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Orientalism and Islam

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The term “Orientalism,” later known as “Oriental Studies,” began in reference to the study of languages and cultures of the so-called Orient. Although initially focused on the ancient and modern Near East, the term “Orient” was indiscriminately used for all of the Asian civilizations encountered by Europeans in their eastward imperial and colonial expansion. The term is derived from the Latin oriens, in reference to the direction of the rising sun or the east. The study of Islam and Muslim cultures during the medieval period in Europe was primarily apologetic. By the 17th century, Arabic and other Oriental languages began to be taught in universities. The Thomas Adams Chair of Arabic, for example, was established at Cambridge University in 1632. Orientalist scholars translated religious, historical and literary texts from Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, and Chinese, but most of these translations are not considered critical editions. Modern Orientalism in an academic sense begins at the end of the 18th century. Napoleon's expeditionary force that invaded Egypt in 1797 included scholars who recorded ancient Egyptian texts and monuments as well as contemporary Islamic architecture. The British presence in India, most notably in the work of the philologist William James, led to a field of study formally called “Orientalism.” The first academic society devoted to the study of the Orient was the French Société Asiatique, founded in 1821. This was followed by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1823) and the American Oriental Society (1842). In 1873 the first International Congress of Orientalists was held in Paris. With a few notable exceptions, most Orientalist scholars held negative views of Islam until the middle of the 20th century. By 1973 the term “Orientalist” was abandoned by the International Congress of Orientalists, recognizing that specialty disciplines were more significant than the vague geographical notion of an “Orient.”
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The Palestinian-American literary scholar Edward Said's powerful polemic, Orientalism (see Edward Said's Writings on Orientalism), appeared in 1978 and challenged the objectivity of previous academic discourse on an imagined Orient. As will be noted below, Said's criticism of Orientalism stimulated an ongoing debate on the ability of Western observers to properly analyze Islam and cultures formerly labeled “Oriental.” The breadth of Orientalism extends far beyond Islam, although the majority of scholarship on “Oriental” others has focused on Muslim cultures more than other groups. The focus in this bibliography is on Orientalist texts that are relevant to understanding how Islam has been represented by Western scholars, as well as the responses of Muslim scholars. For a brief overview of the intellectual history of Orientalism, the essays by Bulliet 1994 and Waardenburg 1993 are recommended. Irwin 2006 provides a comprehensive and readable survey of Orientalism through the present. Quinn 2008 focuses on the overall history Western view of Islam. The continuing resonance of Orientalist concepts in European critical theory is surveyed by Almond 2007.
  8.  
  9. Adnan-Adivar, Abdülhak “A Turkish Account of Orientalism.” Muslim World 43 (1953): 261–282.
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  11. Translation of an essay on the history of academic Orientalism published in the Turkish version of Encyclopedia of Islam.
  12. Adnan-Adivar, Abdülhak “A Turkish Account of Orientalism.” Muslim World 43 (1953): 261–282.
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  14. Almond, Ian. The New Orientalists: Postmodern Representations of Islam from Foucault to Baudrillard. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
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  16. Provides focus on contemporary critical theory in Europe.
  17. Almond, Ian. The New Orientalists: Postmodern Representations of Islam from Foucault to Baudrillard. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Bulliet, Richard W. “Orientalism and Medieval Islamic Studies.” In The Past and Future of Medieval Studies. By Richard W. Bulliet, edited by John Van Engen, 94–104. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994.
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  21. Useful survey on the development of Western Orientalist views on Islam.
  22. Bulliet, Richard W. “Orientalism and Medieval Islamic Studies.” In The Past and Future of Medieval Studies. By Richard W. Bulliet, edited by John Van Engen, 94–104. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994.
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  24. Hughes, Aaron W. Situating Islam: The Past and Future of an Academic discipline. London: Equinox, 2007.
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  26. Overview of the impact of Edward Said, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Marshall Hodgson, and Fazlur Rahman with the field of religious studies.
  27. Hughes, Aaron W. Situating Islam: The Past and Future of an Academic discipline. London: Equinox, 2007.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Irwin, Robert. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. London: Allen Lane, 2006.
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  31. Comprehensive survey of the history of Western Orientalism from its beginnings to the present, including a critique of Edward Said's Orientalism thesis.
  32. Irwin, Robert. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. London: Allen Lane, 2006.
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  34. Kerr, Malcolm H., ed. Islamic Studies: A Tradition and Its Problems. Malibu, CA: Undena, 1980.
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  36. Critical survey of state of the field, with essays by Albert Hourani, Josef van Ess, Edward W. Said, Edmund Burke, III, Ira M. Lapidus, Jaroslav Stetkevych and Fazlur Rahman.
  37. Kerr, Malcolm H., ed. Islamic Studies: A Tradition and Its Problems. Malibu, CA: Undena, 1980.
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  39. Nanji, Azim, ed. Mapping Islamic Studies: Genealogy, Continuity and Change. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997.
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  41. Eight survey essays on the history of Islamic studies in America, Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Russia, and medieval Europe.
  42. Nanji, Azim, ed. Mapping Islamic Studies: Genealogy, Continuity and Change. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997.
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  44. Quinn, Frederick. The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  46. Broad survey of Western views of Islam from the medieval period to the present.
  47. Quinn, Frederick. The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  49. Waardenburg, Jacques. “Mustashrikun.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam, volume 7:735–753. 2d ed. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
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  51. General intellectual history of Orientalism.
  52. Waardenburg, Jacques. “Mustashrikun.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam, volume 7:735–753. 2d ed. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
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  54. Reference Works and Bibliographies
  55.  
  56. The broad field of Oriental Studies extends far beyond the study of Islam. The basic bibliographic source for references on Islam, including Orientalist views, is the annual Index Islamicus. The state of the field by the mid-20th century is surveyed by Sauvaget 1965. The seminal text for Orientalist views of Islam remains the Encyclopaedia of Islam, especially the first edition. An anthology suitable for classroom use is provided by Macfie 2000, although the focus is on Said's Orientalism (see Edward Said's Writings on Orientalism).
  57.  
  58. Bosworth, C. E. “Orientalism and Orientalists.” In Arab Islamic Bibliography: The Middle East Library Committee Guide. By C. E. Bosworth, edited by Diana Grimwood-Jones, et al., 148–156. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1977.
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  60. Dated bibliography, useful for older texts.
  61. Bosworth, C. E. “Orientalism and Orientalists.” In Arab Islamic Bibliography: The Middle East Library Committee Guide. By C. E. Bosworth, edited by Diana Grimwood-Jones, et al., 148–156. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1977.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Chauvin, Victor. Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes, publiés dans l'Europe chrétienne de 1810 à 1885. Liège, Belgium: H. Vaillant-Carmanne, 1892.
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  65. Major bibliography of European Orientalist texts and editions prior to 1885. Available online.
  66. Chauvin, Victor. Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes, publiés dans l'Europe chrétienne de 1810 à 1885. Liège, Belgium: H. Vaillant-Carmanne, 1892.
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  68. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1906–present.
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  70. First edition (1913–1938) published in English, German, and French. Second edition (1954–2005). Third edition in progress. This is the major organ of previous Orientalist scholarship on Islam.
  71. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1906–present.
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  73. Index Islamicus. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1900–present.
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  75. This annual bibliography is the primary source for publications on all aspects of Islam, with references back to 1900.
  76. Index Islamicus. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1900–present.
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  78. Macfie, A. L., ed. Orientalism: A Reader. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
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  80. Anthology of thirty-seven excerpts on the history of Orientalism and the controversy over Said's Orientalism. Historical selections include excerpts from James Mill, Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. Critical theorists include Foucault, Gramsci, and Said. Arab critics include Anouar Abdel-Malek, A. L. Tibawi and Sadik al-ʿAzm. A major portion of the volume covers reviews and commentaries on Said's Orientalism.
  81. Macfie, A. L., ed. Orientalism: A Reader. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
  82. Find this resource:
  83. Sauvaget, Jean. Introduction to the History of the Muslim East: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
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  85. Translation of French original from 1946. This was the basic guide to Orientalist research before 1965.
  86. Sauvaget, Jean. Introduction to the History of the Muslim East: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
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  88. Journals
  89.  
  90. Journals concerned with Islam and Middle East history at times contain articles on Orientalist representation of Islam. The oldest journals reflecting an Orientalist perspective were mainly associated with national Oriental societies established in the 19th century. Owing to the influence of Edward Said's Orientalism (see Edward Said's Writings on Orientalism), recent literary journals are also a source for articles on the influence of Orientalism. Der Islam, Orientalische Literaturzeitung, and Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft are published in German; Journal asiatique and Revue de l'Islam in French; Rivista degli studi orientali in Italian; Journal of the American Oriental Society and Journal for the Social and Economic History of the Orient in English. Arabica publishes in the major European languages.
  91.  
  92. Arabica. 1954–present.
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  94. Periodically has articles discussing older Orientalist texts.
  95. Arabica. 1954–present.
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  97. Der Islam. 1910–present.
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  99. Founded by Carl Heinrich Becker, who approached Islamic studies as a scientific field of historical and cultural research, independent of the focus on Oriental philology.
  100. Der Islam. 1910–present.
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  102. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 1843–present.
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  104. Available online. Primary American journal devoted to the broad field of Oriental studies, including Islam.
  105. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 1843–present.
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  107. Journal Asiatique. 1822–present.
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  109. Earliest French journal devoted to the Orient in general, including Islam.
  110. Journal Asiatique. 1822–present.
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  112. Journal For The Social And Economic History Of The Orient. 1958–present.
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  114. Periodically has articles discussing older Orientalist texts
  115. Journal For The Social And Economic History Of The Orient. 1958–present.
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  117. Orientalische Literaturzeitung. 1898–present.
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  119. Covers the entire field of Oriental studies with emphasis on reviews. Based in Berlin.
  120. Orientalische Literaturzeitung. 1898–present.
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  122. Rivista degli studi orientali. 1907–present.
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  124. Major Italian journal devoted to Oriental Studies, including Islam.
  125. Rivista degli studi orientali. 1907–present.
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  127. Revue de l'Islam. 1895–1902.
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  129. Early French journal devoted entirely to study of Islam.
  130. Revue de l'Islam. 1895–1902.
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  132. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 1847–present.
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  134. Major German journal, based in Berlin.
  135. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 1847–present.
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  137. Orientalism in Medieval Europe
  138.  
  139. Western scholars and theologians have commented on Islam since the 8th century, usually in negative terms. The Qur'an was first translated from Arabic to Latin by Robert of Ketton in 1143 CE. Two important intellectual histories about Western views of Islam appeared in the early 1960s: Daniel 1960 and Southern 1962. Their analyses have been updated by Tolan 2002. Interest in Islam related to the fear of this new monotheism as a heresy and as an apocalyptic sign of the end of the world (Setton 1992). Despite brief periods of tolerance in medieval Spain and widespread trade on the Mediterranean, Muslims were treated as enemies during the period of the Crusades.
  140.  
  141. Blanks, D. R., and M. Frassetto, eds. Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. New York: St. Martin's, 1999.
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  143. Introduction and ten articles on European Christian attitudes toward Saracens from before the Crusades to the early Ottoman period.
  144. Blanks, D. R., and M. Frassetto, eds. Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. New York: St. Martin's, 1999.
  145. Find this resource:
  146. Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1960.
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  148. Dated intellectual history, but still valuable as documentation.
  149. Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1960.
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  151. Metlitzki, Dorothee. The Matter of Araby in Medieval England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.
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  153. Surveys early interest in the study of Arabic and analysis of Islam in Britain.
  154. Metlitzki, Dorothee. The Matter of Araby in Medieval England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.
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  156. Setton, Kenneth Meyer. Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Islam. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 201. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. 1992.
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  158. Focus on Christian apocalyptic scenarios involving Islam.
  159. Setton, Kenneth Meyer. Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Islam. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 201. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. 1992.
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  161. Southern, Richard. Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962.
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  163. Dated history with critical commentary.
  164. Southern, Richard. Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962.
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  166. Tolan, John V. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
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  168. Broad and thorough survey that updates the older texts of Daniel and Southern.
  169. Tolan, John V. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
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  171. Orientalism in Europe from the Renaissance through the 19th Century
  172.  
  173. The Renaissance renewed interest in the Near East as well as in the Classical periods of Greece and Rome. After the Crusades, European visitors to the Holy Land published accounts of their travels, the most famous being the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published in the mid-14th century. The French had a longstanding interest in Oriental languages and Islam (McCabe 2008), including the elaboration of the “Oriental tale” literary motif. Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1797 stimulated research, especially on Egypt. British interest increased with more travelers' accounts of the region (Chew 1937). The Ottoman military threat to eastern Europe was of special concern to European writers (Çirakman 2002). Several of Europe's social theorists commented on the Orient (Curtis 2009).
  174.  
  175. Brower, D. R., and E. J. Lazzerini, eds. Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.
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  177. Collection of fourteen articles, mostly on Russian views and treatment of Muslims in the broader region.
  178. Brower, D. R., and E. J. Lazzerini, eds. Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.
  179. Find this resource:
  180. Chew, Samuel C. The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1937.
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  182. Older study that focuses on travel writings and literary texts, but still useful as documentation.
  183. Chew, Samuel C. The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1937.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Çirakman, Aslı. From the “Terror of the World” to the “Sick Man of Europe”: European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth. New York: Peter Lang, 2002.
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  187. Overview of European views of Ottoman Turks, who at times made major incursions into European territory.
  188. Çirakman, Aslı. From the “Terror of the World” to the “Sick Man of Europe”: European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth. New York: Peter Lang, 2002.
  189. Find this resource:
  190. Curtis, Michael T. Orientalism and Islam: Thinkers on Muslim Government in the Middle East and India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  192. Analysis of the views of Montesquieu, Edmund Burke, de Tocqueville, James and John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, and Max Weber.
  193. Curtis, Michael T. Orientalism and Islam: Thinkers on Muslim Government in the Middle East and India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  194. Find this resource:
  195. Fück, Johann. “Islam as an Historical Problem in European Historiography since 1800.” In Historians of the Middle East. By Johann Fück, edited by Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt, 303–314. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
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  197. Theoretical discussion of bias in earlier European scholarly writing.
  198. Fück, Johann. “Islam as an Historical Problem in European Historiography since 1800.” In Historians of the Middle East. By Johann Fück, edited by Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt, 303–314. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
  199. Find this resource:
  200. Hourani, Albert. Islam in European Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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  202. General overview by major Orientalist scholar, with emphasis on the past two centuries.
  203. Hourani, Albert. Islam in European Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz. Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism and the Ancien Regime. London: Berg, 2008.
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  207. Traces the interaction of the French court from Francis I to Louis XIV with the Ottomans, India, Persia, China, Siam, and the Americas.
  208. McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz. Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism and the Ancien Regime. London: Berg, 2008.
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  210. Schwab, Raymond. The Oriental Renaissance: Europe's Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
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  212. Focus on philology and India. Translation of French original, 1950, with introduction by Edward Said.
  213. Schwab, Raymond. The Oriental Renaissance: Europe's Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
  214. Find this resource:
  215. Wokoeck, Ursula. German Orientalism: The Study of the Middle East and Islam from 1800 to 1945. London: Routledge, 2009.
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  217. Comprehensive survey of academic German Orientalism.
  218. Wokoeck, Ursula. German Orientalism: The Study of the Middle East and Islam from 1800 to 1945. London: Routledge, 2009.
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  220. Orientalism in America
  221.  
  222. The primary interaction between Americans and Muslims began with the large numbers of African Muslims traded to the colonies and states as slaves (Diouf 1998, Gomez 2005). Military action by the United States to protect its merchant ships along the Barbary coast influenced American literature, but the first American society devoted to the academic study of the Muslim world and Orient did not begin until 1842. Several overviews of American views on Islam are available (Marr 2006, Sha'ban 1991, Schueller 1998). The influence of recent American foreign policy on Islam greatly increased in the last quarter of the 20th century. There is a large literature on the relation of Orientalism to contemporary political policy; this is surveyed by Little 2002 and Lockman 2004.
  223.  
  224. Diouf, Sylviane. Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas. New York: New York University Press, 1998.
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  226. Major survey of Islam among African slaves brought to the Americas.
  227. Diouf, Sylviane. Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas. New York: New York University Press, 1998.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Gomez, Michael A. Black Crescent: The Experience of African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  231. Social history of the experiences of African Muslims and their descendants throughout the Americas, including the Caribbean, from the first slaves to Malcolm X.
  232. Gomez, Michael A. Black Crescent: The Experience of African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  233. Find this resource:
  234. Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945. Charlotte: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
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  236. Focus on foreign policy to Muslim states in the idle East from the end of World War II until the start of the “war on terror.”
  237. Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945. Charlotte: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Lockman, Zachary. Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  241. Discussion of the impact of Orientalist views on foreign policy, especially for the United States, after the mid-20th century. Includes a discussion of the impact of Edward Said's Orientalism.
  242. Lockman, Zachary. Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  243. Find this resource:
  244. Marr, Timothy. The Cultural Roots of American Islamicism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  246. History of the North American creation of biased images of Islam in order to promote local religious and political agendas.
  247. Marr, Timothy. The Cultural Roots of American Islamicism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Sha'ban, Fuad. Islam and Arabs in Early American Thought. Durham, NC: Acorn, 1991.
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  251. Focus on Protestant views of Islam and missionary activity in the Middle East.
  252. Sha'ban, Fuad. Islam and Arabs in Early American Thought. Durham, NC: Acorn, 1991.
  253. Find this resource:
  254. Schueller, Malini Johar. U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790–1890. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
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  256. Focus on literary texts about slavery, missionaries, travel to the Holy Land, and popular poetry.
  257. Schueller, Malini Johar. U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790–1890. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
  258. Find this resource:
  259. Major Orientalist Scholars
  260.  
  261. Biographies are available for a number of prominent Orientalist scholars whose work influenced Western interpretation of Islam and the Arab world. Although dated, Arberry 1960, a description of seven British Orientalists, is still valuable. One of the earliest academic Orientalist scholars was William Bedwell (Hamilton 1985). Two of the most important British Orientalists of the Victorian age were Edward Lane (Ahmed 1978) and Sir Richard Burton (Kennedy 2007), both of whom translated the Arabian Nights. German-speaking Orientalists were the most important interpreters of Islam (Fück 1955, Paret 1968), especially the brilliant analyses of Goldziher (Simon 1986).
  262.  
  263. Ahmed, Leila. Edward W. Lane: A Study of His Life and Works and of British Ideas of the Middle East in the Nineteenth Century. London: Longman, 1978.
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  265. Critical biography of the famous scholar who wrote an important travel account of Egyptian culture, translated the Arabian Nights, and produced the most important Arabic-English dictionary still in use.
  266. Ahmed, Leila. Edward W. Lane: A Study of His Life and Works and of British Ideas of the Middle East in the Nineteenth Century. London: Longman, 1978.
  267. Find this resource:
  268. Arberry, Arthur John. Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960.
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  270. Biographies of Simon Ockley, William Jones, Edward Lane, Edward Palmer, Edward Browne, Reynold Nicholson, and Arthur Arberry. Reprinted, Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1997.
  271. Arberry, Arthur John. Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Conrad, Lawrence I. “Ignaz Goldziher on Ernest Renan: From Orientalist Philology to the Study of Islam.” In The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. By Lawrence I. Conrad, edited by Martin Kramer, 137–180. Tel Aviv: Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, 1999.
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  275. Brief survey of Goldziher's critique of the approach of the French scholar Renan.
  276. Conrad, Lawrence I. “Ignaz Goldziher on Ernest Renan: From Orientalist Philology to the Study of Islam.” In The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. By Lawrence I. Conrad, edited by Martin Kramer, 137–180. Tel Aviv: Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, 1999.
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  278. Fück, Johann. Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1955.
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  280. Major historical survey of earlier Orientalist scholars in Europe; dated but still valuable as documentation.
  281. Fück, Johann. Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1955.
  282. Find this resource:
  283. Hamilton, Alastair. William Bedwell, the Arabist, 1563–1632. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
  284. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. Biography of one of the earliest English scholars of Arabic.
  286. Hamilton, Alastair. William Bedwell, the Arabist, 1563–1632. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
  287. Find this resource:
  288. Kennedy, Dane. The Highly Civilized Man: Richard Burton and the Victorian World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
  289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290. Recent biographical survey with excellent bibliography.
  291. Kennedy, Dane. The Highly Civilized Man: Richard Burton and the Victorian World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Paret, Rudi. The Study of Arabic and Islam at German Universities: German Orientalism since Theodor Nöldecke. Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner, 1968.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. English-language account of the major German Orientalist scholars of the past century.
  296. Paret, Rudi. The Study of Arabic and Islam at German Universities: German Orientalism since Theodor Nöldecke. Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner, 1968.
  297. Find this resource:
  298. Polk, William R. “Islam and the West: 1) Sir Hamilton Gibb between Orientalism and History.” International Journal Of Middle Eastern Studies 6 (1975): 131–139.
  299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300. Gibb was a 20th-century historian of Islam who taught in Britain and the United States.
  301. Polk, William R. “Islam and the West: 1) Sir Hamilton Gibb between Orientalism and History.” International Journal Of Middle Eastern Studies 6 (1975): 131–139.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. Simon, Róbert. Ignác Goldziher: His Life and Scholarship as Reflected in His Works and Correspondences. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  304. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  305. Important biography with excerpts from his writings.
  306. Simon, Róbert. Ignác Goldziher: His Life and Scholarship as Reflected in His Works and Correspondences. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  307. Find this resource:
  308. Primary Orientalist Texts on Islam
  309.  
  310. Before the 20th century, the majority of academic texts on Islam were written with the bias either that contemporary Europe was a superior culture or that Christianity was a superior religion. The sections below include texts that view Islam in a biased way, usually from a Christian apologetic perspective, through the lens of a Western traveler, or as a literary motif. The focus here is on early Orientalist texts, most of which are dated or should be used with caution.
  311.  
  312. Apologetic and Biased Christian Views
  313.  
  314. The earliest descriptions of Islam refer to the religion as “Mahometanism” or “Mohammedanism,” following the false medieval notion that Muslims worshipped Muhammad in the way that Christians revered Christ. One of the earliest accounts in English was Bedwell 1615, which styled Islam as an “imposture.” Older Orientalist accounts of Islam focus on the life of Muhammad (Boulainvilliers 1731, Muir 1858–1861, Prideaux 1698).
  315.  
  316. Bedwell, William. A Discovery of the Impostures of Mahomet and of the Koran. London: n.p. 1615.
  317. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  318. One of the earliest accounts of Muhammad in English.
  319. Bedwell, William. A Discovery of the Impostures of Mahomet and of the Koran. London: n.p. 1615.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Boulainvilliers, Henri de. The Life of Mahomet. London: W. Hinchliffe, 1731.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. The online resource contains excerpts.
  324. Boulainvilliers, Henri de. The Life of Mahomet. London: W. Hinchliffe, 1731.
  325. Find this resource:
  326. Foster, Charles. Mahometanism Unveiled. London: J. Duncan, 1829.
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328. Apologetic critique of Muhammad. Available online.
  329. Foster, Charles. Mahometanism Unveiled. London: J. Duncan, 1829.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. Muir, William. The Life of Mahomet. 4 vols. London: Smith, Elder, 1858–1861.
  332. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  333. One of the first studies of the life of Muhammad based on original sources, but from a solid Christian bias. Available online.
  334. Muir, William. The Life of Mahomet. 4 vols. London: Smith, Elder, 1858–1861.
  335. Find this resource:
  336. Prideaux, Humphrey. The True Nature of Imposture Fully Display'd in the Life of Mahomet. London: William Rogers, 1698.
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338. Attack on Islam as foil for criticism of Deism.
  339. Prideaux, Humphrey. The True Nature of Imposture Fully Display'd in the Life of Mahomet. London: William Rogers, 1698.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Sale, George. The Koran, Commonly Called the Alcoran of Mohammed. London: C. Ackers for J. Wilcox, 1734.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. One of the earliest English translations of the Qur'an. Reprinted, edited by Robert D. Richardson, Jr. New York: Garland, 1984.
  344. Sale, George. The Koran, Commonly Called the Alcoran of Mohammed. London: C. Ackers for J. Wilcox, 1734.
  345. Find this resource:
  346. Early Academic Texts
  347.  
  348. The French edition of Description de l'Éypte 1809–1826 is one of the foundational texts of Orientalist depiction of Egypt and includes illustrations of Islamic architecture and people. The first major compendium on Islamic customs was d'Herbelot 1697. This was widely quoted in the 18th century, especially for literary texts. By the early 20th century, more objective general accounts of Islam began to appear, although the term “Mohammedanism” was still used (Margoliouth 1912). Attempts to evaluate the Qur'an as a historical text were influenced by the German scholar Nöldeke 1860. Interest in the origins of the Qur'an focused on foreign words in Qur'anic Arabic (Jeffery 1938). The most important early academic study of the tradition (Hadith) literature was Goldziher 1889–1890. An important study of the relation between the Muslim story of Muhammad's ascent into the heavens and Dante's Divine Comedy was given by Asín Palacios 1926.
  349.  
  350. Asín Palacios, Manuel. Islam and the “Divine Comedy.” Translated and abridged by Harold Sunderland. London: John Murray, 1926.
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352. Original Spanish version published in 1919. Discussion of the influence of the Muslim story of Muhammad's night journey to the heavens on the writings of Dante.
  353. Asín Palacios, Manuel. Islam and the “Divine Comedy.” Translated and abridged by Harold Sunderland. London: John Murray, 1926.
  354. Find this resource:
  355. Description de l'Éypte. Paris, 1809–1826.
  356. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. Documentation of Napoleon's expedition, primarily useful for its illustrations. Available online.
  358. Description de l'Éypte. Paris, 1809–1826.
  359. Find this resource:
  360. d'Herbelot de Molainville, Barthélemy. Bibliothèque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui regarde la connoissance des peuples de l'Orient. Paris: S.l.: s.n. (8 févr.), 1697.
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362. The most widely cited European text on Islam and Islamic cultures.
  363. d'Herbelot de Molainville, Barthélemy. Bibliothèque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui regarde la connoissance des peuples de l'Orient. Paris: S.l.: s.n. (8 févr.), 1697.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Goldziher, Ignác. Muhammedanische Studien. 2 vols. Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1889–1890.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Discussion of Islamic sources based on scholarly reading of original texts. English translation edited by S. M. Stern, with introduction by Hamid Dabashi, New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine, 2006.
  368. Goldziher, Ignác. Muhammedanische Studien. 2 vols. Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1889–1890.
  369. Find this resource:
  370. Jeffery, Arthur. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur'an. Baroda, India: Oriental Institute, 1938.
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372. An important analysis of the origin of the Qur'an based on imported non-Arabic terms. New edition with foreword by Gerhard Böwering and Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  373. Jeffery, Arthur. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur'an. Baroda, India: Oriental Institute, 1938.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Margoliouth, David S. Mohammedanism. London: Williams and Norgate, 1912.
  376. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  377. Widely distributed account of Islam with no overt apologetic bias. Basis for the later edition of H. A. R. Gibbs, Mohammedanism (1953). Available online.
  378. Margoliouth, David S. Mohammedanism. London: Williams and Norgate, 1912.
  379. Find this resource:
  380. Nöldeke, Theodor. Geschichte des Qorans. Göttingen, Germany: Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, 1860.
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382. One of the formative texts that examined the Qur'an as a literary text.
  383. Nöldeke, Theodor. Geschichte des Qorans. Göttingen, Germany: Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, 1860.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Salisbury, Edward E. “Contributions from Original Sources to Our Knowledge of the Sciences of Muslim Tradition.” Journal Of The American Oriental Society 7 (1860–1863): 60–142.
  386. DOI: 10.2307/592157Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. An early analysis of the tradition literature by an American scholar.
  388. Salisbury, Edward E. “Contributions from Original Sources to Our Knowledge of the Sciences of Muslim Tradition.” Journal Of The American Oriental Society 7 (1860–1863): 60–142.
  389. Find this resource:
  390. Orientalist Travel Accounts
  391.  
  392. There were many Orientalist travelers to Islamic sites, including the surreptitious visits to Mecca by Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (Burckhardt 1829) and Richard Burton (Burton 1855–1856). Two of the most widely read travel accounts in English are Blunt and Blunt 1881 and Lane 1836. Blunt 1882 published a favorable view of Islam at a time when most travelers still held negative views. Many books by missionaries and on Bible customs in the Holy Land comment on Islam (Thomson 1859).
  393.  
  394. Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen. The Future of Islam. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, 1882.
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396. Favorable account of Islam in Egypt from an English traveler who lived in Egypt and befriended the reformer Muhammad ʿAbduh.
  397. Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen. The Future of Islam. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, 1882.
  398. Find this resource:
  399. Blunt, Anne, and Wilfrid Scawen Blunt. A Pilgrimage to Nejd. London: John Murray, 1881.
  400. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  401. A sympathetic account of Bedouin tribes and Muslim cultures.
  402. Blunt, Anne, and Wilfrid Scawen Blunt. A Pilgrimage to Nejd. London: John Murray, 1881.
  403. Find this resource:
  404. Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig. Travels in Arabia. London: Henry Colburn, 1829.
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406. One of the earliest accounts in English of a secret trip to Mecca. Available online.
  407. Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig. Travels in Arabia. London: Henry Colburn, 1829.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Burton, Richard F. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah. 3 vols. London: Longmans, 1855–1856.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. The most famous travel account in English of Mecca and Medina. Second edition available online.
  412. Burton, Richard F. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah. 3 vols. London: Longmans, 1855–1856.
  413. Find this resource:
  414. Lane, Edward. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. London: Charles Knight, 1836.
  415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416. Classic travel account on Islam in Egypt, revised in 1860 and reprinted many times since. Available online.
  417. Lane, Edward. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. London: Charles Knight, 1836.
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Thomson, William M. The Land and the Book; or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery of the Holy Land. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1859.
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421. Widely read account of Bible customs explained with contemporary manners observed by a missionary in Lebanon.
  422. Thomson, William M. The Land and the Book; or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery of the Holy Land. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1859.
  423. Find this resource:
  424. Orientalist Literary Texts on Islam: Fiction and Drama
  425.  
  426. European fascination with the Islamic Orient led to the genre of fictitious Oriental tales (Parker 1999), most notably Montesquieu 1721. Several playwrights drew on Islamic characters (Dimmock 2005), including Christopher Marlowe's (1587–1590) Tamburlaine and Voltaire's play on Muhammad (Voltaire 1741) as a foil for the fanaticism of dogma in the Catholic Church. The influence of the Arabian Nights was extensive on European authors (Irwin 2004). Novelists also invented Muslim characters, including the popular fictitious tale of Hajji Baba (Morier 1895).
  427.  
  428. Barfoot, C. C., and Theo D'haen, eds. Oriental Prospects: Western Literature and the Lure of the East. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998.
  429. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430. Anthology of fifteen articles dealing with Western literature, with an emphasis on the impact of Edward Said.
  431. Barfoot, C. C., and Theo D'haen, eds. Oriental Prospects: Western Literature and the Lure of the East. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Dimmock, Matthew. New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Examines plays by English playwrights Kyd, Marlowe, and Shakespeare.
  436. Dimmock, Matthew. New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
  437. Find this resource:
  438. Irwin, Robert. The Arabian Nights: A Companion. 2d ed. London: Tauris Parke, 2004.
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440. Major survey of the origins and reception of the Arabian Nights and the impact on literature.
  441. Irwin, Robert. The Arabian Nights: A Companion. 2d ed. London: Tauris Parke, 2004.
  442. Find this resource:
  443. Montesquieu, Charles Louis de. Lettres persanes. Amsterdam: n.p., 1721.
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445. Classic satire of French society using Muslim characters. Online French version, Lettres persanes; online English translation, Persian Letters.
  446. Montesquieu, Charles Louis de. Lettres persanes. Amsterdam: n.p., 1721.
  447. Find this resource:
  448. Morier, James. The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan. New York, London: Macmillan, 1895.
  449. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450. Popular Victorian novel based on Muslim character. The online version is the 1895 edition. Available online.
  451. Morier, James. The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan. New York, London: Macmillan, 1895.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Parker, Kenneth, ed. Early Modern Tales of Orient: A Critical Anthology. London: Routledge, 1999.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Introduction and eleven tales written by English authors between 1590 and 1698.
  456. Parker, Kenneth, ed. Early Modern Tales of Orient: A Critical Anthology. London: Routledge, 1999.
  457. Find this resource:
  458. Voltaire. Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet. n.p., 1741.
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460. Controversial play in which Islam is a foil for Catholicism. The 1901 English translation by William F. Fleming is online.
  461. Voltaire. Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet. n.p., 1741.
  462. Find this resource:
  463. Orientalist Literary Texts on Islam: Poetry
  464.  
  465. European poets often wrote on Oriental and Islamic themes (Sharafuddin 1996), especially the German poet Goethe (Fink 1982, Mommsen 1988). Among the English poems that used Islam as a metaphor were Byron's The Giaour (Byron 1813, Beatty 1999) and Southey's Thalaba the Destroyer (Southey 1801). The most widely read Oriental poem in English was Thomas Moore's Lalla Rookh (Moore 1817), which presented Islam as a sensuous religion.
  466.  
  467. Beatty, Bernard. “Calvin in Islam: A Reading of Lara and The Giaour.” Romanticism 5 (1999): 70–86.
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469. Examines Byron's understanding of Islam as illustrated by these two poems.
  470. Beatty, Bernard. “Calvin in Islam: A Reading of Lara and The Giaour.” Romanticism 5 (1999): 70–86.
  471. Find this resource:
  472. Byron, George Gordon, Lord. The Giaour. London: Thomas Davison, for John Murray, 1813.
  473. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474. Important Romantic period poem on the murder of an Ottoman sultan. Available in Three Oriental Tales: Complete Texts with Introduction, Historical Contexts, Critical Essays. Edited by Alan Richardson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Also available online.
  475. Byron, George Gordon, Lord. The Giaour. London: Thomas Davison, for John Murray, 1813.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Fink, Karl J. “Goethe's West Östlicher Divan: Orientalism Restructured.” International Journal Of Middle East Studies 14 (1982): 315–328.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Analysis of the German Romantic view of Islam in one of Goethe's major poetic works.
  480. Fink, Karl J. “Goethe's West Östlicher Divan: Orientalism Restructured.” International Journal Of Middle East Studies 14 (1982): 315–328.
  481. Find this resource:
  482. Mommsen, Katherina. Goethe und die Arabische Welt. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Insel, 1988.
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484. Detailed study of Goethe's knowledge of Islam and the Arab world.
  485. Mommsen, Katherina. Goethe und die Arabische Welt. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Insel, 1988.
  486. Find this resource:
  487. Moore, Thomas. Lalla Rookh: An Oriental Romance. London: Longman, 1817.
  488. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  489. Very popular Victorian poetry on Oriental theme. Available online.
  490. Moore, Thomas. Lalla Rookh: An Oriental Romance. London: Longman, 1817.
  491. Find this resource:
  492. Sharafuddin, Mohammed. Islam and Romantic Orientalism: Literary Encounters with the Orient. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
  493. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  494. Emphasis on English texts, especially for poetry.
  495. Sharafuddin, Mohammed. Islam and Romantic Orientalism: Literary Encounters with the Orient. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Smith, Byron Porter. Islam in English Literature. 2d ed. New York: Caravan, 1977.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Dated survey, but still useful for earlier sources on poetry and other literary genres.
  500. Smith, Byron Porter. Islam in English Literature. 2d ed. New York: Caravan, 1977.
  501. Find this resource:
  502. Southey, Robert. Thalaba the Destroyer. London: T.N. Longman and O. Rees, 1801.
  503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  504. The online resource gives an excerpt of the poem.
  505. Southey, Robert. Thalaba the Destroyer. London: T.N. Longman and O. Rees, 1801.
  506. Find this resource:
  507. Critiques of Orientalist Views on Islam
  508.  
  509. The bias inherent in most Orientalist texts before the 20th century was the focus of Edward Said's polemical Orientalism. The sections below provide examples of criticism of bias by Western and Muslim scholars before Said's work, the ongoing debate over Said's work, and more recent critiques by Arab and Muslim scholars. For comprehensive overviews of Western critical approaches to Islam, see Irwin 2006, Rodinson 1987, and Turner 1994. Watt 1991 focuses on the history of the encounter between European Christians and Muslims. Varisco 2005 critiques the representation of Islam by Orientalists and anthropologists.
  510.  
  511. Irwin, Robert. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. London: Allen Lane, 2006.
  512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513. Comprehensive survey of the history of Western Orientalism from its beginnings to the present, including a critique of Edward Said's Orientalism thesis.
  514. Irwin, Robert. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. London: Allen Lane, 2006.
  515. Find this resource:
  516. Rodinson, Maxime. Europe and the Mystique of Islam. Translated by Roger Veinus. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987.
  517. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  518. Original French La fascination de l'Islam published in 1980.
  519. Rodinson, Maxime. Europe and the Mystique of Islam. Translated by Roger Veinus. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Historian's focus on Western scholarly treatments of Islam in Iran and Iranian views of the West.
  524. Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
  525. Find this resource:
  526. Turner, Bryan. Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism. London: Routledge, 1994.
  527. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  528. General survey of the impact of Orientalism in contemporary academic writing and politics.
  529. Turner, Bryan. Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism. London: Routledge, 1994.
  530. Find this resource:
  531. Varisco, Daniel Martin. Islam Obscured: The Rhetoric of Anthropological Representation. New York: Palgrave, 2005.
  532. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  533. Critical analysis of texts on Islam by Clifford Geertz, Ernest Gellner, Fatima Mernissi, Akbar Ahmed, and Orientalist William Muir.
  534. Varisco, Daniel Martin. Islam Obscured: The Rhetoric of Anthropological Representation. New York: Palgrave, 2005.
  535. Find this resource:
  536. Watt, W. Montgomery. Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions. London: Routledge, 1991.
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538. Focus on the misperceptions held by European apologists and scholars about Islam.
  539. Watt, W. Montgomery. Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions. London: Routledge, 1991.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Critiques by Western Scholars before Said's Orientalism
  542.  
  543. Before the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism, only a few Western scholars provided critical assessments of the prejudice against Islam, although there was major disagreement between scholars over specific interpretations. An important critique of the concept of “Orient” was given by Goldammer 1962, but ignored by English-speaking scholars, including Edward Said. Hourani 1972, Rodinson 1974, Waardenburg 1963, and Waardenburg 1973 were among the major Orientalist scholars criticizing bias in the academic literature. Turner 1974 examines Max Weber's Orientalist views on Islam.
  544.  
  545. Beckingham, Charles F. “Misconceptions of Islam: Medieval and Modern.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 124 (1976): 606–611.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Brief but important critique by a British scholar.
  548. Beckingham, Charles F. “Misconceptions of Islam: Medieval and Modern.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 124 (1976): 606–611.
  549. Find this resource:
  550. Cahen, Claude, and Charles Pellat. “Les études arabes et islamiques.” Journal Asiatique 261 (1973): 89–107.
  551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552. Critical summary of the state of the field of Oriental studies by two prominent French scholars.
  553. Cahen, Claude, and Charles Pellat. “Les études arabes et islamiques.” Journal Asiatique 261 (1973): 89–107.
  554. Find this resource:
  555. Goldammer, Kurt. Der Mythus von Ost und West: Eine kultur- und religionsgeschichtliche Betrachtung. Basel, Switzerland: Ernst Reinhardt, 1962.
  556. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  557. Critique of the notion “Orient” as a scholarly concept.
  558. Goldammer, Kurt. Der Mythus von Ost und West: Eine kultur- und religionsgeschichtliche Betrachtung. Basel, Switzerland: Ernst Reinhardt, 1962.
  559. Find this resource:
  560. Hourani, Albert. “[Review of] The Cambridge History of Islam.” English Historical Review 87 (1972): 348–357.
  561. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562. Critical review of a major historical survey of Islam.
  563. Hourani, Albert. “[Review of] The Cambridge History of Islam.” English Historical Review 87 (1972): 348–357.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Rodinson, Maxime. “The Western Image and Western Studies of Islam.” In The Legacy of Islam. By Maxime Rodinson, edited by J. Schacht and C. E. Bosworth, 9–62. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Survey of Orientalist bias by prominent French scholar.
  568. Rodinson, Maxime. “The Western Image and Western Studies of Islam.” In The Legacy of Islam. By Maxime Rodinson, edited by J. Schacht and C. E. Bosworth, 9–62. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974.
  569. Find this resource:
  570. Turner, Bryan. Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974.
  571. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  572. Important analysis of the role of Weber in defining Western academic study of Islam. New edition: Turner, Bryan. Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. London: Routledge, 1998.
  573. Turner, Bryan. Weber and Islam: A Critical Study. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974.
  574. Find this resource:
  575. Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. L'Islam dans le miroir de l'Occident; comment quelques orientalistes occidentaux se sont penchés sur l'Islam et se sont formés une image de cette religion. Paris: Mounton, 1963.
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577. Major survey of the study of Islam in the history of Oriental and religious studies.
  578. Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. L'Islam dans le miroir de l'Occident; comment quelques orientalistes occidentaux se sont penchés sur l'Islam et se sont formés une image de cette religion. Paris: Mounton, 1963.
  579. Find this resource:
  580. Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. “Changes of Perspective in Islamic Studies over the Last Decade.” Humaniora Islamica 1 (1973): 247–260.
  581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  582. Commentary on recognition of past bias by scholars of Islam.
  583. Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. “Changes of Perspective in Islamic Studies over the Last Decade.” Humaniora Islamica 1 (1973): 247–260.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Critiques by Muslim and Arab Scholars before Said's Orientalism
  586.  
  587. The popularity of Said's Orientalism obscures a number of important earlier critiques of Orientalist views on Islam by Arab and Muslim authors (Abdel Malek 1963, Arkoun 1964, Haykel 1976, Tibawi 1963). Several other critiques appeared (Djait 1985, Laroui 1976) about the same time as Said's text. The 19th-century Muslim scholar al-Afghani refuted the Orientalist claims of Renan (Keddie 1968). Other earlier Muslim critiques are made available by Rahimieh 1990.
  588.  
  589. Abdel Malek, Anouar. “Orientalism in Crisis.” Diogenes 44 (1963):104–112.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Critique by Egyptian intellectual on Western bias. Also available in Orientalism: A Reader. Edited by A. L. Macfie, 47–56. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
  592. Abdel Malek, Anouar. “Orientalism in Crisis.” Diogenes 44 (1963):104–112.
  593. Find this resource:
  594. Ahmad, Jalal Al-i. Occidentosis: A Plague from the West. Translated by R. Campbell. Berkeley, CA: Mizan, 1984.
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596. Translated from the original Persian edition of 1962. Satirical response to Western misperceptions of Islam and the so-called “Orient.”
  597. Ahmad, Jalal Al-i. Occidentosis: A Plague from the West. Translated by R. Campbell. Berkeley, CA: Mizan, 1984.
  598. Find this resource:
  599. Arkoun, Mohamed. “L'Islam moderne vu par le professeur G. E. von Grunebaum.” Arabica 11 (1964): 113–126.
  600. DOI: 10.1163/157005864X00419Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601. Critique of the essentialist bias of Orientalist von Grunebaum by a major Algerian philosopher who teaches in Paris.
  602. Arkoun, Mohamed. “L'Islam moderne vu par le professeur G. E. von Grunebaum.” Arabica 11 (1964): 113–126.
  603. Find this resource:
  604. Djait, Hichem. Europe and Islam. Translated by Peter Heinegg. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
  605. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  606. English translation of L'Europe et L'Islam (1978). Scholarly critical assessment by Tunisian philosopher.
  607. Djait, Hichem. Europe and Islam. Translated by Peter Heinegg. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Haykel, Muhammad. The Life of Muhammad. Plainfield, IN: American Trust Publications, 1976.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Translation of original Arabic edition (1935). Biography of the prophet Muhammad with critique of Western scholarly bias against. Excerpts available online.
  612. Haykel, Muhammad. The Life of Muhammad. Plainfield, IN: American Trust Publications, 1976.
  613. Find this resource:
  614. Keddie, Nikki R. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616. Analysis of al-Afghani's views of the West, including translated excerpts from the Persian text of The Refutation of the Materialists (1881). Reprinted 1983.
  617. Keddie, Nikki R. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
  618. Find this resource:
  619. Laroui, Abdallah. The Crisis of the Arab Intellectual: Traditionalism or Historicism? Translated by Diarmid Cammell. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
  620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  621. English translation of La Crise des intellectuels arabes: traditionalisme ou historicisme (1974), an important assessment of Arab intellectual response to the West, including critique of von Grunebaum.
  622. Laroui, Abdallah. The Crisis of the Arab Intellectual: Traditionalism or Historicism? Translated by Diarmid Cammell. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
  623. Find this resource:
  624. Rahimieh, Nasrin. Oriental Responses to the West: Comparative Essays in Select Writers from the Muslim World. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1990.
  625. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  626. Survey of Muslim writers who responded to Western bias against Islam and their cultures.
  627. Rahimieh, Nasrin. Oriental Responses to the West: Comparative Essays in Select Writers from the Muslim World. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1990.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Tibawi, A. L. “English-speaking Orientalists: A Critique of Their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism.” Muslim World 53 (1963): 185–204, 298–313.
  630. DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1963.tb01156.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Critique by Muslim scholar of major Western Orientalist texts. Also available in Orientalism: A Reader. Edited by A. L. Macfie, 57–76. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
  632. Tibawi, A. L. “English-speaking Orientalists: A Critique of Their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism.” Muslim World 53 (1963): 185–204, 298–313.
  633. Find this resource:
  634. Edward Said's Writings on Orientalism
  635.  
  636. The seminal Orientalism (Said 1978) is the most influential critique of Orientalist scholarship with a focus on the Near East and Islam. Although it has undergone several editions in English, it remains unrevised. Said added an Afterword in 1984 and a Preface in 2003. Orientalism has been translated into three dozen languages. Previous to this book, Said 1976 is a major review outlining his problems with Orientalist dogma.
  637.  
  638. Said, Edward. “Arabs, Islam and the Dogmas of the West.” New York Times Book Review, October 31, 1976, 4–5, 35–37; December 16, 37–38.
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640. Review of ten Orientalist books on Islam and Arabs.
  641. Said, Edward. “Arabs, Islam and the Dogmas of the West.” New York Times Book Review, October 31, 1976, 4–5, 35–37; December 16, 37–38.
  642. Find this resource:
  643. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Random House, 1978.
  644. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  645. The most important critical study of Orientalism, which broadens the definition from academic texts to any Western text dealing with the so-called “Orient.” Said argues that a latent Orientalist discourse, borrowing the term from Foucault, has filtered all Western writing about the real Orient and resulted in an imaginary that justifies Western superiority and imperial ambitions.
  646. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Random House, 1978.
  647. Find this resource:
  648. Said, Edward. The World, the Text and the Critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.
  649. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  650. Chapter 12 continues Said's reflections on the roles of Renan and Massignon in Orientalism.
  651. Said, Edward. The World, the Text and the Critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Said, Edward. “Islam through Western Eyes.” The Nation, April 26, 1998.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Essay relating his views on Orientalism directly to Islam. Available online.
  656. Said, Edward. “Islam through Western Eyes.” The Nation, April 26, 1998.
  657. Find this resource:
  658. Said, Edward. “Preface to the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition.” In Orientalism, xv–xxx. By Edward Said. New York: Vintage, 2003.
  659. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  660. Said's last statement on the reception of his book. Available online.
  661. Said, Edward. “Preface to the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition.” In Orientalism, xv–xxx. By Edward Said. New York: Vintage, 2003.
  662. Find this resource:
  663. Edward W. Said: A Bibliography">Yeghiayan, Eddie, comp. Edward W. Said: A Bibliography. 2001.
  664. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  665. Covers Said's publications through 2001.
  666. Edward W. Said: A Bibliography">Yeghiayan, Eddie, comp. Edward W. Said: A Bibliography. 2001.
  667. Find this resource:
  668. Reviews of Edward Said's Orientalism, First Edition
  669.  
  670. More than fifty reviews of Said's work were published in journals and other sources, the most important being al-ʿAzm 1984, Brombert 1979, Daniel 1982, Gran 1980, Lewis 1982, and Patai 1979.
  671.  
  672. Ahmad, Aijaz. In theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. London: Verso, 1992.
  673. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  674. Discussion of Said's theoretical faults in chapter 5.
  675. Ahmad, Aijaz. In theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. London: Verso, 1992.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. al-ʿAzm, Sadiq Jalal. “Orientalism and Orientalism in Reverse.” In Forbidden Agendas: Intolerance and Defiance in the Middle East. By Sadiq Jalal al-ʿAzm, edited by Jon Rothschild, 349–376. London: Al Saqi, 1984.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Reprint of important review by Arab critic, first published in 1981 in the journal Khamsin. Also available in Orientalism: A Reader. Edited by A. L. Macfie, 217–238. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
  680. al-ʿAzm, Sadiq Jalal. “Orientalism and Orientalism in Reverse.” In Forbidden Agendas: Intolerance and Defiance in the Middle East. By Sadiq Jalal al-ʿAzm, edited by Jon Rothschild, 349–376. London: Al Saqi, 1984.
  681. Find this resource:
  682. Brombert, Victor. “Orientalism and the Scandals of Scholarship.” American Scholar 48 (1979): 532–542.
  683. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  684. Critical review of Said's text.
  685. Brombert, Victor. “Orientalism and the Scandals of Scholarship.” American Scholar 48 (1979): 532–542.
  686. Find this resource:
  687. Daniel, Norman. “Edward Said and the Orientalists.” Mélanges De L'institut Dominicain D'Études Orientales 15 (1982): 211–222.
  688. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  689. Critical review of Said's text.
  690. Daniel, Norman. “Edward Said and the Orientalists.” Mélanges De L'institut Dominicain D'Études Orientales 15 (1982): 211–222.
  691. Find this resource:
  692. Gran, Peter. “[Review of] Orientalism.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 100 (1980): 328–331.
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694. Critical review of Said's text.
  695. Gran, Peter. “[Review of] Orientalism.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 100 (1980): 328–331.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Lewis, Bernard. “The Question of Orientalism.” New York Review Of Books 29.11 (1982): 49–56, 29.12 (1982): 46–47.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Critical review by a major target of Said's criticism. Also available in Orientalism: A Reader. Edited by A. L. Macfie, 249–270. New York: New York University Press, 2000. Collection of ten original essays evaluating Said's Orientalism.
  700. Lewis, Bernard. “The Question of Orientalism.” New York Review Of Books 29.11 (1982): 49–56, 29.12 (1982): 46–47.
  701. Find this resource:
  702. Patai, Raphael. “The Orientalist Conspiracy.” Midstream 25.9 (1979): 62–66.
  703. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  704. Critical review of Said's text by a target of Said's criticism.
  705. Patai, Raphael. “The Orientalist Conspiracy.” Midstream 25.9 (1979): 62–66.
  706. Find this resource:
  707. Debates over the Text of Edward Said's Orientalism
  708.  
  709. A comprehensive analysis of Said's rhetoric and the ensuing debate over his Orientalism is provided by Varisco 2007. There are several negative attacks on Said's Orientalism (Ibn Warraq 2007, Kramer 2001). Said's Orientalism has also been the focus of numerous conference proceedings and anthologies (e.g., Niyogi 2006).
  710.  
  711. Ibn Warraq. Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2007.
  712. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  713. Negative and polemical criticism by ex-Muslim author; poorly edited text.
  714. Ibn Warraq. Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2007.
  715. Find this resource:
  716. Khawaja, Irfan. “Essentialism, Consistency and Islam: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism.” Israel Affairs 13 (2007): 689–713.
  717. DOI: 10.1080/13537120701444961Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718. Recent critical assessment of the impact of Said's text.
  719. Khawaja, Irfan. “Essentialism, Consistency and Islam: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism.” Israel Affairs 13 (2007): 689–713.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Kramer, Martin. Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. Implicates Said for failures in Middle East studies scholarship.
  724. Kramer, Martin. Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001.
  725. Find this resource:
  726. Niyogi, Chandreyee, ed. Reorienting Orientalism. London: Sage, 2006.
  727. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  728. Collection of ten original essays evaluating Said's Orientalism.
  729. Niyogi, Chandreyee, ed. Reorienting Orientalism. London: Sage, 2006.
  730. Find this resource:
  731. Rosen, Lawrence. “Orientalism Revisited: Edward Said's Unfinished Critique.” Boston Review, January/February 2007.
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733. Recent critical assessment of the influence of Said on academic studies of Islam and the Middle East. Available online.
  734. Rosen, Lawrence. “Orientalism Revisited: Edward Said's Unfinished Critique.” Boston Review, January/February 2007.
  735. Find this resource:
  736. Sivan, Emmanuel. Interpretations of Islam: Past and Present. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1985.
  737. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  738. Translated excerpts from Arab critics of Said, including Nadim al-Bitar.
  739. Sivan, Emmanuel. Interpretations of Islam: Past and Present. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1985.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Varisco, Daniel Martin. Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Comprehensive survey of the debate over Said's text, with an extensive bibliography.
  744. Varisco, Daniel Martin. Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007.
  745. Find this resource:
  746. Williams, Patrick, ed. Edward Said. 4 vols. London: Sage, 2001.
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748. Major anthology of most of the relevant sources about Said's Orientalism, including many that are difficult to locate in libraries. Detailed table of contents available online.
  749. Williams, Patrick, ed. Edward Said. 4 vols. London: Sage, 2001.
  750. Find this resource:
  751. Arab and Muslim Critiques of Orientalism after Said
  752.  
  753. In the past three decades, a number of Muslim scholars have continued criticism of Western bias in the academic representation of Islam. One of the earliest anthologies after Said's text on Orientalism from a Muslim perspective was provided by Hussain et al. 1984. Sardar 1999 covers much of the same ground as Said in his critique of Orientalism. Buaben 1996 examines Orientalist bias on the Prophet Muhammad. Hanafi 1990 gives a Muslim perspective on the Western intellectual tradition as a counterpart to Orientalist discourse. There are numerous Muslim critiques available on internet sites (The Orientalist View of the Noble Prophet (PBUH)). Majid 2000 draws on postcolonial theory to build on Said's critique.
  754.  
  755. Abdul-Rauf, Muhammad. “Outsiders' Interpretations of Islam: A Muslim's Point of View.” In Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies. By Muhammad Abdul-Rauf, edited by Richard C. Martin, 175–188. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985.
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757. Critique by an American Muslim leader.
  758. Abdul-Rauf, Muhammad. “Outsiders' Interpretations of Islam: A Muslim's Point of View.” In Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies. By Muhammad Abdul-Rauf, edited by Richard C. Martin, 175–188. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985.
  759. Find this resource:
  760. Arkoun, Mohamed. “Discours islamiques, discours orientalistes et pensée scientifique.” Comparative Civilizations Review 13–14 (1985–1986): 90–110.
  761. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  762. Important critique by the noted Algerian philosopher.
  763. Arkoun, Mohamed. “Discours islamiques, discours orientalistes et pensée scientifique.” Comparative Civilizations Review 13–14 (1985–1986): 90–110.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Buaben, Jabal Muhammad. Image of the Prophet Muhammad in the West: A Study of Muir, Margoliouth and Watt. Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1996.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Major critical assessment of Western scholarly bias on Islam. Reprinted 2007.
  768. Buaben, Jabal Muhammad. Image of the Prophet Muhammad in the West: A Study of Muir, Margoliouth and Watt. Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1996.
  769. Find this resource:
  770. Hanafi, Hasan. “De l'orientalisme a l'occidentalisme.” Peuples Méditerranéens 50 (1990): 115–119.
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772. French essay by major Egyptian intellectual who has founded an institute at Cairo University for the academic study of the West.
  773. Hanafi, Hasan. “De l'orientalisme a l'occidentalisme.” Peuples Méditerranéens 50 (1990): 115–119.
  774. Find this resource:
  775. Hussain, Asaf, Robert Olson, and Jamil Qureshi, eds. Orientalism, Islam, and Islamists. Brattleboro, VT: Amana, 1984.
  776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  777. Collection of articles by Asaf Hussain, Aziz Al-Azmeh, Ziya-ul-Hasan Faruqi, Jamal Qureshi, Sulayman Nyang, and Samir Abed-Rabbo, as well as Gordon Pruett and Bryan Turner.
  778. Hussain, Asaf, Robert Olson, and Jamil Qureshi, eds. Orientalism, Islam, and Islamists. Brattleboro, VT: Amana, 1984.
  779. Find this resource:
  780. Majid, Anouar. Unveiling Traditions: Postcolonial Islam in a Polycentric World. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000.
  781. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  782. Impressive follow-up to Said's thesis with a focus on the role of capitalist society in maintaining Orientalist bias.
  783. Majid, Anouar. Unveiling Traditions: Postcolonial Islam in a Polycentric World. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Samman, Khaldoun, and Mazhar Al-Zo'by, eds. Islam and the Orientalist World-System. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2008.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Confronts analysis of Islam as a “cultural system” that stands outside of and predates modernity.
  788. Samman, Khaldoun, and Mazhar Al-Zo'by, eds. Islam and the Orientalist World-System. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2008.
  789. Find this resource:
  790. Sardar, Ziauddin. Orientalism. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1999.
  791. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  792. General survey written for a general audience by a British Muslim.
  793. Sardar, Ziauddin. Orientalism. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1999.
  794. Find this resource:
  795. Zankana, Sabah. The Orientalist View of the Noble Prophet (PBUH). International Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture, n.d.
  796. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  797. One of many Muslim websites protesting Western misrepresentation of Muhammad.
  798. Zankana, Sabah. The Orientalist View of the Noble Prophet (PBUH). International Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture, n.d.
  799. Find this resource:
  800. Works on Specific Topics
  801.  
  802. Orientalism covers a wide range of topics beyond the subject of Islam. Of particular relevance are works on Islamic architecture, the ways in which Muslims have been portrayed in Orientalist art and music, and the issue of gender and depiction of women.
  803.  
  804. Orientalist Art, Architecture, and Music of Islam and the Middle East
  805.  
  806. One of the most visible representations of Muslims as “Orientals” is the tradition of “Orientalist” art, which is surveyed by Benjamin 2003 and Edwards 2000. MacKenzie 1995 provides a historial overview of the treatment of the Orient by artists and architects. Art and architecture are covered together by Beaulieu and Roberts 2002 and Sweetman 1988. For a discussion of Oriental motifs in European music, see Bohlman 1986.
  807.  
  808. Beaulieu, Jill, and Mary Roberts, eds. Orientalism's Interlocutors: Painting, Architecture, Photography. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.
  809. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  810. Collection of six articles on North African painters, depictions of women and mosque architecture.
  811. Beaulieu, Jill, and Mary Roberts, eds. Orientalism's Interlocutors: Painting, Architecture, Photography. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Benjamin, Roger. Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French Africa, 1880–1930. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. Major survey of the genre of Orientalist art.
  816. Benjamin, Roger. Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French Africa, 1880–1930. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
  817. Find this resource:
  818. Bohlman, P. V. “The European Discovery of Music in the Islamic World and the ‘Non-Western’ in 19th Century Music History.” Journal of Music History 5 (1986): 147–163.
  819. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  820. Discussion of the influence of Middle Eastern music on the European musical tradition.
  821. Bohlman, P. V. “The European Discovery of Music in the Islamic World and the ‘Non-Western’ in 19th Century Music History.” Journal of Music History 5 (1986): 147–163.
  822. Find this resource:
  823. Edwards, Holly, ed. Noble Dreams, Wicked Pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
  824. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  825. Major survey of American Orientalist artists.
  826. Edwards, Holly, ed. Noble Dreams, Wicked Pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
  827. Find this resource:
  828. MacKenzie, John M. Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1995.
  829. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  830. Important theoretical discussion of the history of Orientalist art.
  831. MacKenzie, John M. Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1995.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Meagher, Jennifer. “Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art.” Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835. Online timeline of the main Orientalist artists.
  836. Meagher, Jennifer. “Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art.” Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
  837. Find this resource:
  838. Orientalist Art of the Nineteenth Century. 2000.
  839. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  840. Gallery of Orientalist art with bibliography and links.
  841. Orientalist Art of the Nineteenth Century. 2000.
  842. Find this resource:
  843. Raymond, Andre. “Islamic City, Arab City: Orientalist Myths and Recent Views.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21 (1994): 3–18.
  844. DOI: 10.1080/13530199408705589Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  845. Critique of earlier Orientalist views on the nature of an Islamic city.
  846. Raymond, Andre. “Islamic City, Arab City: Orientalist Myths and Recent Views.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21 (1994): 3–18.
  847. Find this resource:
  848. Sweetman, John. The Oriental Obsession: Islamic Inspiration in British and American Art and Architecture 1500–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  849. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  850. Art and architecture are covered together.
  851. Sweetman, John. The Oriental Obsession: Islamic Inspiration in British and American Art and Architecture 1500–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Gender
  854.  
  855. The majority of Orientalist scholars before the late 20th century were male and often reflected a male bias. Keddie 1979 notes the problems in depictions of women in Orientalist texts. Ahmed 1992, Kahf 1999, and Bullock 2002 provide historical surveys of women in Islam with criticism of Orientalist views. The views of women travelers to the Middle East are analyzed by Melman 1992. The metaphor of the harem and Western views of Muslim and Oriental women are discussed by Lewis 1996, Yegenoglu 1998, and Yoshihara 2003. Abu-Lughod 2001 criticizes the persistence of Orientalist views in Middle Eastern studies.
  856.  
  857. Abu-Lughod, Lila. “Orientalism and the Middle East in Middle East Studies.” Feminist Studies 27 (2001): 101–113.
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Critical assessment of Orientalist bias in reference to gender by scholars of the Middle East.
  860. Abu-Lughod, Lila. “Orientalism and the Middle East in Middle East Studies.” Feminist Studies 27 (2001): 101–113.
  861. Find this resource:
  862. Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  864. Critical survey of the history of women in Islam, with critical comments on Orientalist views.
  865. Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  866. Find this resource:
  867. Bullock, Katherine. Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil: Challenging Historical and Modern Stereotypes. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2002.
  868. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  869. Muslim perspective on Orientalist representation of women.
  870. Bullock, Katherine. Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil: Challenging Historical and Modern Stereotypes. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2002.
  871. Find this resource:
  872. Kahf, Mohja. Western Representations of the Muslim Woman: From Termagant to Odalisque. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999.
  873. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  874. Critique of Orientalist views of women, including the work of Montesquieu.
  875. Kahf, Mohja. Western Representations of the Muslim Woman: From Termagant to Odalisque. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Keddie, Nikki. “Problems in the Study of Middle Eastern Women.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 225–240.
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. Overview of bias in previous Orientalist views of women.
  880. Keddie, Nikki. “Problems in the Study of Middle Eastern Women.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 225–240.
  881. Find this resource:
  882. Melman, Billie. Women's Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718–1918: Sexuality, Religion and Work. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.
  883. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  884. Survey of views by Western women travelers on Islam and the Middle East.
  885. Melman, Billie. Women's Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718–1918: Sexuality, Religion and Work. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.
  886. Find this resource:
  887. Lewis, Reina. Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation. London: Routledge, 1996.
  888. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  889. Critical discussion of Orientalist depictions of women.
  890. Lewis, Reina. Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation. London: Routledge, 1996.
  891. Find this resource:
  892. Yegenoglu, Meyda. Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  893. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  894. Critical survey of colonial-era views of women in the Middle East and wider Orient.
  895. Yegenoglu, Meyda. Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Yoshihara, Mari. Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899. Review of gender bias in American Orientalist writings.
  900. Yoshihara, Mari. Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  901. Find this resource:
  902. Media
  903.  
  904. During the development of Oriental studies, the primary media outreach was in print, especially newspapers and periodicals. Elgamri 2008 surveys the treatment of Islam in British newspapers. Steet 2000 traces the bias in representations of the Middle East in the popular American magazine National Geographic. Said 1997 provides an important critique of the media treatment of the Middle East, including the 1979 Iran hostage crisis. Orientalist bias continuing in film is documented by Shaheen 2001 and analyzed by McAlister 2001 and Bernstein and Studlar 1997.
  905.  
  906. Bernstein, Matthew, and Gaylyn Studlar, eds. Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.
  907. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  908. Anthology of eleven articles, with a select bibliography on Orientalism in film.
  909. Bernstein, Matthew, and Gaylyn Studlar, eds. Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.
  910. Find this resource:
  911. Elgamri, Elzain. Islam in the British Broadsheets: The Impact of Orientalism on Representations of Islam. Reading, UK: Ithaca, 2008.
  912. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  913. Treatment of the coverage of Islam in popular newspapers in Britain.
  914. Elgamri, Elzain. Islam in the British Broadsheets: The Impact of Orientalism on Representations of Islam. Reading, UK: Ithaca, 2008.
  915. Find this resource:
  916. McAlister, Melani. Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
  917. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  918. Analysis of political bias in American films that depict Middle Eastern themes and Muslims.
  919. McAlister, Melani. Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. Rev. ed. New York: Vintage, 1997.
  922. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. Original edition in 1981. Critical assessment of media coverage of Islam with a focus on the 1979 Iran hostage crisis.
  924. Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. Rev. ed. New York: Vintage, 1997.
  925. Find this resource:
  926. Shaheen, Jack G. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. New York: Olive Branch, 2001.
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928. Essay and annotated list of films that stereotype Arabs and Islam.
  929. Shaheen, Jack G. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. New York: Olive Branch, 2001.
  930. Find this resource:
  931. Steet, Linda. Veils and Daggers: A Century of National Geographic's Representation of the Arab World. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000.
  932. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  933. Historical survey of the bias in the magazine's articles and photographs of the Middle East and Muslims.
  934. Steet, Linda. Veils and Daggers: A Century of National Geographic's Representation of the Arab World. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000.
  935. Find this resource:
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