Battle of Poltava (Military History)

Introduction

The battle of Poltava was the defining engagement of the Great Northern War (1700–1721), the prolonged conflict between Russia and Sweden over supremacy in the northern regions of central and eastern Europe. The war erupted in 1700 when a coalition of Russia (led by Tsar Peter I), Denmark-Norway (under King Frederick IV), and Saxony-Poland-Lithuania (ruled by King Augustus II the Strong of Poland) challenged the hegemony that Sweden had exercised on the Baltic littoral since the mid-17th century. However, Charles (Karl) XII, the young and maverick Swedish ruler, quickly demonstrated his military expertise as he forced Denmark to leave the alliance, defeated Tsar Peter’s numerically superior army at Narva in 1700, and dethroned King Augustus, thus extending Swedish influence to much of Poland-Lithuania. Tsar Peter’s success in Ingria prompted Charles XII to invade Russia nine years later. The Swedish and Russian armies clashed on 27 June 1709 along the River Vorskla, not far from the Ukrainian city of Poltava. The battle ended in a shattering defeat for the Swedes, whose army was almost entirely destroyed. Charles XII was forced to flee to the Ottoman Empire. The myth of his invincibility having been destroyed, his enemies closed in, and Charles was shot dead in a battle while defending his western borders in 1718. Although the war continued until 1721, the defeat suffered at Poltava marked the end of Sweden as a great power and the birth of the Russian Empire.

Reference Works

Many useful reference works on the history of Sweden and Russia are available, but only a few focus on the Great Northern War. Millar 2004 is the most recent encyclopedia of Russian history and provides more than 1,500 entries encompassing more than 1,000 years of Russian history. Scobbie 2006 is a concise dictionary (more than 240 entries) that covers Swedish history from the Viking Age to the present day. Of greater utility is the Svenskt biografiskt lexicon, which contains numerous excellent biographical entries of Swedish military and political leaders. Similarly, Lewenhaupt 1920–1921 is a superb reference on the Swedish officers who took part in the war.

Lewenhaupt, Adam. Karl XII:s officerare: Biografiska anteckningar. Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt & Söner, 1920–1921.
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A massive two-volume reference work featuring biographical details on thousands of Swedish officers who served in the army and navy.
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Millar, James R. Encyclopedia of Russian History. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004.
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The most recent general reference work on the history of Russia, good for quick contextual reference.
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Scobbie, Irene. Historical Dictionary of Sweden. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2006.
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A concise but useful dictionary that covers the entire history of Sweden.
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Svenskt biografiskt lexicon. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1918–.
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The Dictionary of Swedish National Biography is one of the oldest biographical dictionaries still in progress. The first volume was published in 1918, and as of 2011, more than thirty volumes have been published, containing some 14,000 entries. It features many excellent biographical sketches of Swedish personalities involved in the war.
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State Documents

Dozens of Russian state documents and private narratives are available in Sbornik Russkago Istoricheskogo Obschestva, Chteniya v Imperatorskom obschestve istorii i drevnostei Rossiiskikh, and Trudy Imperatorskogo Russkogo Voenno-Istoricheskogo Obschestva. Some works, published prior to the 1920s and currently in public domain, can be accessed online, including through the online catalogue of the Russian State Library. Zhurnal ili Podennaya zapiska is the official journal maintained by Peter the Great, and it provides many interesting details on the war. Peter 1948–1952 contains Peter the Great’s personal and official papers and is useful for events leading to the battle. Beskrovnyi and Kumanev 2009 contains many previously unpublished documents and is highly useful in illustrating Russian military efforts during the first nine years of the war.

Beskrovnyi, L., and G. Kumanev, eds. Severnaya voina 1700–1721 gg.: K 300-letiu Poltavskoipobedy: Sbornik dokumentov. Moscow: Kuchkovo pole, 2009.
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Released to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Russian victory at Poltava, this hefty tome of more than 500 pages contains transcribed and annotated documents relating to the military operations leading up to the battle. Most of the documents included in this compilation have been published for the first time.
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Peter, Tsar of Russia. Zhurnal ili Podennaya zapiska . . . Petra Velikogo s 1698 g. dazhe do Zaklyucheniya Neyshtadtskogo mira. St. Petersburg: Pri Imperatorskoy Akademii Nauk, 1770–1772.
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This is the official journal maintained by Peter the Great throughout his reign. Written in an archaic Russian, it is quite challenging to read, but it is rewarding due to the wealth of information that it contains.
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Peter, Tsar of Russia. Pis’ma i bumagi imperatora Petra Velikogo. Edited by A. A. Preobrazhenskii. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences, 1948–1952.
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This multivolume publication features private correspondence, state documents, and official papers of Peter the Great. Volumes 8 and 9 contain material pertaining to the events at Poltava.
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Memoirs and Diaries

A vast array of memoirs, diaries, and journals has been published over the last 300 years. As are all works of this nature, they tend to be tendentious and self-serving, but they provide fascinating firsthand insights into the events of 1709. Numerous private narratives (diaries, letters, journals, memoirs) by various Swedish participants have been published in historical periodicals such as Karolinska krigares dagböcker, Historisk Tidskrift, and Historiska Handlingar. Agrell 1909 and Piper 1906 provide two differing views of the war as seen by a battalion chaplain and Charles XII’s first minister. Although written many years after the events and although the author is occasionally faulty, the memoirs of Count Bielke (Bielke 1901) remain interesting for representing the manner in which Charles XII’s memory was kept alive and cherished by one of his companions. Roos 1903 and Smepust 1907 provide contrasting views of a major general and a corporal, but they have a common thread in both authors having been held in Russian captivity. Kurakin 1890 covers the entire war and is interesting for representing the views of one of Peter the Great’s closest companions.

Agrell, Sven. “Andre legationspredikanten vid svenska beskickningen i Konstantinopel: Sven Agrellsdagbok 1707–1713.” Karolinska krigares dagböcker 5 (1909): 1–368.
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This diary traces the final six years of the life of Sven Agrell, who, after graduating from Lund University, joined the Swedish army in 1707 and was ordained a battalion chaplain with the Kronoberg Regiment in 1709. He accompanied Charles XII to Bender and later served at the embassy in Constantinople.
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Bielke, Ture Gabriel. Ture Habriel Bielkes hågkomster af Karl XII: Med en inledning utgifna af Carl Hallendorff. Uppsala, Sweden: E. Berling, 1901.
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Count Bielke served as a lieutenant of the Mounted Life Regiment at Poltava, was wounded during the battle, and followed Charles to Bender. He later made a successful political career, rising to the position of parliamentary councilor in 1727. His recollections were written in the 1740s and are naturally of questionable reliability when it comes to details, but they remain fascinating for representing the manner in which Charles XII’s memory was kept alive and cherished by one of his companions.
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Kurakin, Boris I. “Russko-shvedskaya voina: Zapiski, 1700–1710.” In Arkhiv kn. F. A. Kurakina. By Boris I. Kuarkin, 291–328. St. Petersburg, Russia, V. S. Balashev: 1890.
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Prince Kurakin was one of Peter the Great’s closest companions and statesmen, who achieved a successful diplomatic career serving in Rome, London, Hanover, and The Hague. In 1709, he commanded the Semeyonovskii Regiment at Poltava.
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Piper, Carl. Grefve Carl Pipers dagbok hållen under hans fångenskap i Ryssland 1709–1714. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1906.
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This is a diary of Charles XII’s first minister, who was the only member of the State Council to accompany the king on campaign. He played an important role in negotiating treaties with Poland and Saxony, but he was captured at Poltava and marched at the head of the procession of Swedish prisoners in a victory parade in Moscow.
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Roos, Carl. “Sanfärdig relation om det som wid fiendens skantzar wid Pultava passerade den 28 junij 1709.” Karolinska krigares dagböcker 2 (1903): 219–228.
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Memoirs of a Swedish major general who was captured at Poltava and kept in Russian captivity until 1722.
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Smepust, Eric Larsson. “Korpralen Erik Larsson Smepusts dagbok och anteckningar 1701–1718.” Karolinska krigares dagböcker 3 (1907): 115–181.
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Son of a farm laborer, Smepust enlisted in Lewenhaupt’s Regiment in 1701 and rose to the rank of a corporal before he was captured at Poltava. He escaped from Russian captivity in 1714.
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Sweden in the Early 18th Century

A broad introduction to Sweden’s history can be found in Carlsson and Rosén 1977–1979, which provides a concise and even-handed account of Sweden’s experiences leading into and during the war. The Swedish imperial epoch is covered in detail in Kirby 1990 but one cannot study it without referring to the excellent studies by Michael Roberts (Roberts 1973 and Roberts 1979). Swedish foreign policy and contextual international background is well discussed in Rosén 1952 and Jonasson 1960.

Carlsson, S., and Jerker Rosén. Svensk historia. 2 vols. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1977–1979.
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A two-volume history of Sweden, useful for background information.
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Jonasson, Gustaf. Karl XII och hans rådgivare: Den utrikespolitiska maktkampen i Sverige, 1697–1702. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1960.
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A detailed study of Charles XII’s foreign policy leading up to, and during the early years of, the Great Northern War.
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Kirby, David. Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492–1772. London: Longman, 1990.
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Although the term Baltic is often used in relation to the so-called Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), Kirby employs the term to embrace virtually every state that touches on the Baltic Sea. The book’s decisive strength is a clearly written narrative and well-considered pattern of interpretation that provides a broad overview of the entire Baltic region.
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Roberts, Michael. Sweden’s Age of Greatness, 1632–1718. London: Macmillan, 1973.
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A masterly written account of Sweden’s imperial era edited by its foremost English historian. Its erudite and stimulating essays cover a wide range of topics, including “The Swedish Army: From Lützen to Narva” by Alf Åberg and “The Swedish Economy and Sweden’s Role as a Great Power” by S. E. Åstrom. Recommended for both undergraduates and graduates.
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Roberts, Michael. The Swedish Imperial Experience, 1560–1718. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511622274Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A concise, magisterial study of the Swedish Empire that explores the making of the empire and explains its material resources as well as the character of the state. Highly recommended for both undergraduates and graduates.
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Rosén, Jerker. Den svenska utrikespolitikens historia, 1697–1721. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1952.
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A classic work on Swedish foreign policy in the twilight of the Swedish imperial era. The book provides a very good contextual setting for the events of the Great Northern War.
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Biographies of Charles XII

The biography by famed 18th-century French writer Voltaire (Voltaire 1981) has many inaccuracies, but it is useful for conveying contemporary views on Charles XII. Browning 1899 is useful but representative of late-19th-century historiography. Much more useful are Bengtsson 1960 and Hatton 1968, acclaimed biographies that still retain their value despite their age. Liljegren 2000 represents a modern Swedish take on the maverick Swedish ruler, while Grigoriev 2006 is the most balanced account of his life available in Russian today.

Bengtsson, Frans G. The Life of Charles XII, King of Sweden, 1697–1718. Translated by Naomi Walford. London: St. Martin’s, 1960.
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A translation of the acclaimed Swedish biography, which provides a competent overview of the king’s life and reign.
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Browning, Oscar. Charles XII of Sweden. London: Hurst & Blackett, 1899.
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A dated but still insightful biography of the Swedish king.
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Grigoriev, Boris. Karl XII ili Pyat’ pul’ dlyakorolya. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 2006.
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The most recent Russian-language biography of the Swedish ruler. Although a popular history, the book is based on a wide range of Swedish and Russian sources and is notable for its well-rounded discussion of the life of Charles.
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Hatton, Ragnhild. Charles XII of Sweden. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968.
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A classic biography of the Swedish ruler, raising numerous insightful points on the military events of the Great Northern War.
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Liljegren, Bengt. Karl XII: En biografi. Lund, Sweden: Historiska Media, 2000.
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One of the recent biographies of Charles XII, this is a well-written biography suitable for undergraduate and graduate students.
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Voltaire. Lion of the North: Charles XII of Sweden. Translated by M. F. O. Jenkins. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981.
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Published in 1731, The History of Charles XII was the first historical work written by this famous French writer. The author examined available state papers and consulted men who had known the “Lion of the North.” He succeeded in producing a fascinating narrative that is interesting for conveying contemporary views on Charles XII. Still, it has been described as vivid in narrative but inaccurate in detail.
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Russia in the Early 18th Century

Bushkovitch 2001, Hughes 1998, and Stevens 2007 are indispensable in understanding the rise of Russia to the status of great power. Bushkovitch outlines a political history of the rising Russian Empire and provides important insights into the Russian elite. Hughes, the foremost historian of Petrine Russia, provides a wealth of information on the Petrine reforms and policies and explains their impact on the Russian state. A more condensed discussion of the Petrine reforms can be found in Anderson 1970, while Anisimov 1993 provides a Russian assessment of Peter’s reign. Stevens 2007 is a very readable account of the emergence of Russia as a great power, and it provides good contextual background for Russian experiences during the Great Northern War. Hartley 2001 explores the changing British perceptions of Russia and explains how the Russian triumph at Poltava prompted Britain to view Russia as a threat. Russian policies toward the Baltic region can be found in Kirby 2001, Lewitter 1968, and Anderson 1970.

Anderson, Matthew S. “Russia under Peter the Great and the Changed Relations of East and West.” In The Rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688–1715/25. Edited by John S. Bromley, 716–740. The New Cambridge Modern History 6. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521075244Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Anderson’s essay provides a quick introduction to the Russian administration, military, economy, church, and culture, as well as Russian expansionism under Peter the Great.
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Anisimov, Evgenii. The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993.
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An in-depth study of the Petrine reforms, particularly useful for domestic policies, by a prominent Russian historian.
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Bushkovitch, Paul. Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power 1671–1725. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496691Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Despite the deceptive title, Bushkovitch’s lively study is not a biography of the Russian ruler but rather a political history of the rising Russian Empire. It is highly useful in charting the ins and outs of the Petrine elite.
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Hartley, Janet M. “Changing Perspectives: British Views of Russia from the Grand Embassy to the Peace of Nystad.” In Peter the Great and the West: New Perspectives. Edited by Lindsey Hughes, 53–70. Studies in Russia and East Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2001.
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The essay, written by one of the leading experts on 18th-century Russia, discusses the changing British perceptions of Russia. In 1698, the English viewed Russia as a potential market for their exports, but after Peter’s triumph at Poltava and the successful conclusion to the Great Northern War, Britain viewed Russia as a threat to the European balance of power in general and to British commerce in the Baltic region in particular.
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Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.
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This comprehensive and well-written account by the foremost historian of Petrine Russia discusses Peter’s reforms and policies and explains their impact on government, military, foreign policy, governing institutions, society, and culture. Required reading for anyone interested in this subject.
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Kirby, David. “Peter the Great and the Baltic.” In Peter the Great and the West: New Perspectives. Edited by Lindsey Hughes, 177–188. Studies in Russia and East Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2001.
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The chapter discusses the strategic, commercial, and dynastic factors that prompted Russia’s expansion into Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, and Finland.
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Lewitter, L. R. “Russia, Poland and the Baltic, 1697–1721.” Historical Journal 11 (1968): 3–34.
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X00002338Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The article discusses Peter I’s motives for seeking expansion in the Baltic region. The author argues that control of major Baltic seaports was of crucial importance for Russia in its efforts to become a Baltic power.
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Stevens, Carol B. Russia’s Wars of Emergence, 1460–1730. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007.
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A thorough and readable account of the emergence of Russia as a great power. Chapter 7 deals with the Great Northern War, while chapter 8 deals with military institutionalization after the Battle of Poltava.
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Biographies of Peter the Great

Peter the Great remains among the most studied Russian rulers, and his life has been explored in numerous studies. Klyuchevsky 1963 and Schuyler 1884 are good starting points and represent the classical 19th-century view of the tsar-reformer. Anderson 1978 and Massie 1980 represent two contrasting approaches to the tsar; the former is a concise (just 230 pages) and judicious study of Peter’s reign, while the latter is a massive and excessively detailed study of the tsar’s life. Despite its length, Wittram 1964 is still considered one of the most complete and balanced accounts. Grey 1960 is useful for its focus on war and foreign policy, while Tel’pukhovskii 1946 concentrates on Peter as a military commander.

Anderson, Matthew S. Peter the Great. London: Thames & Hudson, 1978.
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This concise, informed, and judicious study explains how Peter’s efforts to modernize Russia contributed to his diplomatic and military victories against Sweden. The author is quick to point out that these reforms built on the efforts of Peter’s predecessors.
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Grey, Ian. Peter the Great, Emperor of All Russia. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1960.
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A bit dated but a detailed narrative history, primarily focusing on the Great Northern War and foreign policy.
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Klyuchevsky, Vasili. Peter the Great. Translated by Liliana Archibald. London: Macmillan, 1963.
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A translation of the Russian original by the great Russian historian, who offers a penetrating discussion of economic and social conditions in Russia during the Great Northern War.
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Massie, Robert K. Peter the Great: His Life and World. New York: Knopf, 1980.
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This award-winning book quickly became a classic biography of the Russian tsar and went through multiple editions. It is a well-written but excessively detailed account that has been criticized for being too long (some 900 pages) and occasionally careless.
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Schuyler, Eugene. Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia. 2 vols. New York: C. Scribner, 1884.
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A detailed (in two volumes) and picturesque narrative history of Peter in English, but the book’s coverage is uneven and tends to focus on Peter’s early life at the expense of later events.
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Tel’pukhovskii, B. S. Polkovodcheskaya deyatel’nost’ Petra I. Moscow: Voennoe Izdatelstvo, 1946.
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Published just after World War II, the book reflects contemporary ideological sentiments but is interesting for its discussions of Peter’s military abilities during the Great Northern War.
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Wittram, Reinhard. Peter I: Czar und Kaiser. 2 vols. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964.
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This two-volume study is still considered one of the most complete and balanced general accounts in any language.
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Hetman Mazepa

Even 300 years after the event, Hetman Mazepa’s change of sides, in switching his support from Peter the Great to Charles XII, remains a topic of heated debate in Russia and Ukraine. Mazepa is regarded by Russians as a traitor, on whom an anathema was pronounced by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, in the collective memory of Ukrainians, Mazepa remains a national hero. He is viewed as a leader who wanted to secure Ukraine’s independence, while Peter the Great is often blamed for having violently subjugated the free-spirited Hetmanate. In Tsarist Russia and the Soviet Union, Mazepa was largely portrayed as the prototype of a turncoat, although Kostomarov 2004, first published in the late 19th century, sought to portray the hetman as a complex character with considerable political talents but ambiguous morals. Mazepa received a more judicious treatment in the West, where Mackiw 1991 and Subtelny 1981 seek to explain his actions through the prism of political pragmatism. Similarly, a more judicious assessment of the hetman is found in Tairova-Yakovleva 2007 and Yakovleva 2003, works that place Mazepa’s political career in the wider context of the Ukrainian revival and the rise of the powerful Russian state.

Kostomarov, Nikolai. Mazepa. Moscow: Terra, 2004.
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First published in 1882, Kostomarov’s work remains one of the best Russian-language sources on Mazepa’s life. The book is well researched and portrays the hetman as a complex character with considerable political talents but ambiguous morals.
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Mackiw, Theodore. “England, Russia and the Ukrainian Question during the Great Northern War.” Ukrainian Review 39.1 (1991): 26–34.
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Against the background of Anglo-Russian diplomatic relations, this article traces the diplomatic activities of Russian envoy Andrei Matveev with hetman Ivan Mazepa of the West Ukrainian Cossacks. Mazepa chose to support Sweden during the Great Northern War, prompting Peter to declare him a traitor. Mackiw, however, argues that Mazepa was not a traitor but rather a leader who sought independence for Ukraine. Continued in Ukrainian Review 39.2: 29–41 and 39.3: 27–41.
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Subtelny, Orest. The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.
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A fundamental study on Mazepa’s revolt and its impact on Ukrainian separatism in the 18th century.
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Tairova-Yakovleva, Tatiana. Mazepa. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 2007.
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A well-written biography of the Ukrainian hetman that places his political career in the wider context of the Ukrainian revival and the rise of the powerful Russian state.
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Yakovleva, Tatyana. “Mazepa-getman: V poiskakhistoricheskoi obiektivnosti.” Novaya i Noveishaya Istoriya 4 (2003).
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The article discusses the personality of Hetman Mazepa and analyzes factors that contributed to the hetman’s decision to support Sweden against Russia.
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Great Northern War

The Russian literature on the war is too voluminous to cite, but historians during the imperial era, with very few exceptions, tended to be less critical of Peter the Great than their Soviet counterparts. Soviet publications do suffer from contemporary ideological influence, but they can be useful if one ignores the customary political flattery and citations of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Friedrich Engels. Tarle 1958 is a good example of this, and despite occasional ideological overtones, this study, by one of the great Russian historians, still retains its value. Korkh 1990, published toward the end of the Soviet era, is a readable history of the war that tends to portray Peter the Great in a highly positive manner. Rostunov 1987 is a strictly military history of the war, written largely from the Russian viewpoint and based on Russian sources. Originally written in 1716, Shafirov 1973 is the earliest account of the war drafted to justify Russian involvement in the conflict. The book, which was edited by Peter himself, is highly interesting for its attempts to excuse Russian actions. Western studies written prior to the 1990s tend to rely exclusively on western European (Swedish, British, etc.) diplomatic and government records; oftentimes an incomplete or uneven interpretation results. This has been remedied since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Lisk 1967 is a classic account of the war but suffers from the lack of a Russian perspective. Oakley 1993 focuses on the causes and the course of the conflicts that shaped the Baltic region, and it explains the varying factors that led to the emergence of Sweden as the leading power in the region. A recent synthesis of the Great Northern War can be found in Frost 2000, which is an up-to-date study on warfare in northeastern Europe and makes use of virtually every important work written in German, Swedish, Polish, Russian, and other languages. A more in-depth discussion of the Great Northern War is available in Karl XII på slagfältet, an in-depth study by the Swedish General Staff of Charles XII’s military operations from 1700 to 1709. Swedish strategy and naval warfare against Russia is thoroughly discussed in Munthe 1924–1927.

Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War, State, and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721. New York: Longman, 2000.
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A well-researched and accessible book that traces conflicts among Sweden, Russia, and Poland from the Livonian War (1558–1583) to the Great Northern War (1700–1721). A must-read account for anyone interested in the story of the rise and fall of Sweden as a great power, the beginning (and ultimate) decline of Poland-Lithuania, and the first steps of Russia and Prussia toward achieving the status of great powers.
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Karl XII på slagfältet: Karolinsk slagledning sedd mot bakgrunden av taktikens utveckling från äldsta tider. 4 vols. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt, 1918–1919.
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A monumental study, carried out by the Swedish General Staff, of Swedish military developments, focusing on the operational and tactical level, and discussing military operations led by Charles XII from 1700 to 1709.
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Korkh, A. S. Petr I i Severnaia voina, 1700–1721. Moscow: Vneshtorgizdat, 1990.
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A popular history of the war that tends to portray Peter the Great in a highly positive manner as both a political and a military leader.
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Lisk, Jill. The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic, 1600–1725. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967.
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A classic study on the political-military rivalry that contributed to the outbreak of the Great Northern War.
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Munthe, Arnold. Karl XII och den ryska sjömakten. 3 vols. Stockholm: Ivar Haegström, 1924–1927.
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A thorough study of Swedish strategy and naval warfare against Russia during the Great Northern War.
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Oakley, Stewart. War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790. London: Routledge, 1993.
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In his modern update of Lisk’s thesis (Lisk 1967), Oakley makes clear the causes and course of the conflicts that shaped the Baltic region and explains the varying factors that led to the emergence of Sweden, poor as it was in resources, as the leading power in the region.
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Rostunov, I. I., ed. Istoriya Severnoi Voiny: 1700–1721 gg. Moscow: Nauka, 1987.
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Published by the prestigious Institute of Military History of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, the book is a strictly military history of the war, largely from the Russian viewpoint and based on Russian sources.
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Shafirov, Petr Pavlovich. A Discourse Concerning the Just Causes of the War between Sweden and Russia: 1700–1721. Edited by W. Butler. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana, 1973.
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In 1716, Tsar Peter commissioned Shafirov to write a long defense of his decision to declare war on Sweden. He personally edited and supplemented the book and later had it translated into German and other European languages. Highly interesting for Peter’s attempts to excuse his actions; interestingly, the book referred to Peter as the emperor (imperator) five years before he adopted the title. Originally published in 1717.
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Tarle, Eugene. Severnaia voina i shvedskoe nashestvie na Rossiyu. Moscow: Izd-vo sotsialno-ekon. lit-ry, 1958.
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A classic Russian study of the Great Northern War written by one of the great Soviet historians. Despite occasional ideological overtones, it still retains its value.
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Opposing Armies

A good overview of the Swedish and Russian armies in the late 17th and early 18th centuries can be found in various titles published by Osprey Books as part of its Elite, Men-at-Arms, and Warrior series. Artéus 1972 is a comparative study of European armies and can be a good starting point for further research. Höglund, et al. 2006 provides considerable details on the equipment and uniforms of the warring armies. Artéus 1970 is very useful for the Swedish campaign in Russia, and it contains an interesting overview of the available literature. Duffy 1981 is a classic study on the rise and development of the Russian regular army and is recommended as a starting point for research on the Russian side. Hellie 1974 and Rabinovich 1969 are more in-depth studies of the Petrine military reforms and their impact on military forces. Porfiriev 1952 discusses the development of the Russian regular army and fleet during the Great Northern War but suffers from ideological overtones. Myshlaevskii 1899 seeks to minimize the role of Western-inspired reforms and highlights existing Russian military traditions that, the author affirms, lay at the heart of the Petrine army.

Artéus, Gunnar. Krigsteori och historisk förklaring. Vol. 1, Kring Karl XII:s ryska fälttåg. Gothenburg, Sweden: Historiskainstitutionen, 1970.
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A major study of Charles XII’s campaigns, containing detailed discussion of his invasion of Russia as well as a survey of historiography up to the 1970s. Continued in Vol. 2 (Artéus 1972).
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Artéus, Gunnar. Krigsteori och historisk förklaring. Vol. 2, Karolinsk och europeisk stridstaktik 1700–1712. Lidköping, Sweden: Exlibria, 1972.
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A valuable comparative study of different European armies of the period.
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Duffy, Christopher. Russia’s Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power, 1700–1800. London: Routledge, 1981.
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A classic study of the development of the Russian military; a highly useful introduction to the topic.
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Hellie, Richard. “The Petrine Army: Continuity, Change, and Impact.” Canadian American Slavic Studies 8 (1974): 237–253.
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An important article discussing the wider military context of Peter’s military reforms.
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Höglund, Lars-Eric, Åke Sällnas, and Alexander Bespalov. The Great Northern War 1700–1721. Vol. 2, Sweden’s Allies and Enemies: Colours and Uniforms. Translated by Daniel A. Schorr and Thomas Årnfelt. Karlstad, Sweden: Acedia, 2006.
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A useful book on the equipment and uniforms of the armies involved in the conflict.
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Myshlaevskii, A. “Ofitserskii vopros v XVII veke: Ocherki iz istorii voennogo dela v Rossii.” Voennyi sbornik 5 (1899).
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This article discusses the development of the Russian officer corps on the eve of the Great Northern War. The author minimizes the role of Western-inspired reforms in shaping the Russian art of war, emphasizing military reforms that preceded Peter and arguing that “much of what seems to be borrowed from the West actually has an ancient Russian form that had a veneer of foreign nomenklatura.”
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Porfiriev, E. Peter I: Osnovopolozhnik voennogo iskusstva russkoi regulyarnoi armii i flota. Moscow: Voennoe izdatel’stvo Voennogo ministerstva SSSR, 1952.
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Despite its ideological tone, the book is still a useful overview of the development of the Russian regular army and fleet during the Great Northern War.
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Rabinovich, M. D. “Formirovanie reguliarnoi russkoi armii nakanune Severnoi Voiny.” In Voprosy voennoi istorii Rossii, XVIII i pervoi poloviny XIX vekov. Edited by V. I. Shunkov. Moscow: Nauka, 1969.
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A good overview of the military reforms introduced on the eve of the Great Northern War.
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The Battle

Russian historiography on Poltava is, as expected, numerous and sundry. The works by V. Artamonov, O. Ageyeva, and T. Tostendal-Salucheva represent valuable Russian contributions to the historiography of Poltava. Artamonov produced two in-depth studies of the key battle of the Great Northern War: Artamonov 2008 deals with the battle of Lesnaya (1708), which served as a precursor to Poltava, while Artamonov 2009 is a detailed examination of the Battle of Poltava and is notable for its judicious use of sources from both sides. Ageyeva 2009 lacks continuity of narrative but contains more than twenty articles on a wide variety of topics that, as a whole, provide the most up-to-date synthesis of Russian historical thought. Konstam 1994 is a concise popular history of the battle that can be useful as an introductory text. The classic Swedish accounts of the battle are Carlsson 1897 and Englund 2003, the latter being the most widely available study in English. Both works make good use of contemporary sources and provide a thorough discussion of events prior to and during the battle. Tostendal-Salucheva and Jonsson 2009 is the result of a unique collaboration between Russian and Swedish scholars. The essays by these authors evaluate the battle’s importance for their respective countries and shed new light on the fate of the Swedish and Russian prisoners of war taken during the war. Carlsson 1947 contains valuable details on the battle planning conducted by the Swedish headquarters.

Ageyeva, O. G., ed. Poltava: K 300-letiyu Poltavskogo srazheniya. Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole, 2009.
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This anthology of papers by leading Russian historians was published to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the battle in 2009. The book contains more than twenty articles on a wide variety of topics that, as a whole, provide the most up-to-date synthesis of Russian historical thought. Highly recommended.
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Artamonov, Vladimir. Mat’ Poltavskoi pobedy: K 300-letiyu pobedy Petra Velikogo pri Lesnoi. St. Petersburg: Institut Rossiiskoi istorii RAN, 2008.
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The most recent and balanced study of the battle of Lesnaya (1708), which served as a precursor to Poltava. The author discusses not only Swedish and Russian operations but also dwells on the Russian policies in Ukraine and the actions of the Ukrainian Hetman Mazepa.
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Artamonov, Vladimir. Poltavskoe srazhenie: K 300-letiyu Poltavskoi bitvy. Moscow: BIMPA, 2009.
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The most recent and thorough (more than 680 pages) Russian study of the battle, notable for its judicious use of sources from both sides.
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Carlsson, Ernst. Slaget vid Poltava och dess Krigshistoriska förutsättningar enligt samtida Källor. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1897.
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Despite its publication date, Carlsson’s work still retains its reputation as a classic account of the battle. It makes great use of contemporary sources and provides a thorough discussion of events prior to and during the conflict.
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Carlsson, Ernst. “Det svenska högkvarterets planläggning av slaget vid Poltava: En jämförelse mellan litteratur och källor.” Karolinska Förbundets Årsbok (1947): 130.
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The article provides a detailed discussion of the battle planning conducted by the Swedish headquarters and contains an important analysis of the available primary sources on the topic.
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Englund, Peter. The Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava and the Birth of the Russian Empire. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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This is an English translation of Englund’s highly successful study of the battle of Poltava, originally published in Sweden in 1988 and published into English as The Battle of Poltava: The Birth of the Russian Empire (London: Victor Gollancz) in 1992. The study is well written and based on primary sources but almost exclusively Swedish, and it lacks notes.
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Konstam, Angus. Poltava 1709: Russia Comes of Age. Osprey Military Campaign series. London: Osprey, 1994.
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Despite its brevity, this is a valuable account of the conflict between Sweden and Russia, discussing opposing commanders, their armies, and war plans. The study includes a chronology, six orders of battle, nine maps, and more than seventy illustrations.
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Tostendal-Salucheva, T., and L. Jonsson. Poltava: Sud’by plennykh i vzaimodeistvie kultur. Moscow: RGGU, 2009.
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The volume is the result of academic collaboration between the Swedish embassy in Russia and the Russia State Humanitarian University (RGGU). Under their auspices, Russian and Swedish historians were assembled to evaluate the battle’s importance for the histories of Sweden and Russia and shed light on the fate of the Swedish and Russian prisoners of war taken during the war. Highly recommended for both undergraduate and graduate students.
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Specific Studies

Carlsson 1940 is recommended for its discussion of the aftermath of the battle and the capitulation of Charles XII at Perevolochnya; it is important in dispelling many myths surrounding the Swedish retreat. Granberg 1961 concentrates on the Russian use of fortifications during the battle, and it can be supplemented with Shperk 1939, which, despite its brevity, offers a rare discussion of the Russian engineering works. Hedberg and Medvedev 1961 provides a valuable insight into the Swedish and Russian artillery at Poltava, while Semeka 1959 offers details on the Russian medical service and Yukht 1959 discusses supplies and logistics.

Carlsson, Ernst. “Karl XII och kapitulationen vid Perevolotjna.” Karolinska Förbundets Årsbok (1940): 80.
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A valuable discussion of the aftermath of the battle and the capitulation of Charles XII at Perevolochnya.
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Granberg, W. “Redutterna i slaget vid Poltava enligt ryska källor och rysk krigsvetenskaplig litteratur.” Karolinska Förbundets Årsbok (1961): 91.
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The article discusses Russian redoubts at Poltava based on Russian primary and secondary literature.
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Hedberg, J., and G. Medvedev. “Artilleriet – en avgörande faktor i Poltavaslaget.” Karolinska Förbundets Årsbok (1961): 105.
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An interesting discussion of the role of artillery at Poltava.
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Semeka, S. “Nekotorye svedeniya o meditsinskom obespechenii russkoi armii v Poltavskom srazhenii 27 iyunya (8 iyulya) 1709 g.” Voenno-meditsinskii zhurnal 8 (1959): 87–88.
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This brief article fleshes out fascinating details on the medical service of the Russian army and the treatment of the wounded soldiers at Poltava.
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Shperk, Venedict. Inzhenernoe obespechenie Poltavskoi bitvy (k 230-letiyu Poltavskoi bitvy). Moscow:Voenno-Inzhenernaya Akademiya, 1939.
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A brief but rare and interesting study of the Russian engineers at the battle of Poltava.
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Yukht, A. “Russkaya promyshlenost i snabzhenie armii obmundirovaniem i amunitsiei.” In Poltava: K 250-letiyu Poltavskogo srazheniya. By A. Yukht, 210–227. Moscow: Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1959.
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A revealing look at Russian military manufacturing and logistics during the Poltava campaign.
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Poltava in Art

As a great Russian victory, the battle of Poltava has occupied an important place in Russian art. A good starting point is The Field of the Great Poltava Battle, which was originally established by I. Pavlovskii in 1909. Kaganovich 1976 is an interesting study of the grandiose mosaic of the battle created by the famous Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov in the 1760s. Bykova 2009 and Vilinbakhov 2009 are lavishly illustrated catalogues of exhibitions organized by Russian museums to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the battle. Pavlovskii 2009 is a unique study on Russian efforts to memorialize the battle.

Bykova, Yu. Triumf poltavskoi batalii. Moscow: Kuna, 2009.
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A beautifully illustrated companion book to the exhibition on the 300th anniversary of the battle of Poltava, organized by the Museum of the Moscow Kremlin and the Hermitage Museum.
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The Field of the Great Poltava Battle.
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This website of the State Historical and Cultural Reserve features numerous photographs showcasing museum exhibitions.
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Kaganovich, A. L. Poltavskaya bataliya: Mozaika M.V. Lomonosova. Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1976.
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A study of the famous mosaic of the battle of Poltava created by the great Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov.
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Pavlovskii, Ivan F. Bitva pod Poltavoi 27-go iyunya 1709 goda i eye pamyatniki. Moscow: Saga, 2009.
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Originally published in the late 19th century, this book is the result of a long study by a prominent Russian historian. It contains a concise overview of the battle, but more important, it discusses the Russian efforts to memorialize the battle. The Poltava Battle Museum, established by Pavlovskii, was destroyed in 1918, but the collection’s remnants are currently preserved in Kiev.
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Vilinbakhov, G. V., ed. “Sovershennaia viktoriia”: K 300-detiiu Poltavskogo srazheniia: Katalog vystavki. St. Petersburg: Hermitage Museum, 2009.
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A delightful catalogue of the exhibition organized by the Hermitage Museum.