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José Martí (Latino Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2. José Julian Martí y Pérez (b. 1853–d. 1895) was the founding hero of Cuban independence and stands among the half dozen most important Latin Americans of the 19th century. Beyond his accomplishments as a revolutionary, he was a giant of Latin American letters whose poetry, essays, and journalism rank among the most canonical texts of their time. As a poet he pioneered Latin American modernismo; his works, such as Ismaelillo (1882) and Versos sencillos (Simple verses, 1891), were considered masterpieces. His work as a US foreign correspondent appeared in South America’s most respected newspapers of the 1880s and stands today among the most important journalism of the Gilded Age. Martí also published four plays, a novel, and a newspaper, Patria, which served as the independence movement’s official publication. He also worked at various points as an editor and translator, a secondary teacher and university professor, and a diplomat. His collected works fill twenty-six volumes, with previously unknown writings still emerging. Martí’s life falls into three distinct phases: childhood and adolescence in Cuba (1853–1870); first exile and subsequent life in Spain, Mexico City, and Guatemala (1871–1878); and after a brief return to Cuba and subsequent second exile, his mature revolutionary period in New York City (1881–1895). Martí’s exile from Cuba occurred after his arrest and imprisonment for conspiracy. He spent his first four years abroad in Madrid and Zaragoza, where he earned a law degree. After graduation he rejoined his family in Mexico City, but he fled the country after the rise of the dictator Porfirio Díaz. While in Mexico Martí met Carmen Zayas Bazán, who he married in 1877 and brought to Guatemala, where he had emigrated. But political disagreements with President Justo Rufino Barrios forced the couple to leave the country. After an abortive attempt to resettle in Havana after the Ten Years War (1868–1878), Martí lived his last fifteen years in New York. By the 1880s New York had a sizable exile community and a history of Cuban activism, making it the perfect base for Martí’s revolutionary aspirations. Although he was virtually unknown in Cuba when he died in battle in 1895, by the 1930s Martí had become Cuba’s “apostle” of independence, his name synonymous with Cuban nationalism. Generations of Cuban governments further burnished his legend, which reached its apogee with the 1959 Cuban Revolution’s claim to Martí as its primary inspiration. The emigration of hundreds of thousands of Cubans fleeing the revolution further spread Martí’s fame to the United States and Europe. Although Martí was not a Latino in the narrow sense, his lived experience of exile and life in the United States has made him a key figure in the history of Latin American immigration to the United States and the forging of Latino/a identities.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. Although books and essays on Martí began appearing shortly after his death in 1895 and continue to abound, most pre-1960 publications are hagiographies, few attempting serious critical evaluation of his life and work. Much of the posthumous mythology that has grown around Martí is the direct result of such writings, as scholars and ideologues have avoided the internal contradictions and complexities of his writings for their own political purposes. Decades of ideological warfare between the Cuban government and US-based exiles in the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution have further deepened this problem, in effect producing two incompatible versions of Martí to suit their respective ideological imperatives. As a result, very little Martí scholarship produced before the 1990s moves beyond official or otherwise politically managed portrayals. Since the mid-1980s, more substantive examinations of his life and work have appeared both in Cuba and abroad, raising Martí scholarship to a level more deserving of his stature and importance. Abel and Torrents 1986 and Belnap and Fernández 1998 signal the direction and scope of this paradigm shift by their critical focus on Martí’s political writings and the range of scholars and positions represented in those collections. As general overviews, Fernández Retamar 1970 and Estrade 2000 offer an instructive contrast in this regard; Fernández Retamar’s introduction to Martí, although solid in its scholarship, hews closely to Cuban state orthodoxy, whereas Estrade’s more expansive study delves deeper into the critical problems and contradictions of his work. Montero 2004 is representative of current approaches, informed as it is by Latino/a and New Americanist scholarship. Lomas 2009 is to date the only major study of Martí in the specific context of Latino/a studies. Hidalgo Paz 2003 and Rodríguez-Silva 1996 are primarily reference works, although the latter’s chronology of Martí takes a more narrative approach and thus functions more as a general introduction.
  6.  
  7. Abel, Christopher, and Nissa Torrents, eds. José Martí: Revolutionary Democrat. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. This collection focuses on Martí’s political work but also provides a useful general introduction to his work. Its publication presages renewed scholarly interest in Martí beyond Cuba and the US exile community.
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  15. Belnap, Jeffrey Grant, and Raúl A. Fernández, eds. José Martí’s “Our America”: From National to Hemispheric Cultural Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. This groundbreaking collection brings together a range of scholars from American, Latino/a, and Latin American studies whose broader hemispheric approach ushered in a new and productive era in Martí studies.
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  22.  
  23. Estrade, Paul. José Martí: Los fundamentos de la democracia en Latinoamérica. Madrid: Casa de Velásquez, 2000.
  24.  
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  26.  
  27. This important book presents a comprehensive overview of Martí’s political ideology and revolutionary vision in the context of both Cuban independence and a broader hemispheric politics.
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  31. Fernández Retamar, Roberto. Martí. Colección Los Nuestros 3. Montevideo, Uruguay: Biblioteca de Marcha, 1970.
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  34.  
  35. Fernández Retamar is widely considered Cuba’s preeminent Martí scholar. This book provides a useful overview of Martí’s life and work, albeit from a decidedly Marxist perspective. It is also recommended as an introduction to Fernández Retamar’s extensive body of work on Martí.
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  38.  
  39. Hidalgo Paz, Ibrahím. José Martí, 1853–1895: Cronología. 2d ed. Havana, Cuba: Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2003.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. This expanded edition of Hidalgo Paz’s book is indispensable for anyone seriously interested in Martí. It provides a detailed chronological timeline, with weekly and at times daily entries encompassing every aspect of his life and work. It also contains separate listings of Martí’s domiciles, travels, and publication history, each in chronological order.
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  46.  
  47. Lomas, Laura. Translating Empire: José Martí, Migrant Latino Subjects, and American Modernities. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.
  48.  
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  50.  
  51. This ambitious but significantly flawed book presents Martí as an exemplary titular “migrant Latino subject,” reading his US writings through the multidisciplinary lens of Latino/a, American, and postcolonial studies. The book has been highly praised in some circles but has also drawn criticism for its methodology and some questionable translations.
  52.  
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  54.  
  55. Montero, Oscar. José Martí: An Introduction. New York: Palgrave, 2004.
  56.  
  57. DOI: 10.1057/9781403973634Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  58.  
  59. Although not a biography, this slender volume provides an overview of themes and issues, such as race, gender, and modernity, of particular interest to contemporary scholars of Martí.
  60.  
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  62.  
  63. Rodríguez-Silva, Delfin. Cronología martiana: La ruta apostólica de José Martí 1853–1895. Miami, FL: Ediciones Universal, 1996.
  64.  
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  66.  
  67. Like Hidalgo Paz 2003, this chronology emphasizes Martí’s revolutionary writings and activities but takes a more narrative, anecdotal approach, with longer entries organized into years and months. Unlike Hidalgo Paz’s 2003 chronology, this one has not been updated since its original 1996 publication.
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  70.  
  71. Primary Works and Edited Collections
  72. Martí’s posthumous publication history is a complicated one and has itself been the subject of numerous studies. Although he published prolifically throughout his life, as an essayist, poet, and journalist, few of these publications appeared in bound volumes during his lifetime. In an 1895 letter to Gonzalo de Quesada, his personal assistant and closest editorial collaborator, Martí left detailed instructions regarding the editing and organization of his works for posterity. Based on these directives, Quesada started collecting and publishing Martí’s voluminous writings from the many newspapers, publishers, and correspondents scattered over three continents and more than thirty years. By the time of his death in 1915, Quesada had managed to edit and publish fifteen volumes of Martí’s works. His son, Gonzalo de Quesada y Miranda, continued his father’s work, producing a new and expanded Obras completas between 1936 and 1949 (Quesada y Miranda 1936–1949). Successive Cuban governments also announced plans to publish their own, “official” editions of Martí’s works, but none of these bore fruit until the 1960s, when the Castro regime published the first 30,000 copies of a twenty-seven-volume Obras completas. The Cuban government has since published newer editions, most recently Centro de Estudios Martianos 2001–, which also comes as a searchable CD-ROM. Other multivolume collections of Martí include the fourteen-volume Gran enciclopedia martiana (Cernuda 1978), which does not comprise his complete works but includes numerous illustrations and facsimiles as well as all of Martí’s major works and many minor writings of interest to scholars, including a broad selection of letters. No complete works is available in English, although several single-volume collections of varying quality have appeared since the 1960s. Allen 2002 is generally acknowledged as the best and most comprehensive collection of Martí’s work available in English, Tellechea 1999 provides a translation of Versos sencillos, and Foner 1982 provides translations of poems not included in either work. Jiménez 2004 and Morales 2011 are single-volume collections of Martí’s prose writings and complete poems, respectively.
  73.  
  74. Allen, Esther, ed. and trans. José Martí: Selected Writings. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002.
  75.  
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  77.  
  78. This is the best single-volume collection of Martí’s work in English, with selections that encompass every phase of his life and include the most important genres in which he worked. The book also includes a limited but thoughtful selection of letters as well as the only available translation of the so-called Montecristi Diaries, which Martí kept during the last two months of his life.
  79.  
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  81.  
  82. Centro de Estudios Martianos, ed. Obras completas. 26 vols. Havana, Cuba: Centro de Estudios Martianos, 2001–.
  83.  
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  85.  
  86. This is the most recent edition of the complete works, organized thematically and by genre. The Obras represents the collective efforts of more than a century of Martí scholarship, although it does not include a few minor texts discovered since its publication. The collection also includes a general introduction to Martí and a brief publishing history of his works as well as a comprehensive index.
  87.  
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  89.  
  90. Cernuda, Ramón, ed. La gran enciclopedia martiana. 14 vols. Miami, FL: Editorial Martiana, 1978.
  91.  
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  93.  
  94. This collection is not a complete works but does gather all of Martí’s major works and many other writings, including a broad selection of letters. Volume 1 contains Jorge Mañach’s 1932 biography Martí, el apóstol (Mañach 1932, cited under Biographies), followed by reminiscences and anecdotes from many of Martí’s contemporaries. Many pages in the Enciclopedia are also adorned with black-and-white illustrations, mostly photographs of Martí; but it includes no list or index of illustrations.
  95.  
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  97.  
  98. Foner, Philip Sheldon, ed. José Martí: Major Poems. Translated by Elinor Randall. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982.
  99.  
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  101.  
  102. This single-volume bilingual collection has been partly superseded by the superior translations in Allen 2002 as well as Tellechea’s excellent bilingual edition of Martí’s Versos sencillos / Simple Verses (Tellechea 1999). It remains useful, however, for its translation of poems not included in these other texts, most notably “Los zapaticos de rosa” (The Rose-Colored Slippers).
  103.  
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  105.  
  106. Jiménez, José Olivio, ed. José Martí: Ensayos y crónicas. Colección Letras Hispánicas. Madrid: Cátedra, 2004.
  107.  
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  109.  
  110. This is the best single-volume collection of Martí’s essays and journalism in the original Spanish.
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  113.  
  114. Morales, Carlos Javier, ed. Poesía completa de José Martí. Madrid: Alianza, 2011.
  115.  
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  117.  
  118. This collects all of Martí’s poetry and contains commentary by noted Martí scholars Cintio Vitier and Fina García Marruz.
  119.  
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  121.  
  122. Quesada y Miranda, Gonzalo de, ed. Obras completas de José Martí. 74 vols. Havana, Cuba: Seoane, Fernández, 1936–1949.
  123.  
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  125.  
  126. This is the culmination of the complete works project that the editor’s father, Gonzalo de Quesada y Aróstegui, initiated in 1900 and left incomplete at his death in 1915. Despite the greater number of volumes, this edition does not include much material that emerged after its publication and is thus not nearly as complete as later ones, most notably Centro de Estudios Martianos 2001–.
  127.  
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  129.  
  130. Tellechea, Manuel A., trans. Versos sencillos / Simple Verses. Houston, TX: Arte Público, 1999.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. This is the only available English translation of the complete Versos sencillos, which rivals Allen’s translations (Allen 2002) in technical skills and surpasses them in its attention to the lyrical qualities of Martí’s poems in this volume. Although other books offer a broader selection or more extensive introductory material, this is the single finest English translation of Martí’s poetry.
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  137.  
  138. Biographies
  139. As with Martí scholarship generally, biographies are plentiful but mostly lacking in scholarly value. This is primarily because Martí’s biographers have generally strived less to examine or critique him than to praise him, in the interests of ideologically slanted mythmaking. At least two of the books on this list, Baeza Flores 1954 and Sande 1996, were directly subsidized by Cuban administrations, and the authors of Mañach 1932 and Lizaso 1940 held high ministerial positions in the Batista government. Other biographies are authored by people with close personal or family links to Martí, notably Quesada y Miranda 1940 and García Márti 1938. Márquez Sterling 1973, the first serious scholarly biography of Martí, was not published in Havana or the United States but in Argentina. Dozens of other biographies have appeared in the century since Martí’s death, all more or less hewing to one or the other side of the Havana–Miami ideological divide.
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  141. Baeza Flores, Alberto. Vida de José Martí: El hombre íntimo y el hombre público. Havana, Cuba: Comisión Nacional Organizadora de los Actos y Ediciones del Centenario y del Monumento de Martí, 1954.
  142.  
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  144.  
  145. This biography was commissioned as part of the Batista government’s lavish yearlong centennial celebration of Martí’s birth in 1853. Although it offers a fuller portrayal of his life than previous studies, it suffers from the same hagiographical tendencies that characterize almost all biographical writing on Martí to a greater or lesser extent.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. García Márti, Raúl. Biografía familiar. Havana, Cuba: Cárdenas, 1938.
  150.  
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  152.  
  153. The primary value of García Martí’s “family biography” is its focus on Martí’s early years and his relations with his family and its author’s unique access as Martí’s nephew. Its depiction of many family anecdotes, not witnessed by García himself but passed down from Martí’s mother and sisters, made it an important resource for subsequent Martí biographers.
  154.  
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  156.  
  157. Lizaso, Félix. Martí, místico del deber. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Losada, 1940.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. This biography is widely considered one of two canonical Martí biographies, the other being Mañach 1932. Lizaso’s biography covers more or less the same ground as that earlier book, departing little from the iconic template that Mañach had established.
  162.  
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  164.  
  165. Mañach, Jorge. Martí, el apóstol. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1932.
  166.  
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  168.  
  169. This has been the most widely read and celebrated of all Martí biographies. Much of the book’s more personal material comes from interviews with Martí’s surviving friends and relatives, who also gave Mañach unprecedented access to his papers; the result is a fuller, richer portrayal than had been previously possible. The absence of footnotes or endnotes, or of a more substantial index or bibliography, significantly limits its scholarly value, however.
  170.  
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  172.  
  173. Márquez Sterling, Carlos. Biografía de José Martí. Barcelona: Manuel Pareja, 1973.
  174.  
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  176.  
  177. At 561 pages, this is widely considered the first serious biographical study of Martí, although it relies heavily on previous published biographies. It also takes significant liberties in its reconstruction of dialogue and other anecdotal moments from Martí’s life. Nevertheless, the book’s more scholarly approach enables a fuller, more complex portrait of Martí than earlier biographies.
  178.  
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  180.  
  181. Quesada y Miranda, Gonzalo de. Martí, hombre. Havana, Cuba: Seoane, Fernández, 1940.
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  184.  
  185. The author is the son of Martí’s closest literary collaborator and literary executor. Quesada y Miranda inherited both his father’s passion for Martí and the task of publishing his complete works, a task left unfinished at his father’s death in 1915. This book benefits from greater access to and familiarity with Martí’s voluminous writings than previous biographies, although it shares its predecessors’ reverential, protective approach to their subject.
  186.  
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  188.  
  189. Sande, Luis Toledo. Cesto de llamas: Biografía de José Martí. Havana, Cuba: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1996.
  190.  
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  192.  
  193. This biography mostly takes Mañach 1932 as its point of departure, updating it and modifying it where new information has become available but otherwise straying little from its earlier portrayal of Martí as national hero and anticolonial revolutionary. The chapters on Martí’s childhood are particularly strong, as is evidenced by their use as a source text for the recent biopic José Martí: El ojo del canario (2010).
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  197. Focused Biographical Studies
  198. Unlike the bulk of the general Biographies, a number of studies have contributed significantly to Martí scholarship by undertaking more focused examinations of specific elements of his life. Ripoll published extensively on virtually every aspect of Martí’s life and work. Ripoll 1995 is especially valuable for its focus on the personal and intimate aspects of his life, whereas Ripoll 1997 examines Martí’s public works and revolutionary politics. Cupull and González 2009 focuses on Martí’s relations with his parents and siblings, whereas Oviedo 1989 examines the controversy over Martí’s possible paternity of María Mantilla, daughter of longtime mistress Carmita Mantilla. Fernández 2005 uses previously neglected scholarship to examine the legend of Martí’s heroic death in battle. Tablada 2007 presents a comprehensive study of Martí’s health and medical history.
  199.  
  200. Cupull, Adys, and Froilán González. Creciente agonía. Havana, Cuba: Editorial José Martí, 2009.
  201.  
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  203.  
  204. This book begins with Martí’s early childhood and carries on through family relationships maintained via correspondence after his deportation to Spain. It makes extensive use of correspondence and other archival materials neglected by or unavailable to earlier studies, making the resulting narrative a unique and valuable look into Martí’s childhood and later family life.
  205.  
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  207.  
  208. Fernández, Miguel. La muerte indócil de José Martí. Miami, FL: Editorial Nueva Prensa Cubana, 2005.
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  211.  
  212. Fernández demonstrates how the legend of Martí’s death, based on Máximo Gómez’s account, contradicts other eyewitnesses whose versions were considerably less flattering than the general’s. The book also examines how Gómez’s account evolved over time, offering a glimpse into the creation of one of the most important tenets of the Martí myth.
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  215.  
  216. Oviedo, José Miguel. La niña de New York: Una revisión de la vida erótica de José Martí. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1989.
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  219.  
  220. This book’s argument about Martí’s possible paternity of María Mantilla relies too often on anecdotes and statements from surviving family members, accepting as fact assertions that have since been contradicted by other scholars. The book’s opening chapter is nevertheless valuable for its exposition of the ways Martí’s collaborators and scholars have colluded to conceal or downplay his relationship with Carmita.
  221.  
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  223.  
  224. Ripoll, Carlos. La vida íntima y secreta de José Martí. Miami, FL: Dos Ríos, 1995.
  225.  
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  227.  
  228. Most of the book centers on Martí’s sexual and romantic life, primarily his troubled marriage to Carmen Zayas Bazán and enduring affair with Carmita Mantilla, but it also discusses other affairs and more platonic relationships before he married.
  229.  
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  231.  
  232. Ripoll, Carlos. Martí: Político, estadista, conspirador y revolucionario. New York: Dos Ríos, 1997.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. Although most of the book focuses on his efforts to liberate Cuba from Spanish rule, it also discusses his broader vision of pan-American democracy as well as his positions on prominent political philosophies of his time, most notably Marxism and anarchism, and his writings on the United States as an ascendant hemispheric power.
  237.  
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  239.  
  240. Tablada, Ricardo Hodelín. Enfermedades de José Martí. Santiago, Cuba: Editorial Oriente, 2007.
  241.  
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  243.  
  244. This book goes beyond Martí’s own correspondence to incorporate more substantial medical and forensic evidence, including the testimony of his doctors and the report by the coroner who performed his autopsy. Because Martí’s many physical maladies and generally frail health crucially inform his legend as a Cuban martyr, Tablada’s book will be of great interest to serious Martí scholars.
  245.  
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  247.  
  248. History
  249. The books included here present Martí in the broader context of the history of Cuba, its struggle against Spanish colonization, and both countries’ relationships with the United States at a time when it was becoming a burgeoning world power. Not all of these books focus specifically on Martí; but those that do not, contain substantial material on his revolutionary project that should interest those wishing to understand his life and work in the larger context of his historical moment. The books listed here that do center on Martí focus on a single specific historical element. González 1953 explores Martí’s work as a journalist writing on the United States during the 1880s. Hidalgo Paz 1989 examines Martí’s work as a political organizer and publisher in the 1890s as well as his earlier revolutionary activities while living in Mexico. Rodríguez 2003 covers the more covert aspects of Martí’s work as a revolutionary conspiring against the Spanish government. The broader historical books listed here vary in the amount of space devoted directly to Martí. Sarabia 1985 contains the most substantive material on Martí, covering in detail the activities of Pinkerton and other agents employed by Spain to spy on him and his fellow conspirators. Ferrer 1999 is a history of Cuban race relations and the role that race historically played in the country’s revolutionary politics; the book especially emphasizes Martí’s successful effort to overcome centuries of entrenched racism and forge a multiracial revolutionary party. Pérez 1983 is a history of Cuba between the end of the Ten Years War (1868–1878) and the establishment of the Cuban state in 1902; Martí figures significantly in the book as a central figure in events of this period. Poyo 1989 also devotes considerable space to Martí due to his numerous visits to US exile communities in the years leading up to the 1895 War of Independence.
  250.  
  251. Ferrer, Ada. Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
  252.  
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  254.  
  255. This is an important study of the role that racism played in undermining earlier Cuban efforts at independence and the ways in which Martí’s strategy of embracing Afro-Cubans as equals in the revolutionary movement contributed to its eventual success. The book also examines the undoing of the Cubans’ multiracial coalition after Martí’s death, when US forces in 1898 reinstated the racial hierarchy that he had worked to eradicate.
  256.  
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  258.  
  259. González, Manuel Pedro. José Martí: Epic Chronicler of the United States in the Eighties. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953.
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  262.  
  263. This book focuses on Martí’s 1880s journalism as a foreign correspondent living in New York, which the Obras completas collects under the title “Escenas norteamericanas.” González was among the first to recognize the importance of Martí’s journalism for scholars of late-19th-century America, a position that has since been widely and correctly acknowledged by succeeding generations.
  264.  
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  266.  
  267. Hidalgo Paz, Ibrahím. Incursiones en la obra de José Martí. Havana, Cuba: Centro de Estudios Martianos, 1989.
  268.  
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  270.  
  271. Hidalgo Paz is perhaps best known for his indispensable chronological studies of Martí, but this slender book offers a more thorough and contextualized consideration of Martí’s revolutionary project. Especially strong are chapters on Martí’s organizing and fundraising work that led to the founding of the Partido revolucionario cubano in 1892 and the founding and management of his newspaper Patria.
  272.  
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  274.  
  275. Pérez, Louis A., Jr. Cuba between Empires, 1878–1902. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983.
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  278.  
  279. This book is representative of Pérez’s uniformly outstanding work on Cuba, especially during the colonial era. It focuses, per its title, on the period beginning with the conclusion of the failed Ten Years War (1868–1878) and ending with the establishment of Cuba as a sovereign state in 1902. Although the book is not narrowly about Martí, Pérez’s presentation of him as a seminal figure is well integrated into the larger narrative.
  280.  
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  282.  
  283. Poyo, Gerald. With All and for the Good of All: The Emergence of Popular Nationalism in the Cuban Communities of the United States, 1848–1898. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989.
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  286.  
  287. This book is a well-researched study of the exile communities that established themselves in the United States during the last half-century of Spanish rule in Cuba. Of particular interest to Martí scholars will be Poyo’s portrayal of Martí’s success in winning over Florida’s cigar workers in Tampa and Key West, predominantly black constituencies that he correctly saw as indispensable to the revolution’s success.
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  289. Find this resource:
  290.  
  291. Rodríguez, Raúl La O. Los escudos invisibles: Un Martí desconocido. Havana, Cuba: Capitán San Luis, 2003.
  292.  
  293. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  294.  
  295. This book emphasizes the covert aspects of Martí’s revolutionary activities against Spain. It is especially strong in its examination of the Cubans’ strategies designed to frustrate Spanish and US attempts to infiltrate and undermine the organization and tactics used to evade Pinkerton and Spanish agents employed by Spain.
  296.  
  297. Find this resource:
  298.  
  299. Sarabia, Nydia. Noticias confidenciales sobre Cuba, 1870–1895. Havana, Cuba: Editora Política, 1985.
  300.  
  301. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  302.  
  303. Sarabia’s book similarly exposes the covert inner workings of Martí’s revolutionary project but surpasses Rodríguez’s study in its emphasis on primary archival materials. It presents a history of Spanish surveillance that well predates Martí’s 1881 arrival in New York and constructs a virtual chronology, at times day to day, of Spanish monitoring and harassment of Cuban revolutionaries, especially Martí himself.
  304.  
  305. Find this resource:
  306.  
  307. Literary and Cultural Studies
  308. Martí’s fame as a revolutionary icon at times overshadows his considerable accomplishments as a poet and essayist. Although it is nearly impossible to parse his political thought from his literary works, the books listed here focus primarily on Martí as a writer and cultural critic. The titles included here focus mostly on Martí’s poetry and journalism, which is consistent with the bulk of literary criticism on Martí. Bejel 2012 is an ideal introduction for anyone interested in the history of Martí as a visual icon, and Bejel 2001 contains the single most important study of Martí in a queer studies context. Fountain 2003 examines Martí’s relationship with the US literature of his day. The Martínez Estrada 1974 biography approaches Martí from a distinctly comparative and literary perspective. Ramos 1989 is important for its positioning of Martí within a genealogy that also includes predecessors Domingo Sarmiento and Andrés Bello. Ripoll 1971 provides an in-depth study of Martí’s newspaper and its crucial role within the revolutionary party. Rotker 1992 offers the most detailed study of Martí’s pioneering work in the subgenre crónica.
  309.  
  310. Bejel, Emilio. Gay Cuban Nation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
  311.  
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313.  
  314. Part 1 of this book, “The Building of a CondemNation,” examines the figuration and representation of the homosexual, and Cuban masculinity more broadly, in Martí’s revolutionary writings. It is the single most substantive study of Martí in a queer studies context.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318. Bejel, Emilio. José Martí: Images of Memory and Mourning. New York: Palgrave, 2012.
  319.  
  320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321.  
  322. This book examines the history of Martían iconography across a range of media, from photography to statues to the recent biographical film José Martí: El ojo del canario (2010).
  323.  
  324. Find this resource:
  325.  
  326. Fountain, Anne. José Martí and U.S. Writers. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003.
  327.  
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329.  
  330. This book provides not only a comprehensive overview of Martí’s extensive writings on US literature but also, more importantly, a detailed analysis of his affinity for writers such as Emerson, Whitman, and Longfellow and how they informed his understanding of US culture more broadly.
  331.  
  332. Find this resource:
  333.  
  334. Marinello, Juan. El caso literario de José Martí: Motivos de centenario. Havana, Cuba: Vega, 1954.
  335.  
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. Although Marinello published widely on Martí, this is the book in which he most clearly introduces him as a literary figure that transcends the efforts of ideologues, most directly those aligned with the Batista government, to tailor him to their own political ends. This book appeared shortly after Cuba’s centennial celebration of Martí’s birth, a project geared to appropriating Martí’s life and writings for the benefit of Batista’s regime.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342. Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Martí, revolucionario. 2d ed. Havana, Cuba: Casa de las Américas, 1974.
  343.  
  344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  345.  
  346. This biography relies more on textual analysis than do previous biographies. It is nevertheless consistent with other Cuban publications of its era in its portrayal of Martí as a pan-American revolutionary and radical anticapitalist. The book’s textual literary approach distinguishes it from other studies of its time, although its reliance on psychoanalytic analysis and interpretations also somewhat dates it.
  347.  
  348. Find this resource:
  349.  
  350. Ramos, Julio. Desencuentros de la modernidad en América Latina: Literatura y política en el siglo XIX. Colección Tierra Firme. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1989.
  351.  
  352. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  353.  
  354. The book portrays him as an important transitional figure who surpasses the tradition of the Europeanized “letrado” to construct himself as a uniquely American intellectual capable of critiquing both the unequal development of modernity and the United States’ predominant role as its primary agent.
  355.  
  356. Find this resource:
  357.  
  358. Ripoll, Carlos. Patria: El periódico de José Martí; Registro general, 1892–1895. New York: Eliseo Torres, 1971.
  359.  
  360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. This slender volume is a study of Martí’s newspaper, from its inception in 1892 to its editorial philosophy, staff and contributors, and daily management. A useful appendix offers an index spanning the newspaper’s entire publishing history.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366. Rotker, Susana. Fundación de una escritura: Las crónicas de José Martí. Havana, Cuba: Casa de las Américas, 1992.
  367.  
  368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369.  
  370. This book focuses on the particular subgenre of Martí’s writings known as the crónica. Distinct from both the early European chronicle and the travelogues of US writers such as Mark Twain, the crónica departed from mainstream journalism in its literary approach to current events, an innovation that defined Martí’s writings on the United States.
  371.  
  372. Find this resource:
  373.  
  374. Oral Histories/Memoirs
  375. García Pascual 2005 is the only collection of its kind on Martí’s correspondence, and it is an indispensable resource for Martí scholars. Baralt 1945 is a collection of anecdotes that sheds light on Martí’s personal life and interests. The authors of Gómez 1998, Collazo 1900, and Loynaz del Castillo 2001 were among Martí’s most trusted collaborators and were present at many of the same key junctures, and their memoirs provide important accounts of Martí’s revolutionary work. In contrast, the memoir Trujillo 1896 offers the perspective of an embedded outsider. Vega 1977 provides detailed accounts of events from Martí’s New York years.
  376.  
  377. Baralt, Blanca Z. El Martí que yo conocí. Havana, Cuba: Trópico, 1945.
  378.  
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. Baralt knew Martí during his New York years, and the anecdotes collected here offer a glimpse behind the icon of Martí as a human being. His interest in modern art and food is on display here, as is his seemingly unfailing kindness toward others, especially children. More directly relevant to Martí scholars is her account of a covert gathering held in her home shortly before the onset of the war.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Collazo, Enrique. Cuba independiente. Havana, Cuba: La Moderna Poesía, 1900.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. Collazo was among the leaders of the 1895 revolution who worked especially closely with Martí during the years immediately preceding it. His accounts of key moments, including the failed Fernandina plot and the final meeting in Montecristi with Máximo Gómez, are invaluable for those wishing a fuller understanding of Martí’s revolutionary work.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393. García Pascual, Luis, ed. Destinatario José Martí. 2d ed. Havana, Cuba: Abril, 2005.
  394.  
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396.  
  397. This volume collects all the known correspondence sent to Martí—from the early letters of girlfriends and future wife Carmen Zayas Bazán to later historic exchanges with generals Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo—in chronological order.
  398.  
  399. Find this resource:
  400.  
  401. Gómez, Máximo. Diario de campaña, 1868–1899. Oviedo, Spain: University of Oviedo Press, 1998.
  402.  
  403. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  404.  
  405. Martí features prominently in the latter half of Gómez’s war diaries, and his descriptions of his interactions with him serve as a valuable counterpart to Martí’s own accounts of them. Gómez’s descriptions of Martí during his final weeks in Cuba especially resonate alongside Martí’s own famous “Diarios de Montecristi” (see Allen 2002, cited under Primary Works and Edited Collections). The book is indispensable for scholars of both Martí and the larger history of Cuba’s struggle for independence.
  406.  
  407. Find this resource:
  408.  
  409. Loynaz del Castillo, Enrique. Memorias de la Guerra. Havana, Cuba: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 2001.
  410.  
  411. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412.  
  413. Although not as essential as Gómez 1998 and Collazo 1900, this book is important as part of the broader body of primary texts about the 1895 revolution and Martí’s role in it.
  414.  
  415. Find this resource:
  416.  
  417. Trujillo, Enrique. Apuntes históricos: Propaganda y movimientos revolucionarios en los Estados Unidos desde enero de 1880 hasta febrero de 1895. New York: “El Porvenir,” 1896.
  418.  
  419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  420.  
  421. Trujillo’s outspoken opposition to Martí’s leadership eventually led to his banishment from the revolutionaries’ inner circle. His memoir is thus valuable for its insights into the conflicts and competing interests that threatened the movement, although Trujillo carefully avoids the topic of his and Martí’s mutual animosity.
  422.  
  423. Find this resource:
  424.  
  425. Vega, Bernardo. Memorias de Bernardo Vega: Contribución a la historia de la comunidad puertorriqueña en Nueva York. Edited by César Andreu Iglesias. Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico: Ediciones Huracán, 1977.
  426.  
  427. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  428.  
  429. This memoir focuses mostly on Puerto Rican revolutionary efforts but is important for its vivid accounts of key moments from Martí’s New York years. Vega’s anecdotal accounts of a politically astute, and at times combative, Martí serve to enrich and complicate his static iconic image as the saintly apostle of independence.
  430.  
  431. Find this resource:
  432.  
  433. Politics and Ideology
  434. Although virtually every administration since Cuba’s establishment as a republic in 1902 has sought to identify itself with Martí, no such effort has been as systematic and widespread as that of Fidel Castro’s Marxist government. Under Castro, the Cuban government has embraced the words and image of Cuba’s national hero to an extent unsurpassed by even the Batista administration’s elaborate centennial celebrations of 1953. Since its inception in 1959 the Cuban Revolution’s identification with Martí has gone well beyond the erection of monuments and renamings of public buildings to encompass the country’s state-run publishers and academic programs. Havana-based Casa de las Americas has published hundreds of Martí-related titles since its founding in 1959; academic centers such as the Centro de Estudios Martianos, established in 1977, have produced hundreds of Martí-related publications, most notably the Centro’s Obras completas (see Centro de Estudios Martianos 2001–, cited under Primary Works and Edited Collections). These and other organizations are tasked with the dissemination of Martí as, in the words of Fidel Castro, the revolution’s “intellectual author,” a claim virulently denounced by Cuban exiles and others who see it as a cynical appropriation of his legacy for political ends. This section compiles some of the more representative writings on both sides of this ongoing polemic over the true ideological identity of Cuba’s national hero. Castro 1983 offers the most unambiguous articulation of the Cuban Revolution’s official view of Martí in Fidel Castro’s own words. Marinello 1945 exemplifies pre-revolution Marxist approaches to Martí, specifically cast in opposition to the Batista government’s appropriations of him. Roig de Leuchsenring 1961 is the most comprehensive exposition of Martí as the revolution’s philosophical foundation. Fernández Retamar 1973 and Portuondo 1974 update Roig de Leuchsenring’s “anti-imperialist” Martí within the revolution’s established Marxist frame. Ibarra 1980 represents an incremental departure as a study that acknowledges the more ambivalent aspects of Martí’s political writings while still embracing him as an anti-imperialist. Esténger 1966 and Ripoll 1984 are representative of exile studies that reject the Cuban Revolution’s interpretation of Martí and condemn its use of him to further their political ends.
  435.  
  436. Castro, Fidel. José Martí: El autor intelectual. Centro de Estudios Martianos. Havana, Cuba: Editora Política, 1983.
  437.  
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439.  
  440. This volume collects, sometimes in excerpted form, Castro’s lengthier depictions of Martí as the revolution’s “intellectual author” in speeches spanning nearly thirty years. The book also includes Castro’s annotations to his own copy of the Obras completas.
  441.  
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444. Esténger, Rafael. Martí frente al comunismo: Glosas de contrapunteo entre el hombre libre y el autómata marxista. Miami, FL: Editorial AIP, 1966.
  445.  
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447.  
  448. Although hardly unique among writings of the time, this book is nevertheless representative of Cuban exiles’ post-1960 critique of the revolution’s appropriation of Martí. It relies primarily on Martí’s own writings to build a counterargument for Martí as a liberal democrat steadfastly opposed to the Marxist tenets embraced by the revolution.
  449.  
  450. Find this resource:
  451.  
  452. Fernández Retamar, Roberto. Calibán: Apuntes sobre la cultura de nuestra América. Buenos Aires, Argentina: La Pléyade, 1973.
  453.  
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455.  
  456. Fernández Retamar is Cuba’s most prominent academic, and Calibán is his most widely known and translated essay. It is a lengthy monograph that places Martí—as “Calibán,” the rebellious slave of Shakespeare’s The Tempest—within a larger pan-American revolutionary context; key to that historicization is the Cuban Revolution’s claim to being the final fulfillment and validation of Martí’s vision of a hemispheric “nuestra América.”
  457.  
  458. Find this resource:
  459.  
  460. Ibarra, Jorge. José Martí, dirigente político e ideólogo revolucionario. Havana, Cuba: Ciencias Sociales, 1980.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. Ibarra’s book represents a move in Cuban Martí studies toward a more nuanced and complex portrayal. The book notably shies away from identifying Martí as a Marxist, addressing both his affinities and differences with socialist thought. It does, however, strongly emphasize the idea of Martí as an unambivalent champion of workers, even as it notes his preference for reform rather than overthrow of the capitalist system.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468. Marinello, Juan. Actualidad Americana de José Martí. Havana, Cuba: La Verónica, 1945.
  469.  
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471.  
  472. Marinello was one of the first and most prominent advocates of a Marxist reading of Cuba’s national icon. The book’s unequivocal depictions of Martí as an anti-American revolutionary and an exponent of a “clear liberatory militancy” stood in sharp contrast to the Batista government’s dissemination of Martí as a bourgeois reformist and paved the way for Castro’s more radical embrace of Martí fifteen years later.
  473.  
  474. Find this resource:
  475.  
  476. Portuondo, José Antonio. Martí y el diversionismo ideológico. Havana, Cuba: Centro de Estudios Martianos, 1974.
  477.  
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479.  
  480. Like Marinello and Fernández Retamar, Portuondo’s ties to the Cuban Revolution go back to its establishment in 1959. Of his many writings on Martí, this book is notable for its focused critique of scholars who avert their attention to more personal and potentially scandalous aspects of Martí’s life, in what Portuondo calls “ideological diversionism.” Such studies, the book argues, detract from the more important political and cultural elements of Martí’s vision.
  481.  
  482. Find this resource:
  483.  
  484. Ripoll, Carlos. José Martí, the United States, and the Marxist Interpretation of Cuban History. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1984.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. The manipulation of Martí’s life and work to serve political ends has been one of the major themes of Ripoll’s prolific writings on Cuba and Martí. With its point-by-point rebuttal of the Cuban Revolution’s claim to Martí, this book is Ripoll’s single most cogent and trenchant critique of the Cuban icon as a proto-Marxist.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492. Roig de Leuchsenring, Emilio. Martí, antimperialista. 2d ed. Havana, Cuba: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 1961.
  493.  
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495.  
  496. This book is important for being among the first, and still most comprehensive, articulation of the revolution’s intellectual appropriation of Martí. It provides arguably the single fullest exposition of his work within the context of a modernist dialectical materialism and thus makes an ideal point of departure for scholars interested in the history of Martí studies within a Marxist context.
  497.  
  498. Find this resource:
  499.  
  500. Reception History
  501. The long and tangled history of Martí’s posthumous reception, from his relative anonymity in Cuba at his death to his enshrinement as the country’s “apostle” of independence to his later incarnation as the Cuban Revolution’s “intellectual author,” has been the subject of numerous book-length studies, the most significant of which are compiled here. Ette 1995, a lengthy monograph, offers the single most exhaustive examination of Martí’s posthumous life as a national icon. Guerra 2005 focuses on the period immediately following Cuba’s establishment as a state in 1902, when the new nation had shed Spanish rule only to find itself subjected to neocolonial domination by the United States. López 2006 is a book that offers a more multifaceted study of Cuban nationalism and the conflicting visions of the Cuban nation that have emerged since the 1959 Cuban Revolution. In Ripoll 1996, the author focuses on the developments that occurred in the years after his previous work, Ripoll 1984 (cited under Politics and Ideology).
  502.  
  503. Ette, Ottmar. José Martí: Apóstol, poeta, revolucionario; una historia de su recepción. Translated by Louis Carlos Henao de Brigard. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1995.
  504.  
  505. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  506.  
  507. The book works methodically through the various stages of Martí’s reception history, with particular emphasis on the Batista and Castro governments’ respective efforts to use Martí’s legacy and image to suit their own ideological imperatives. It is essential reading for anyone interested in Martí’s reception history. Originally published in German.
  508.  
  509. Find this resource:
  510.  
  511. Guerra, Lillian. The Myth of Martí: Conflicting Nationalisms in Early Twentieth-Century Cuba. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. The book traces how Martí’s reputation and legacy changed partly as a reflection of Cuba’s growing national self-consciousness and partly as larger historical forces and ideological imperatives that necessitated the forging of the Martí myth.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519. López, Alfred J. José Martí and the Future of Cuban Nationalisms. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.
  520.  
  521. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  522.  
  523. Its chapters variously tackle Martí’s “afterlife” as a national hero; the history of Martían iconography in official monuments, literature, and film; and the recent “boom” in Martí studies among Americanist and postcolonial scholars.
  524.  
  525. Find this resource:
  526.  
  527. Ripoll, Carlos. Martí en Cuba hoy. New York: Dos Ríos, 1996.
  528.  
  529. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  530.  
  531. This book is a sequel of sorts to Ripoll 1984 (cited under Politics and Ideology) continuing its predecessor’s critique of the revolution’s Marxist appropriation of Martí but focusing more narrowly on further developments in the decade since its publication.
  532.  
  533. Find this resource:
  534.  
  535. Travels
  536. Martí traveled extensively during his short life, first as a young exile seeking to establish himself in several South American countries and later as the revolutionary leader shuttling among exile communities to organize and raise funds for the 1895 War of Independence. With the exception of the Atlas histórico biográfico (Instituto Cubano de Geodesía y Cartografía 1983), the books compiled here focus on Martí’s tenure in individual countries. Herrera Franyutti 1996 and Núñez y Domínguez 1933 focus on Martí’s years in Mexico. Soto-Hall 1952 and Vela 1954 examine his time in Guatemala. Morales 1985 is the only known published monograph of Martí’s brief stay in Caracas. Ronning 1990 focuses on Martí’s political organizing efforts among Key West’s exile community of cigar workers. Rodríguez Demorizi 1953 and Tejada 1935 are studies of Martí’s travels in the Dominican Republic and Haiti.
  537.  
  538. Herrera Franyutti, Alfonso. Martí en México: Recuerdos de una época. 2d ed. Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1996.
  539.  
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. This book is the definitive guide to Martí’s years in Mexico and has the added advantage of setting his Mexico tenure within the larger context of his burgeoning pan-American vision of “nuestra América.” The book will be of particular use to those interested in Martí’s theatrical work and poetry during this period.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546. Instituto Cubano de Geodesía y Cartografía, ed. Atlas histórico biográfico José Martí. Havana, Cuba: Instituto Cubano de Geodesía y Cartografía, 1983.
  547.  
  548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  549.  
  550. This book provides a comprehensive, exhaustive overview of Martí’s travels over the course of his life, with many maps, photographs, and other illustrations of interest to Martí scholars. It is an indispensable reference for the study of Martí.
  551.  
  552. Find this resource:
  553.  
  554. Morales, Salvador. Martí en Venezuela, Bolívar en Martí. Caracas, Venezuela: Ediciones Centauro, 1985.
  555.  
  556. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  557.  
  558. Relatively little has been published on Martí’s brief sojourn to Caracas in 1881, after which he settled in New York City. Morales’s book is the only single-author work to seriously examine this important period in Martí’s life.
  559.  
  560. Find this resource:
  561.  
  562. Núñez y Domínguez, José de Jesús. Martí en México. Mexico City: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, 1933.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. This was the first book to document Martí’s time in Mexico. Although it has been largely eclipsed by Herrera Franyutti’s more extensive study (Herrera Franyutti 1996), it remains a useful secondary text for those interested in this period of Martí’s life.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570. Rodríguez Demorizi, Emilio. Martí en Santo Domingo. Havana, Cuba: Ucar García, 1953.
  571.  
  572. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  573.  
  574. Although Martí never lived in the Dominican Republic, it was a crucial revolutionary site due to its proximity to Cuba and because Máximo Gómez lived in Montecristi, where final planning for the War of Independence took place. This book, along with Valentín Tejada’s earlier volume (Tejada 1935), provides a useful introduction to Martí’s history with the island. It also provides a detailed account of Martí’s final voyage to Cuba in March–April 1895.
  575.  
  576. Find this resource:
  577.  
  578. Ronning, C. Neale. José Martí and the Emigré Colony in Key West: Leadership and State Formation. New York: Praeger, 1990.
  579.  
  580. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  581.  
  582. This is the single most detailed study of Martí’s visits to Key West, whose exile community provided crucial support for the revolutionary cause. The book is especially strong in its presentation of Key West’s cigar workers in the larger context of the burgeoning US labor movement as well as the competing political influence of socialism and anarchism on the organized workers.
  583.  
  584. Find this resource:
  585.  
  586. Soto-Hall, Máximo. Martí y el General Justo Rufino Barrios. Guatemala City: Biblioteca de Cultura Popular, 1952.
  587.  
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589.  
  590. This is one of two equally useful books on Martí’s time in Guatemala. Soto-Hall’s book focuses more narrowly on Martí’s relationship with President Barrios, whom Martí initially championed but later repudiated as a dictator.
  591.  
  592. Find this resource:
  593.  
  594. Tejada, Valentín. Martí a su paso por Santo Domingo. Guantánamo, Cuba: M. Medrano, 1935.
  595.  
  596. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  597.  
  598. This was the first book to examine Martí’s many visits to the Dominican Republic and the island’s significance in the history of the independence movement. Along with Rodríguez Demorizi’s later volume (Rodríguez Demorizi 1953), it provides a useful overview of Martí’s history of travels to the island.
  599.  
  600. Find this resource:
  601.  
  602. Vela, David. Martí en Guatemala. Guatemala City: Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1954.
  603.  
  604. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  605.  
  606. This book provides a general overview of Martí’s Guatemala tenure—from his decision to emigrate there after his departure from Mexico to his rise as a popular professor and political thinker—and his precipitous fall from grace after political disagreements with President Justo Rufino Barrios.
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