas habsbourgeois, 1482–1795. 2 vols. Brussels: Archives Générales du Royaume, 1995.
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A compendium of all institutions wielding power over the Spanish Netherlands. After a brief survey of the institution’s history, composition, and attributions, it presents the relevant bibliography and offers guidance to archival research. An essential guide to archival research. Dutch version: De centrale overheidsinstellingen van de Habsburgse Nederlanden, 1482–1795 (2 vols., Brussels: Algemeen Rijksarchief, 1994).
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de Moreau de Gerbehaye, Claude, ed. Les pouvoirs politiques du comté de Namur: Répertoire des institutions publiques centrales, régionales et locales de l’an mil à 1795. Brussels: Archives Générales du Royaume, 2014.
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A guide to the institutional history and archival research of the provincial and local institutions of the county of Namur, according to the format of Aerts, et al. 1995.
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Parker, Geoffrey. Guide to the Archives of the Spanish Institutions in or Concerned with the Netherlands. Brussels: Archief- en Bibliotheekwezen in België, 1971.
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A useful first introduction to the institutions and political decision-making processes of the Spanish Netherlands.
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Prevenier, Walter, and Bea Augustijns, eds. De gewestelijke en lokale overheidsinstellingen in Vlaanderen tot 1795. Brussels: Algemeen Rijksarchief, 1997.
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A guide to the institutional history and archival research of the provincial, regional, and local institutions of the county of Flanders, using the same structure as Aerts, et al. 1995.
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Raeymaekers, Dries. One Foot in the Palace: The Habsburg Court of Brussels and the Politics of Access in the Reign of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella, 1598–1621. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2014.
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Studies the structure of the archducal court of Brussels, its informal role in political decision making, and its importance as the center for the distribution of patronage.
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Thøfner, Margit. A Common Art: Urban Ceremonial in Antwerp and Brussels during and after the Dutch Revolt. Zwolle, The Netherlands: Waanders, 2007.
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Investigates the political and religious significance of civic ceremonial in the two principal cities of Brabant. An approach to the subject that breaks new ground.
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Thomas, Catherine. Le visage humain de l’administration: Les grands commis du gouvernement central des Pays-Bas espagnols, 1598–1700. Brussels: Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 2014.
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A collective study of the principal office holders in the Spanish Netherlands, their career paths, and their social status. This monograph is based on an extensive prosopographical enquiry.
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van Honacker, Karin. Lokaal verzet en oproer in de 17de en 18de eeuw: Collectieve acties tegen het centraal gezag in Brussel, Antwerpen en Leuven. Heule, Belgium: UGA, 1994.
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Reconstructs the political culture of resistance in the major cities of the duchy of Brabant through a number of case studies. An insightful study that draws attention to the volatility of the balance of power on the local level.
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van Uytven, Raymond, Cl. Bruneel, H. Coppens, et al., eds. De gewestelijke en lokale overheidsinstellingen in Brabant en Mechelen tot 1795. 2 vols. Brussels: Algemeen Rijksarchief, 2000.
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A guide to the institutional history and archival research of the ducal and local institutions of the duchy of Brabant, following the muster set by Aerts, et al. 1995.
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Toward a Counter-Reformation Church

As a result of the Dutch Revolt, the Spanish Netherlands became a country in which the Catholic Church had a completely dominant position. Secular and ecclesiastical authorities joined forces in order to build up a triumphant Counter-Reformation church. Especially in the provinces bordering the Dutch Republic, the Catholic recovery and renewal had a distinct anti-Protestant flavor. Our knowledge of religious life in the Spanish Netherlands owes a lot to the work of the Leuven professor Michel Cloet and his students. Cloet 1968 was a pioneering study on a rural deanery that established a standard for later research. Yet this research primarily focused on rural areas, whereas studies on towns are still rare, although Lottin 1984 and Marinus 1995 are valuable exceptions. Tracy 1985 offers an excellent overview of Belgian scholarship on the Catholic Reformation in the Spanish Netherlands. The microhistory approach of Harline and Put 2000 highlights how difficult and complex the process of Catholic reform actually was. Marnef 1997 comes to similar conclusions by using witchcraft trials. Most works on the Catholic Reformation are based on ecclesiastical sources, and as a consequence they tend to underexpose the role of the laity. Pollmann 2011, however, is a groundbreaking study on the changing attitudes of Catholic lay believers. The close alliance between the political interests of the princes of the Spanish Netherlands and the Catholic religion is highlighted in Delfosse 2009, a monography on the devotion to the Holy Virgin.

Cloet, Michel. Het kerkelijk leven in een landelijke dekenij van Vlaanderen tijdens de XVIIde eeuw: Tielt van 1609 tot 1700. Leuven, Belgium: Universiteitsbibliotheek, 1968.
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A pioneering study on the evolution of religious life in a rural area of 17th-century Flanders, based on thorough research of ecclesiastical records for an English summary of Cloet’s findings, see his article “Religious Life in a Rural Deanery in Flanders during the 17th Century: Tielt from 1609 to 1700,” Acta Historiae Neerlandicae 5 (1971): 135–158.
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Delfosse, Annick. La Protectrice du Païs-Bas: Stratégies politiques et figures de la Vierge dans les Pays-Bas espagnols. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2009.
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Delfosse makes clear how the devotion to the Holy Virgin was instrumentalized by the princes of the Spanish Netherlands. They promoted the Virgin as a symbol of identity and as a vehicle for the political and religious unity of the country. She also highlights the important role of the Jesuits in the furthering of this politico-religious alliance.
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Harline, Craig, and Eddy Put. A Bishop’s Tale: Mathias Hovius among His Flock in Seventeenth-Century Flanders. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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Hovius was the first Counter-Reformation archbishop of Mechelen. A careful analysis of Hovius’s journal, kept from 1596 to 1620, shows how difficult the realization of a new Tridentine church was. There was a constant process of negotiation and adaptation involving laity and clerics of all ranks. A well-written and accessible study also suited for undergraduate reading.
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Lottin, Alain. Lille, citadelle de la contre-réforme? (1598–1668). Dunkirk, France: Editions des Beffrois, 1984.
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Excellent case study on Lille, an important industrial and commercial city in the south of the Spanish Netherlands. Lottin shows how the city became a stronghold of the Counter-Reformation in the 17th century.
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Marinus, Marie Juliette. De contrareformatie te Antwerpen (1585–1676): Kerkelijk leven in een grootstad. Brussels: Koninklijke Academie, 1995.
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Important study on a city of crucial importance in the Spanish Netherlands. Marinus describes the explosive start of the Counter-Reformation and the further consolidation in the 17th century. Based on a rich variety of ecclesiastical sources.
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Marnef, Guido. “Between Religion and Magic: An Analysis of Witchcraft Trials in the Spanish Netherlands, Seventeenth century.” In Envisioning Magic: A Princeton Seminar and Symposium. Edited by Peter Schäfer and Hans G. Kippenberg, 235–254. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
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The evidence from witchcraft trials reveals that the mental world of ordinary people was still full of magic and enchantment, emphasizing both the tension between the desired reform of the official church and the situation at the grassroots level.
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Pollmann, Judith. Catholic Identity and the Revolt of the Netherlands 1520–1635. Past & Present Book Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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Using diaries, memoirs, and poems, Pollmann reveals how the attitudes of lay believers and their relationship with the clergy developed during the Dutch Revolt, going from an initial passivity toward a deliberate Catholic identity after 1585. Indispensable reading for everyone who wants to understand the genesis of the Catholic reform movement in the Spanish Netherlands.
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Tracy, James D. “With and Without the Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church in the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, 1580–1650. A Review of the Literature since 1945.” Catholic Historical Review 71 (1985): 547–575.
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Puts Belgian scholarship in a comparative framework. Still a useful start, especially for students who have not mastered the Dutch language.
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Religious Orders and Catholic Reform

Religious orders—old and new, male and female—played a prominent role in the shaping of the post-Tridentine church, especially in the cities of the Spanish Netherlands where they were present in all variety. De Moreau 1952 still offers a useful overview of the most important religious orders. The contribution of the Jesuits can hardly be overestimated, as Put and Wynants 1991 makes clear. Henneau 1990 is a fundamental study on an “old” female contemplative order. Harline 1994 shows how a microhistory approach can reconstruct real life in a convent, and Leyder 1996 is a thorough case study on the convent of the Augustinians in Antwerp.

de Moreau, É. Histoire de l’église en Belgique. Volume 5, L’Église des Pays Bas 1559–1633. Brussels: L’Édition Universelle, 1952.
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Provides an old-fashioned and to some degree partial church history, but contains a useful overview of the religious orders, with special attention to the contribution of the Jesuit and Capuchin fathers. Still useful as a starting point.
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Harline, Craig. The Burdens of Sister Margaret: Private Lives in a Seventeenth-Century Convent. New York: Doubleday, 1994.
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The extensive correspondence of the Franciscan Grey Sisters in Leuven enabled Harline to unravel daily life in a 17th-century convent. The extraordinary life of Sister Margaret Smulders reveals the tensions and conflicts within the convent.
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Henneau, Marie-Elisabeth. Les cisterciennes du pays mosan: Moniales et vie contemplative à l’époque modern. Rome: Institut Historique Belge, 1990.
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A thorough long-term study on the contemplative order of the Cistercian nuns in the dioceses of Liège and Namur, including all aspects of convent life.
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Leyder, Dirk. De Augustijnen te Antwerpen (1608–1797): Dagelijks leven in het klooster en op het college. Leuven-Heverlee, Belgium: Augustijns Historisch Instituut, 1996.
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A broad study on the Augustinians in Antwerp, analyzing their religious and daily life in the 17th and 18th century. Leyder also pays attention to the Augustinians’ important contribution to education.
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Put, Eddy, and Maurits Wynants, eds. De jezuïeten in de Nederlanden en het prinsbisdom Luik (1542–1773). Brussels: Algemeen Rijksarchief, 1991.
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Contains indispensable articles on the organization and development of the Jesuits in the Spanish Netherlands, including their pastoral activities.
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Dissent and Deviance in and outside the Catholic Church

The joint efforts of secular and ecclesiastical authorities turned the Spanish Netherlands into an overwhelmingly Catholic country. Thousands of Protestants left the rebellious towns of Brabant and Flanders and fled to the Dutch Republic. There remained, however, small underground Protestant communities, as Marinus 1993 shows for Antwerp. Witchcraft constituted another form of deviance. Witchcraft trials peaked in the late 16th and the first half of the 17th century, as is clear from regional studies such as Monballyu 1996 on Flanders and Dupont-Bouchat, et al. 1978 on Luxembourg and the Cambrésis. Vanysacker 2000 puts the witchcraft prosecutions in the Southern Netherlands in a European perspective and summarizes the results of recent scholarship. Of a completely different nature was the Jansenist movement that divided the institutional Church in the 17th century. Lucianus Ceyssens devoted his scholarly life to the study of Jansenism in the Spanish Netherlands and beyond (see Ceyssens 1992).

Ceyssens, Lucianus. “Que penser finalement de l’histoire du jansénisme et de l’antijansénisme?” Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique 86 (1992): 108–130.
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Ceyssens summarizes the main conclusions of his extensive research on Jansenism. He argues that Jansenius did not develop a new set of ideas, since he relied essentially upon Augustine’s teachings. In the eyes of his opponents, however, Jansenism became a collective noun that included a broad variety of ideas. A useful start for the study of a very complex topic.
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Dupont-Bouchat, Marie-Sylvie, Willem Frijhoff, and Robert Muchembled, eds. Prophètes et sorciers dans les Pays-Bas XVIe-XVIIIe siècle. Paris: Hachette, 1978.
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Witchcraft prosecution was particularly heavy in the southern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands, as is clear from two important and extensive articles in this volume: by Dupont-Bouchat on Luxembourg, and by Muchembled on Cambrésis.
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Marinus, Marie Juliette. “De protestanten te Antwerpen (1585–1700).” Trajecta 2 (1993): 327–343.
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Sources of the Catholic authorities show how the Protestants succeeded to survive in Antwerp. Marinus also reconstructs the social profile of the remaining Protestants and shows how they experienced an increasing toleration in the second half of the 17th century.
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Monballyu, Jos. Van hekserij beschuldigd: Heksenprocessen in Vlaanderen tijdens de 16de en 17de eeuw. Kortrijk-Heule, Belgium: UGA, 1996.
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An important study on witchcraft prosecutions in the county of Flanders, based on extensive research in the archives. Professor Monballyu’s personal website contains a bibliography on witchcraft in Flanders and a summary or complete edition of relevant sources.
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Vanysacker, Dries. “Het aandeel van de Zuidelijke Nederlanden in de Europese hekserijvervolging (1450–1685).” Trajecta 9 (2000): 329–349.
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Assesses the impact of the witchcraft prosecution in the Southern Netherlands and puts it in a European framework. Contains a good overview of recent scholarship, with many bibliographic references.
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Agents of Cultural Life: Education and Book Printing

Important agents of cultural life such as education and book printing became closely connected to the Counter-Reformation church. De Ridder-Symoens 1987 argues that literacy seriously declined in the 17th century, and that the education of the masses was primarily oriented toward catechization. Put 1990 and Leyder 2000 show the strong influence of the Catholic Church at the level of primary and secondary education. The universities of Leuven and Douai recovered under the reign of the archdukes, but they stayed far from the heydays of the 16th century as de Ridder-Symoens 2006 makes clear. Many Protestant book printers left the Southern Netherlands and henceforth developed their activities in the Dutch Republic. The remaining publishing houses reoriented their production, often meeting the new demands of the Counter-Reformation church. Materné 1992 and de Schepper and de Nave 1996 convincingly highlight this reorientation for the famous Antwerp Officina Plantiniana. Arblaster 2004 makes clear how an English recusant exile contributed to the creation of an international Catholic culture.

Arblaster, Paul. Antwerp and the World: Richard Verstegan and the International Culture of Catholic Reformation. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2004.
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From 1586 until his death in 1640, the English recusant Verstegan stayed in Antwerp, where he was active as intelligencer, author, publisher, and book dealer. These many-sided activities point to the existence of a militant Catholic culture with international ramifications.
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de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde. “Het onderwijs te Antwerpen in de zeventiende eeuw.” In Antwerpen in de XVIIde eeuw, 221–250. Antwerp, Belgium: Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 1987.
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Emphasizes important shifts in education and schooling in 17th-century Antwerp. Literacy declined, the education of the masses was oriented toward catechization, and the advanced secondary schools, often run by religious orders, focused on a small elite.
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de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde. “Het hoger onderwijs: De universiteiten Leuven en Dowaai.” In België in de 17de eeuw: De Spaanse Nederlanden en het prinsbisdom Luik. Vol. 2. Edited by Paul Janssens, 84–97, 425–427. Brussels: Dexia Bank, 2006.
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An excellent overview of the universities of Leuven and Douai, with a useful bibliography. Thanks to the efforts of the archdukes, the universities of Leuven and Douai recovered in the first half of the 17th century, although they lost the international character of the 16th century.
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de Schepper, Marcus, and Francine de Nave, eds. Ex Officina Plantiniana Moretorum: Studies over het drukkersgeslacht Moretus. Antwerp, Belgium: Vereniging der Antwerpse Bibliofielen, 1996.
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A fine collection of articles dealing with several aspects of the Officina Plantiniana run by the Moretus family in the 17th century.
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Leyder, Dirk. “L’éclosion scolaire: Le développement du réseau des colleges dans les Pays-Bas espagnols et la principauté de Liège au 17ème siècle.” Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education 36 (2000): 1003–1051.
DOI: 10.1080/0030923000360307Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In the 17th century, several colleges linked to religious orders were established in the Spanish Netherlands. Leyder examines the scope and the dynamics of this phenomenon and emphasizes its importance for the development of secondary education.
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Materné, Jan. “The Officina Plantiniana and the Dynamics of the Counter-Reformation, 1590–1650.” In Produzione e commercio della carta e del libro secc. XII–XVIII. Edited by S. Cavaciocchi, 481–490. Florence: Instituto Internazionale di Storia Economica F. Datini, 1992.
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Shows how the famous Antwerp Officina Plantiniana succeeded to profit from the expanding market for Catholic post-Tridentine books, including bibles, prayer books, and liturgical books. The production of these books was not only directed to the domestic market, but also to the international, especially Spanish-Iberian, market.
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Put, Eddy. De cleijne schoolen: Het volksonderwijs in het hertogdom Brabant tussen Katholieke Reformatie en Verlichting (eind 16de eeuw–1795). Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1990.
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Stimulated by the Catholic reform movement, a rather dense network of primary schools developed in the towns and villages of the duchy of Brabant. Religious education had a firm place in these elementary schools, but Put shows in his well-researched monograph that this did not necessarily imply control by the Catholic Church.
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A Century of Economic Decline

The 17th century has often been portrayed as a “siècle de malheur”—a century of misfortunes and decline. Van Houtte questioned this interpretation already in 1953 and suggested new socioeconomic research in order to tackle the problem (see van Houtte 1977). In the meantime, international research on the economic decline in 17th-century Europe made clear that there is no uniform chronological pattern and that there is room for geographical differentiation. These conclusions also apply to the Spanish Netherlands. New research made clear that commercial activities remained important, especially in the first half of the 17th century, even at a European scale. Baetens 1976 documented the Indian Summer of Antwerp’s economy through the prism of a merchant company. Stols 1971 is a pioneering study about the trade of South-Netherlandish merchants on the Iberian world in the first half of the 17th century, while Everaert 1973 is a similar study on the later 17th century. Thijs 1987 is a thorough study on the Antwerp textile industry that makes clear that the reorientation toward luxury goods had a positive impact upon economic life. Yet it should be emphasized that research has primarily focused on Antwerp, and that other cities and areas of the Spanish Netherlands still deserve further study. Van Damme 2003 gives an update of scholarship on the “siècle de malheur” from an Antwerp perspective.

Baetens, Roland. De nazomer van Antwerpens welvaart: De diaspora en het handelshuis De Groote tijdens de eerste helft der 17de eeuw. 2 vols. Brussels: Gemeentekrediet van België, 1976.
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Baetens shows how the Antwerp merchant family de Groote succeeded to build a commercial imperium with European ramifications. A well-elaborated case study illustrating Antwerp’s Indian Summer in the first half of the 17th century.
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Everaert, John. De internationale en koloniale handel der Vlaamse firma’s te Cadiz 1670–1700. Bruges, Belgium: De Tempel, 1973.
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An important study on Flemish merchant firms that traded in Cadiz and from there in the Spanish Americas. Everaert presents interesting data on the mechanisms and the development of this trade in the last three decades of the 17th century.
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Stols, Eddy. De Spaanse Brabanders of de handelsbetrekkingen der Zuidelijke Nederlanden met de Iberische wereld (1598–1648). 2 vols. Brussels: Koninklijke Academie, 1971.
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Stols focuses on South-Netherlandish merchants, especially from Antwerp. In the first half of the 17th century, these merchants profited by integrating their activities in the vast Iberian world, including the overseas colonies. At the same time, the Iberian market stimulated the demand for luxury goods produced in the Spanish Netherlands.
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Thijs, Alfons K. L. “‘Werkwinkel’ tot ‘fabriek’.” In De textielnijverheid te Antwerpen (Einde 15de—begin 19de eeuw). Brussels: Gemeentekrediet, 1987.
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A long-term study on the textile industry in Antwerp, emphasizing the importance of this branch in the 17th century. Especially branches using costly raw materials such as silk, gold or silver thread, and fine linen yarn prospered, being a part of the reconversion process of the Antwerp economy in the first half of the 17th century.
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van Damme, Ilja. “Het vertrek van Mercurius: Historiografische en hypothetische verkenningen van het economisch wedervaren van Antwerpen in de tweede helft van de zeventiende eeuw.” NEHA-jaarboek voor economische, bedrijfs- en techniekgeschiedenis 66 (2003): 6–39.
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Van Damme summarizes the conclusions of research undertaken after van Houtte’s (1953) article (van Houtte 1977) and presents new data and interpretations on Antwerp in the second half of the 17th century. He particularly points to the changing investment patterns of the Antwerp commercial elites and recommends further research.
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van Houtte, Jan Albert. “Onze zeventiende eeuw, ‘ongelukseeuw’?” In Essays on Medieval and Early Modern Economy and Society. Edited by Jan Albert van Houtte, 109–141. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1977.
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This article, originally published in 1953, opened the debate. Van Houtte questioned the idea of the 17th century as an age of economic decline, and thus stimulated further research.