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  36.         GROBID - A machine learning software for extracting information from scholarly documents
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  48.          As [write this, in Novernber royr, people are dying in East Bengal from lack of food, shelter, and medical care, The suffering and death that are ocourring there now are not inevitable, mot.
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  51.          unavoidable int any fatalistic sense.
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  54.          of the terra, Constant poverty, &amp; cyclone, and a civil war have turned at least nine million people Inte destinite refugees; nevertheless, it is mat beyond the capacity of the richer nations io give enough assistance te reduce any further suffering to very amall propiertions.
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  56.         <s coords="2,191.86,449.92,270.57,16.64;2,132.29,462.42,102.36,15.29">
  57.          The decisions arid actions of human beings can prevert this kind of suffering.
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  60.          Unfortunately, human beings have not made the necessary decisions, At the individual level, people have, with very few exceptions, net responded ta the situation in any significant Way, Generally spes aking, poaple have not given large sams to relief Quids; they have not written to their parliamentary representatives demanding: increased government agsistance; they have not demonstrated in the striate, held symbolic fasts, or done anything else directed toward providing the refugees with the means to satisfy their essential needs, At the government evel «i, ho Povermment bas piven the sort of massive aid that would enable the refu geos © Survive for more than a few days, Britain, for instance, has given rather more than most countries.
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  63.          It has, to date, given £249.750,000, For comparative purposes, Britain's share of the nourecoverable develapment costs of the Anglo-French Concorde project is alreacy In excess of £275,000, 000, and on praesent estimates vill reach £440,000,000, The inplication is that the Bridsh government values a supersonic transport more than thirty times as 84
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  106.      Bao
  107.      <p>
  108.       <s coords="3,284.38,134.57,132.25,13.50;3,127.97,199.63,271.21,14.85">
  109.        Philusophy &amp; Public Affairs highly ag it valnes the lives of the nine million refugees.
  110.       </s>
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  112.        Australia is another country which, on a per capita basis, is well up in the "aid to: Bengal" table.
  113.       </s>
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  115.        Australia's aid, however, armours to less than ometwelfth of dhe cost of Sydney's new opera house, The total amount given, from all sources, mow stands.
  116.       </s>
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  118.        at about EGs,q00,n00, The estimated cost of keeping: the refugees alive for one year is £404 ,000,000.
  119.       </s>
  120.      </p>
  121.      <p>
  122.       <s coords="3,128.87,281.00,334.53,12.15">
  123.        Most of the x refugees have now been in the Canips for more than six.
  124.       </s>
  125.      </p>
  126.      <p>
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  128.        months.
  129.       </s>
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  131.        The World Bank has said that India needs a minimum of £205,000,000 In assistance from other countries before the end of dhe year, Ir seems obvious that assistance on this scale will not be forthcoming, India will be foreed to choose between letting the refugees starve or diverting funds from her own development progra am, which.
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  136.        will mean that more of her own people will starve in the fatura These are the essential facts shout the present situation im Bengal.
  137.       </s>
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  139.        So far as it eoncems us here, there is nothing unique about this situafon excepi ite magnitude.
  140.       </s>
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  142.        The Bengal emerzency ie just the latest and most acute af a series af majar emergencies in various parts af the world, arising both from na tural and from man-made causes.
  143.       </s>
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  145.        There ave also rnany parts of the world in which people die from malnutrition and lack of fond independent of any special emergency.
  146.       </s>
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  148.        1 take Bengal as my example only because it is the present concern, and because mh re ae sof the problem Bas.
  149.       </s>
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  151.        ensured that it t has been g given be umaware oe what | 8 s happening there, What are the moral implioations of a situation Hike this?
  152.       </s>
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  154.        In what follows, 1 shall ar gue that the way people in relatively afluent ecurs tries react to a situation like that in Bengal carmnat be justified; indeed, the whale way we lock at moral issues-our moral conceptual scheme.
  155.       </s>
  156.       <s coords="3,129.41,569.16,331.78,14.85;3,128.87,582.94,153.11,13.50">
  157.        tieeds to be altered, and with it, the way of life that has come to be taken for granted in our society.
  158.       </s>
  159.       <s coords="3,140.57,596.44,320.62,13.50;3,129.41,609.40,73.92,13.50">
  160.        in arguing for this conclusion i will not, of course, claim te be morally neutral.
  161.       </s>
  162.       <s coords="3,210.77,609.40,250.70,13.50;3,151.91,635.52,295.08,10.98">
  163.        | shall, however, try to argue for the moral position There was also a chind possil dity: that India would ge to war fo enable.
  164.       </s>
  165.       <s coords="3,451.05,635.70,11.74,10.80;3,128.87,645.77,127.61,10.80">
  166.        the refogecs te return fo their lands.
  167.       </s>
  168.      </p>
  169.      <p>
  170.       <s coords="3,271.42,645.77,191.22,10.80;3,129.77,655.03,31.43,12.15">
  171.        &amp; mce J wrote this pape fe India Rag taken this way cut.
  172.       </s>
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  174.        The situation is ao lon ae ¥ th: cribed above, but this dees not affect WY argument, as the next paragraph indicsies.
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  179.      gr |
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  182.        Fomine, Afluence, and Moralty that I take, 90 that anyone who accepts certain assumptions, ta be rade explicit, will, I hope, accept my conclusion.
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  185.      <p>
  186.       <s coords="4,141.29,236.52,321.04,14.85;4,152.27,249.66,161.95,14.85">
  187.        i 'begin with the aasurmption that suffering and death from lack af shelter, and medical care are bad.
  188.       </s>
  189.       <s coords="4,321.82,249.66,89.61,14.85">
  190.        I think most people.
  191.       </s>
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  193.        will agred about this, although one may reach the same view by different routes, I shall net argue for this view.
  194.       </s>
  195.       <s coords="4,283.48,276.66,177.96,14.85;4,128.87,288.90,334.33,14.85">
  196.        People can hold all sorts of eccentric positions, and perhaps | from sows 'of them i would not follow that.
  197.       </s>
  198.       <s coords="4,129.77,302.22,164.76,14.85">
  199.        death by starvation is in lself bad.
  200.       </s>
  201.       <s coords="4,301.66,302.22,158.30,14.85;4,128.87,317.18,332.51,12.15;4,129.77,328.50,115.59,14.85">
  202.        It is diffimult, perhaps impossible, to refute such } positions, ari se for brevity I will henceforth take this agsuniption as accepted.
  203.       </s>
  204.       <s coords="4,251.26,328.50,209.51,14.85">
  205.        "Those who disagree need read no further.
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  209.       <s coords="4,141.29,341.64,319.26,14.85;4,128.87,355.60,333.08,13.50">
  210.        My next point is this: if it is in our power te prevent some thing bad frorn he appening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable.
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  214.       <s coords="4,129.59,369.74,219.72,12.15">
  215.        moral importance, we ought, MVE ally, ta de it.
  216.       </s>
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  218.        By "without sacrificing anything af comparable: woral importance" [mean without causing anything else comparably bad to happen, or doing something that is wrong in iisell, or Falling to promote some mar al gone, comparable in.
  219.       </s>
  220.       <s coords="4,128.87,421.02,255.36,14.85">
  221.        significance fo the bad ihing that we can prevent.
  222.       </s>
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  224.        This principle seems et a8 uncontroversial as s the last one.
  225.       </s>
  226.       <s coords="4,372.76,433.80,87.47,14.85;4,128.87,462.80,18.90,12.15">
  227.        tt require eS US S only : this.
  228.       </s>
  229.       <s coords="4,150.47,462.80,313.14,12.15;4,129.59,473.58,250.63,14.85">
  230.        oft us s only when we ean 'de ea without sacrificing anything 'that i ig, from the moral point of view, comparably Important.
  231.       </s>
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  233.        T could even, as far as the application of ny argument ta the Bengal emergency is canneries a salty th ei pe it 80 as to make it: f &amp; is in our Power § to icine anything morally § Sigs aieant, we S &gt; ought, 'orally, | te do a, An application af this principle would be aa follows: if 1 am walking past ashallow pond and see a child drown ting In it, T ought te wade in and pull the child out.
  234.       </s>
  235.       <s coords="4,219.05,565.74,242.41,14.85;4,129.77,578.70,334.67,14.85">
  236.        This will mean geiting nay clothes yaunidy, but this is insignificant, while the death of the child would presumabl ly be a.
  237.       </s>
  238.      </p>
  239.      <p>
  240.       <s coords="4,129.77,592.66,69.17,13.50">
  241.        vary bad thing.
  242.       </s>
  243.      </p>
  244.      <p>
  245.       <s coords="4,140.57,604.70,320.92,16.20;4,129.77,618.66,16.80,14.85">
  246.        'The uncontroversial appearance of the principle just stated is deceptive.
  247.       </s>
  248.       <s coords="4,154.79,618.66,306.21,14.85;4,129.77,632.80,266.50,13.50">
  249.        If ft were acted upon, even in its qualified form, our lives, our society, and our world would be fundamentally changed.
  250.       </s>
  251.       <s coords="4,402.45,632.80,59.37,13.50;4,128.87,644.94,267.48,14.85">
  252.        For the prins ciple t cea, firs stly, no acount of proximity or distance.
  253.       </s>
  254.       <s coords="4,406.05,644.94,53.40,14.85;4,130.31,658.25,331.51,14.85">
  255.        It raakes nc moral difference whether the person I can help is a neighbor's child
  256.       </s>
  257.      </p>
  258.      <p>
  259.       <s coords="4,161.09,648.34,2.52,5.40;5,131.75,134.47,15.98,14.85">
  260.        x S32.
  261.       </s>
  262.      </p>
  263.      <p>
  264.       <s coords="5,286.36,134.47,132.11,14.85;5,128.87,200.35,333.11,14.85;5,128.87,213.67,332.63,14.85;5,128.87,226.44,333.17,14.85;5,129.77,239.76,333.02,14.85;5,130.31,253.26,65.26,14.85">
  265.        Philosophy &amp; Publc Ajfairs ten yards from mie ora Bengali whose name I shall never know, ten thousand miles away, Se ondly, the principle makes no distinction between cases in which I am the only person who could possibly do anything and oases in which I am just one among millions in the same = pasttion.
  266.       </s>
  267.       <s coords="5,129.77,358.56,112.28,14.85;5,389.85,358.56,37.96,14.85">
  268.        because he is far away ray from.
  269.       </s>
  270.       <s coords="5,437.55,358.56,22.80,14.85">
  271.        him).
  272.       </s>
  273.       <s coords="5,129.77,371.52,265.36,14.85">
  274.        Admitterdly, itis possible € that we are in a : better position.
  275.       </s>
  276.       <s coords="5,398.85,371.52,62.06,14.85;5,129.77,384.66,93.64,14.85">
  277.        to judge what needs to be done to.
  278.       </s>
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  280.        help a person near to us than one far away, and perhaps also to provide the aasistance we judge to be necessary, If this were the esse, it would be a reason for helping those near to us iirst.
  281.       </s>
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  283.        This may once have heen 4 justification for being more concerned with the poor tn CMe 8 own town: than wi ith famine victimes in India, e those who li like to keep their moral responsibilines limited, instant ¢ communica 'ation and swift transportation have changed the situation, From the moral polnt of view, the development of the were ine 8 a° glof bal villag ge" hee. mages an i tporta ant, thet ugh sul UNTECvisors, sent out by famine . relief or ganizations ar 7 periienendly shee toned in famine-prone areas, oan direct our aid t6 a refuges in Bengal almost as effectively as we could got it t someone In our own block. There would seem, therefore, to be no possibile justification for disoriminati ng an geographical grounds. The view that mumbers da make a diference can be made plausible if stated in this w ay: if everyone in circumstances like mine gave ES to the Bengal Relief Fund, there would he enough to provide food, aeee S y aad medteal 4 care fort 'the e rel tugees; i theres is HG reason w why. f sem . tier fore 1 have n xO ablig: anion 1 to sated more «than os E . Each pprenise in this argument is tras, and the argument looks sound, It may con. Vince Ua, unless we notice that it is based on a hypothetical premise, although the conclusion is not stated hypothetically. The argumant would be sound if dhe conclusion were: if everyone in circumstances Uke mine were to give Bs, Tw ould have no obligation te give more than £5. if th Xe &gt; conchisio on were BE Shi ave, however, if would t be obvious that that everyone else ¢ gives 5 &amp;y. "This, ofc course, is 5 the "actual situation, tt 28 more ar less oertain that poe everyone in clreumstances like mine will give £5. So there will not be. enough to provide the needed food, shelter, and medical care, Therefore by giving more then £5 I will prevent more sullering than I would j eT gave just &amp;s, itmight be thought that this argurnent has an. abeurd COTISEQUERCE, . Since t the situation appears to be that very few people ave Hkely to give a. In view: 'of the special sense. philosophers often give tm the term, P should Bay that a wage "obligation" Siuply as he abetract £ ROT derived eee "ought," 8a
  284.       </s>
  285.      </p>
  286.      <p>
  287.       <s coords="6,179.27,626.96,219.35,12.15">
  288.        Son aocordanne ow th the definition af "aug gh" given.
  289.       </s>
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  291.        "by "the 'Shorter aglisk Dictionary: "the general verh ew EXPreRS city or ublig. sage."
  292.       </s>
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  294.        T do ink Say issue at substance hangs on the wey the term is need: sentences i e "abligation" agdd all be xewrkiten, although somewhat chunaily, ences 3 inowhich 4 clause containing "ough?" replaces the tern: * "oldigation." an sent
  295.       </s>
  296.      </p>
  297.     </div>
  298.     <div xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
  299.      294
  300.      <p>
  301.       <s coords="7,286.36,129.69,132.65,16.20;7,128.87,195.75,333.34,16.20;7,129.77,209.71,333.70,14.85;7,128.87,220.85,334.49,17.55;7,128.87,235.98,198.17,14.85;7,366.46,235.98,86.12,14.85;7,448.35,235.98,13.97,14.85;7,290.28,250.31,5.40,0.09;7,290.28,243.74,5.40,5.04;7,301.66,250.18,0.99,5.40;7,130.49,274.76,134.21,16.20;7,129.77,290.90,332.12,12.15;7,128.87,302.86,174.67,13.50">
  302.        Philosophy &amp; Public Affairs substantial amounts, i¢ follmws that I and everyone else in similar clroumstances ought to give as much as pacsible, that is, at feast tre to the point at which by giving more one would begin to cause serious sulferin -for Y ONESE AF and 9 one S ee oe ee even beyond t this 4 "ere # would prove ent in Bengal, fe more than can be used for the henatt of the refugee -an gormc or the sacrifice w en have been 1 nn ONES say.
  303.       </s>
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  305.        4 Phas | ig se tyone does Ww hat he
  306.       </s>
  307.      </p>
  308.      <p>
  309.       <s coords="7,128.87,341.64,54.99,14.85">
  310.        Ou ugh i to do.
  311.       </s>
  312.      </p>
  313.      <p>
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  315.        The paradox here arises only if we assume that the actions in ques-don~-sending money to che relief funds-are perforrned more or less simultaneously, and ate also unexpected, For if it is to be expected that everyone is going to contrivate sornething, then clearly cach is not obliged i give a as much as he would have been obliged ta nee athers mot been giving toc.
  316.       </s>
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  318.        Armd if overyane is mot acting more or less simultaneously, then 'those giving Later will know how much 'more #8
  319.       </s>
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  321.      <p>
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  323.        needed, and will have no obligation {0 give more than Is necessary to reach this amount.
  324.       </s>
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  326.        To say this is not to deny the principle that people * the same 'circumstances have th ge Sarthe: obligation aS, but to point © out relevat ant -cdreumtenee: "those | giving 2 aft ter i it -has become known that many others are giving and those giving before are notin the same circumstances. So the Seemingly @ absurd consequence of the e * Principle actaat draumstances-othe atis, if they chink © they 2 are giving when others are mot, but in fact they are giving when others are, The result of eve Tyrone doing what he really ought te do cannot be worse than the result of everyone daing less than. he ought te do, although the result of everyone doing Witat he reasonably believes he ought to do oould be, if my argument so far has been soured, neither our distance from a preventable evil nor the number of ather people who, In respect to that evil, are in the sare situation as we are, lessens our obligation to mitigate ar prevent that evil. I shall therefore take as extablis shed the principle I asserted earlier. Av T have already said, I need ta assert B38 Famine, Afftuence, and Moratty ¥Ery bad £ fr om h appening, 'without thereby s sacrificing "anything he morally significant, we ought, mors rally, to do it.
  327.       </s>
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  331.      | -
  332.      <p>
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  334.        The onteome af this argument is that our traditional moral cate @otles are upaet.
  335.       </s>
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  337.        'The traditional aistincticr mn 2 between duty and charity canal be draw mally draw it.
  338.       </s>
  339.      </p>
  340.      <p>
  341.       <s coords="8,129.77,272.70,332.05,14.85;8,129.77,286.02,79.16,14.85">
  342.        Giving money te the ° Be engal Relief Fund is re egatded : ag an act of charity in our society.
  343.       </s>
  344.       <s coords="8,214.37,286.02,247.64,14.85;8,130.85,300.16,18.82,13.50">
  345.        The bodies which vallect money are known as "charlties."
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  348.        These « organizations sce themselves in this w ay~if you serd then a check, you will he thanked for your "S nerosity. warm but to look "wellalressed" we are not providing for amy imyportant need. We would not be sacrificing g anything significant if we were fo continue to wear aur old clothes, and give e the money to famine relies, By doing so, we would be pe eventing another person from starving. It follows from what I have sald earlier that we ou ght to give money away, rather than. spend -#t on clothes which we do not need ta keep us warn. To do so ia not charitable, or generous. Nor is it the kind of act which philosophers and theologians have called "supersrogatory"-an act which it would be good te do, bat mot wrong mot to do, On the contrary, we ought io give | the money away, and it is wrong mot £o da so.
  349.       </s>
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  353.        Tam not maintaining that there are no acts which are charitable, or that there are no acts which it would be guud to de but mot wrong mot to do.
  354.       </s>
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  356.        Ie may be possible to redraw the distinction | between hs ty : and charity in seme other place, AU Tam arguing b re ent way of drawing the distinetion, which makes it at act of "charity fox @ man living at the level af affluence which most people in the "devel 'oped nations" EN mnjoy § to ) give TRONS is. eave someone Bele se: from
  357.       </s>
  358.      </p>
  359.     </div>
  360.     <div xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
  361.      296
  362.      <p>
  363.       <s coords="9,286.36,131.77,132.11,14.85;9,129.77,212.51,143.27,13.50;9,270.88,212.51,124.01,13.50;9,410.19,212.51,48.31,13.50;9,128.87,226.37,293.56,13.50;9,140.57,236.96,321.28,16.20;9,130.67,251.28,331.96,14.85;9,129.77,265.42,332.96,13.50;9,128.87,278.74,22.99,13.50">
  364.        Philosophy &amp; Public Ajfairs the distin ction-fo for instance, &lt; one fe might @ decide that i it} is ie to make ather people as happy as possible, but not wrong not to do so, Despite the limited nature of the revision im our moral conceptual scheme which | am proposing, the revision would, given the extent of both afuence and Famine in the world today, have radioal inyplications.
  365.       </s>
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  367.        These implications may lead to Further ob jections, distinct fram those t heave already: considered, i set discuss | By o Of these.
  368.       </s>
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  370.        relief, But given that I did not set aut to present a morally neutral description af the way people make moral judg nents, the way people do in fact fudge has nothing to de with the validity af my conclusion.
  371.       </s>
  372.      </p>
  373.      <p>
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  375.        My conclusion follows from the principle which J advanced earlier, and unless that principle is rejected, or the argurnents shown to 'be unsound, J think the conclusion must stand, however strange it appears.
  376.       </s>
  377.      </p>
  378.      <p>
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  380.        it might, nevertheless, be interesting to consider why our society, PH this is an explanation of our common distinction between duty ard supererogation, however, it is not a justification of it.
  381.       </s>
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  383.        The moral point of view requires us to took beyond the interests of cur own soci ety, Previously, as I have already mentioned, this may hardly have beon feasible, but it is quite feasible now.
  384.       </s>
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  386.        Fram the moral point of view, the prevention of the starvation of millions af people outside our society raist be considered at Jeast as PESSINE 3S the upholding of ny he ety Norms.
  387.       </s>
  388.       <s coords="10,201.78,330.65,91.99,16.96">
  389.        : within our society.
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  392.        | a genera a} 'bre akdown of i pnagionee &amp; with 'the moral code, Crusdely iY stated, Uhis argument suggests that ff we tell people that they ought to refrain from murder and give everything they do not really nee " to farnine relief, they will do neither, whereas if we tell chem that the aught to refrain fram rraarder and that it is good Eee give te saris rele? but not wrong mot to do so, they will at Jeast refrain from xourser, The issue here is: Where should we drawn the line between con duct that is required and conduct that is good although not required, 90 as to get the best possille result? This would seem to be an empirieal question, although a very difficult one. One objection to the Sidgwick-Unruison Nine of argument is that if fakes insufficient acount of the effect that rooral standards can have on the decisions we make. Given a society in which a wealthy man who gives five percent of his income to famine tellef is regarded as most generous, it is not suurprising that a proposal that we 'all ought ta give away half our incornes will be thought to he abourdly unrealistic. In a society which held that na taan should heve more than enough while others have less. than they need, such a proposal might seem narrowsminded, What it is poasihie for: a man t to ao and what he 38 likely: to dot are bore I i think, | expecting bite 1 to do, In any case, | the possibility that by sntoadine the idea that we ought ta be doing very much more than we are to relieve porurs as a result of famine or other disaste ars, OF course, nudigating elrcumstances can be adduced-for instance, that if we wear ourselves out through overwork, we shall be less effective than we would other 'yyige have' been, Nevertheless, when all considerations of this sort have been taken inte account, the conclusion remains: we cane to be prev renting as much suffering as we can without sacrificing something else of compares able moral importance.
  393.       </s>
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  395.        This conclusion is one which we may be reluctant to face.
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  398.        I cannot see, though, why it should be regarded as 6 A criticism of the position for which: I have argued, rather than.
  399.       </s>
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  401.        a.
  402.       </s>
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  404.        exitic dom of our ordinary standards of behavior.
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  407.        Since moat pA ple are self-interested fo same degree, very few of us are Nkely to da ER exything that we cage to do.
  408.       </s>
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  410.        Te Ww could, however, hardly be honest ta take this as evidence that it is not the case that we ought to do it, Tt may still be thought that my conclusions are so w Aldly : out of ne with what everyone else thinks and has abways thought that there yest be something wrong with the argument somewhere.
  411.       </s>
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  413.        In order to
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  416.      <p>
  417.       <s coords="11,129.77,619.66,331.15,13.50">
  418.        show that Ty conclusions, while car tainly cOmary to contemporary
  419.       </s>
  420.      </p>
  421.      <p>
  422.       <s coords="11,130.67,631.62,332.68,14.85;11,130.67,657.53,46.02,14.85">
  423.        We ester moral standards, would: mot have Seemed SO exer teacrdinary: at writer rest.
  424.       </s>
  425.       <s coords="11,171.89,657.53,247.38,14.85">
  426.        wt normally t thought ¢ of as awe yout tradical,' "Thomas.
  427.       </s>
  428.       <s coords="11,424.05,657.53,36.80,14.85;12,129.77,134.57,16.85,13.50">
  429.        Aquinas, Sag.
  430.       </s>
  431.      </p>
  432.      <p>
  433.       <s coords="12,286.36,134.57,110.06,13.50;12,286.36,146.09,36.32,13.50;12,140.57,200.09,317.11,13.50;12,142.37,213.59,70.63,13.50">
  434.        Famine, Affinence, and Morality Now, acc ording to the natural order instituted by divine providence waterial goods.
  435.       </s>
  436.       <s coords="12,218.69,213.59,242.88,13.50">
  437.        are provided for the satisfaction af human needs,
  438.       </s>
  439.      </p>
  440.      <p>
  441.       <s coords="12,141.47,225.91,320.05,14.85;12,141.47,240.50,319.63,12.15;12,140.57,251.82,321.07,14.85">
  442.        The xefore -the division and appropriation of property, which prooeeds from human Jaw, must not hinder the satisfaction of man's necessity frorn such goods, Equally, whatever a man has in super.
  443.       </s>
  444.       <s coords="12,142.37,264.78,319.53,14.85;12,140.57,279.10,318.40,13.50;12,142.37,291.70,314.26,13.50;12,141.47,304.20,317.93,14.85;12,141.47,317.52,301.66,14.85">
  445.        abundance is owed, ot natural © ght, to the poor for their suatenonce, Sa Arnbrosins s: ays, and itis alsa to he found in the Pecratum Grationt: "The bread which you withhold belongs to the hunery the clothing you shut away, to the naked; and the qhaney you bury in die earth is the redemption and freedom: of the penniless,"* :
  446.       </s>
  447.      </p>
  448.      <p>
  449.       <s coords="12,140.57,341.92,322.33,13.50">
  450.        i now want ta consider a number of pobits, more practical than.
  451.       </s>
  452.      </p>
  453.      <p>
  454.       <s coords="12,129.59,353.06,332.55,16.20;12,129.77,366.48,115.51,14.85">
  455.        philosophical, which are relevant to the application of the moral conclusion we have reached.
  456.       </s>
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  458.        These points challerige not the idea that we ought to be doing all We can to prevent starvation, but the idea that giving away a great t deal of money is the beat means to this end, lt is sometimes said that overseas ald should be a government *HSPONS sib iNty, and that therefore one gught not to give to privately run cha nities.
  459.       </s>
  460.       <s coords="12,188.45,432.18,4.08,14.85">
  461.        :.
  462.       </s>
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  464.        Giving privately, it is said, allows the government and the noncontributing members of society to escape their responsibilities, This argument seems to assure that the mare people there are who give to privately organized famine relief funds, the less likely it is that the government will take over full responsibility for such aid.
  465.       </s>
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  467.        This assumption is unsupparted, and does not strike me a s at all plausible.
  468.       </s>
  469.      </p>
  470.      <p>
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  472.        The opposite view-that if no one gives ve Juntarily, 4 a 1 government will assume that fie citizens are uninterested in farnine relief and would not wish to be forced inte giving ald--seems more plausible.
  473.       </s>
  474.       <s coords="12,430.35,537.66,29.56,14.85;12,128.87,551.80,120.83,13.50">
  475.        In any ease, unless there were a.
  476.       </s>
  477.       <s coords="12,252.34,551.80,208.00,13.50;12,128.87,563.94,328.68,14.85;12,125.27,577.26,337.72,14.85;12,128.69,590.22,334.24,14.85;12,128.87,603.36,332.62,14.85;12,128.87,616.68,331.30,14.85;12,128.87,629.10,112.97,14.85;13,128.87,129.61,16.13,14.85;13,286.36,129.61,131.23,14.85;13,129.77,208.45,333.03,14.85;13,128.87,221.77,333.45,14.85;13,128.87,234.90,332.38,14.85;13,130.49,248.04,331.83,14.85;13,128.87,260.00,332.57,16.20;13,129.77,274.14,332.01,14.85;13,128.87,288.46,332.30,13.50;13,129.77,300.42,332.94,14.85;13,128.87,313.56,331.93,14.85;13,129.77,326.70,246.56,14.85;13,142.01,340.66,319.09,13.50;13,129.77,352.80,331.62,14.85;13,128.87,365.76,334.02,14.85;13,129.77,379.08,332.71,14.85;13,128.87,392.40,72.87,14.85">
  478.        sielinite probability that by refusing to give ane woul! be helping to bring about massive government assis stance, -people w 'ho do refuse to make ¥ raluntary conteitatios ne are refusing ta prevent a certain amount of suffering without being alle to point fo any tangiide henaficial consequence of their refusal. Sa the onus af showing how their refusal will bring about government action is on those who refuse to give (24c Philasophy &amp; Public Affairs af 'affiuent nations 'should be givi ing "many times "the &amp; arnount oe geuudine, no-strings-attached aid that they are giving new. 1 agree, too, that giving priva tely ig not enough, and that we ou aght to be campal guing actively for entirely new standa: rds for both public and private coniyilations to famine relief. Indeed, 1 would sympathize with someone who thought that campaigning was more important than giving oneself, alt hough I doubt whether te reaching what one docs not practice would be very effective. Unfortunately, for many people the idea that "its the government's responsibility" is a reason: for not giving | which does mot appear fo entail any political action either, Another, more serious reason for not giving to famine pelie! funds is that until there is. , effec tive population central, relieving famine merely postpones starvation, Tf we save the Rengal refugees now, ath-Ors, perhaps the children of these refugees, will face starvation in a few years' time.
  479.       </s>
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  481.        In support of this, one may cite the now welldmown facts about the population explosion and the reladvely limited scope for expanded production, 'This point, like the previous one, is an argument against relieving suffering that is happening now, because of a belief about what right happen in the future, 20 ds unlike the previous point im that very good evidence can be adduced in support of this beRef about the future. I will n not go fate 'the ¢ evidence s here. a aot rept that the cath cannot supe Again, _ aperetiee, ans vor ould accept the 2 ar rgument £ witho at eden aig 'the conclusion that it absolves one from any al blige ation to de anything to prevent famine.
  482.       </s>
  483.       <s coords="13,209.69,549.90,252.81,14.85;13,149.39,563.04,312.38,14.85">
  484.        The conclusion that should be drawn is that the best ns of preventing famine, in the long rum, is population coniral.
  485.       </s>
  486.      </p>
  487.      <p>
  488.       <s coords="13,128.87,577.72,332.23,13.50;13,130.49,590.50,331.11,13.50;13,129.77,603.00,51.84,14.85;13,205.19,603.00,155.69,14.85;13,378.16,603.00,84.30,14.85;13,141.29,655.19,75.46,14.85;13,239.20,655.19,222.33,14.85;13,128.87,668.51,284.68,14.85">
  489.        te would then fallow from the position reached earlier that one ought to be doing all one can to promote population contral Ounless one held that all for of tty bad on contral were 5 rn in t Shemaclves, 6 or A third f point eal ty the conclust Sion reached ¢ Jatlier alates to the question of just how mueh we all ought to be giving away.
  490.       </s>
  491.       <s coords="13,423.15,668.51,39.56,14.85;14,128.87,131.33,15.12,13.50;14,287.27,129.04,109.16,14.36;14,286.37,140.52,36.48,14.85;14,131.39,208.55,275.67,13.50">
  492.        Une pos-24d Famine, Affiuence, and Morality until we reach the level ¢ of f marginal wtility--that is, "the lev.
  493.       </s>
  494.       <s coords="14,403.17,208.55,58.11,13.50;14,128.87,221.15,332.02,13.50;14,130.67,234.46,111.77,13.50">
  495.        vel at t which, 'by piving more, P would cause as much suffering to myself or my dependents 3 as i would 5
  496.       </s>
  497.      </p>
  498.      <p>
  499.       <s coords="14,240.28,234.46,222.18,13.50">
  500.        rel Eve 8 BY my r gift, a 3 ks would 1 mean, Of COUTSE,
  501.       </s>
  502.      </p>
  503.      <p>
  504.       <s coords="14,129.77,260.92,93.59,13.50">
  505.        : of a 'Bengali 3 refugee.
  506.       </s>
  507.       <s coords="14,226.25,260.92,234.20,13.50;14,131.21,273.24,329.96,14.85;14,128.87,287.20,332.62,13.50;14,128.87,298.52,333.68,16.20;14,128.87,576.18,331.90,14.85;14,128.87,589.14,117.81,14.85">
  508.        "tt will bet yong 'led shat at QE narlien ty put forward both a slong "and a moderate version of the principle of preventing bad occurrences, The strong version, which required us to prevent bad things fram happening unless in doing so we would be sacrificing that the consumer society has had a distorting effect on the goals and purposes of its members.
  509.       </s>
  510.       <s coords="14,256.48,589.14,204.11,14.85;14,128.87,602.46,332.92,14.85;14,128.87,615.60,331.00,14.85;14,129.41,628.74,331.56,14.85;14,128.87,643.06,331.62,13.50;14,137.87,662.15,5.16,10.80">
  511.        Yet looking at the matter purely from the paint of view of overseas aid, there must be a Hmit to the extent to which we should delibers Lely slow down our economy; for de might be the case that if we gave away, say, forty pereent of our Gross National Product, we would slow down the ¢ SCOARY so MUch that in absolute §.
  512.       </s>
  513.       <s coords="14,148.67,662.15,313.30,10.80;14,128.87,672.95,322.20,10.80">
  514.        See, for instanes, John Kenneth Galbraith, The New Industrial State (Bow ton, r9@7); and E. de Mishan, The Costs of Economic Growth
  515.        <ref type="bibr">
  516.         (London, 1987)
  517.        </ref>
  518.        .
  519.       </s>
  520.      </p>
  521.     </div>
  522.     <div xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
  523.      242
  524.      <p>
  525.       <s coords="15,286.90,135.73,130.67,14.85;15,131.21,215.75,328.66,13.50;15,130.85,228.89,146.99,13.50">
  526.        Philosophy &amp; Public Afuirs the | much larger GNP that v we w vould have ee We , limited | oor conteibee tion to this: small fer percentage.
  527.       </s>
  528.      </p>
  529.      <p>
  530.       <s coords="15,140.57,242.30,321.05,12.15;15,130.49,255.34,270.47,13.50">
  531.        Tomention this only as an indication of che sort of factor that one would have to take inte account in working out an ideal.
  532.       </s>
  533.       <s coords="15,409.47,255.34,51.58,13.50;15,130.31,267.48,329.82,14.85;15,129.77,281.26,268.33,13.50">
  534.        Sings West ern societies generally consider one percent of the GNP an acceptable level for overseas aid, the matier is entirely academic.
  535.       </s>
  536.       <s coords="15,407.85,281.26,56.04,13.50;15,129.77,293.58,331.97,14.85;15,128.87,306.54,237.58,14.85">
  537.        Nor does ik affect the question of how much an individu al should give in a society in which very few are giving eubsiantial amounts.
  538.       </s>
  539.      </p>
  540.      <p>
  541.       <s coords="15,141.65,332.72,320.85,16.20;15,129.77,346.86,331.32,14.85;15,128.87,360.18,268.08,14.85">
  542.        it is sometimes said, though lees often now than it used to be, that philosophers have no special role te play in public affairs, since mast public issues depend primarily on an assessment of facts.
  543.       </s>
  544.       <s coords="15,403.35,360.18,57.96,14.85;15,128.87,373.96,333.20,13.50;15,239.74,389.74,0.99,9.45">
  545.        On questiong of fact, Eas 38 tad, Philosophers as such have no special expertise, and .
  546.       </s>
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  548.        engage irk philosophy ¥ witha comin oneself t fo | any y position om major public issues, No doubt drere are some issues af social palicy and foreign policy about which it can truly be said that a really expert assessrnent of the facts is required befors taking sides or acting, bat the issue of famine is surely mot one of Uhese.
  549.       </s>
  550.       <s coords="15,158.57,451.62,302.24,14.85;15,128.87,464.58,332.77,14.85;15,129.77,490.86,52.62,14.85">
  551.        The facts about the existence of suffering are beyand dispute, Nor, | b shin; is it t di teputed thats we can n dg same et ing about it either txol ¢ or roth.
  552.       </s>
  553.       <s coords="15,187.37,490.86,274.41,14.85;15,128.87,503.36,116.94,16.20">
  554.        Thi 1S 38 5 therefore Ad Issue cn which ehilosophers are competent to take 4 position.
  555.       </s>
  556.       <s coords="15,254.14,503.36,205.73,16.20;15,132.11,517.86,327.53,14.85;15,128.87,544.60,329.48,13.50">
  557.        The issue is one which faces everyone who a8 THORS mas money th ani 1 he: noads ie * Support &amp; bimselt aod AS de ependents, gories must ine hide le practically every teacher "and ¢ tudes she of philoso.
  558.       </s>
  559.      </p>
  560.      <p>
  561.       <s coords="15,129.59,556.74,213.90,14.85">
  562.        phy in the universities of the Western world.
  563.       </s>
  564.       <s coords="15,352.06,556.74,110.40,14.85;15,128.87,570.24,332.86,14.85;15,129.59,583.02,182.85,14.85">
  565.        If philosophy is ta deal with matters that are relevant to both teachers and students, this is an issue that philosephers should discuss.
  566.       </s>
  567.       <s coords="15,141.29,596.34,168.20,14.85">
  568.        Discussion, though, is not enon gh.
  569.       </s>
  570.       <s coords="15,318.76,596.34,140.95,14.85;15,129.59,609.66,332.02,14.85;15,129.77,622.44,85.49,14.85">
  571.        What is the point of relating philosophy to public Cand pe sonal} affairs if we do not take our con~ clusions seriously?
  572.       </s>
  573.       <s coords="15,225.17,622.44,235.62,14.85;15,129.59,635.94,102.14,14.85">
  574.        In this instance, taking our conclusion: seriously means acting upon it.
  575.       </s>
  576.       <s coords="15,237.40,635.94,220.92,14.85;15,129.77,648.71,335.86,14.85;15,129.59,661.21,330.66,16.20;16,128.87,199.34,226.59,18.67">
  577.        The philosopher will not find it any easier than anyond else to altex his attitudes and way of life to the extent that, i f {am right, is invelved in doing ev erything that we nught to be doing, At the very least, though, one can make a start.
  578.       </s>
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  580.        The philosopher who does so will have to sacrifice some of the benefits of the consumer society, but he ean find compensation in the satisfaction of a way af life in which theory and practice, if not yet in harmony, are at least coming together,
  581.       </s>
  582.      </p>
  583.     </div>
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  591.          " Because giving money is regarded as an act of charity, bis wat though?
  592.         </s>
  593.         <s coords="8,405.15,326.62,58.68,13.50;8,128.87,338.58,153.22,14.85">
  594.          that there is anything wrong with not giving.
  595.         </s>
  596.         <s coords="8,290.68,338.58,170.97,14.85;8,130.49,352.26,257.27,14.85">
  597.          The charitable ynan may be praised, but the man who is net charitable is net condemmed.
  598.         </s>
  599.         <s coords="8,397.95,352.26,64.16,14.85;8,129.77,365.04,331.13,14.85;8,129.77,378.36,268.30,14.85">
  600.          People do not feel in any way ashamed or guilty about spending money on new clothes or a new car instead of giving it to famine relief.
  601.         </s>
  602.         <s coords="8,406.77,378.36,56.02,14.85">
  603.          CIndeed, the
  604.         </s>
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  608.      <table>
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  610.      <note>
  611.       <p>
  612.        <s coords="8,130.85,392.50,160.64,13.50">
  613.         alternative docs Not oeenr to thea.
  614.        </s>
  615.        <s coords="8,298.06,392.50,163.71,13.50;8,130.67,404.82,330.37,14.85">
  616.         } This way of looking at the matter cannot be justified, When we buy new clothes not to keep ourselves
  617.        </s>
  618.       </p>
  619.      </note>
  620.     </figure>
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  626.        <p>
  627.         <s coords="9,130.67,317.98,329.92,13.50;9,128.87,331.48,230.51,13.50">
  628.          boo 'drastic ¢ a revision 1 of c Gur Me oral chet, 'People do not ordinarily Judge Im the way [ have suggested they shaukli.
  629.         </s>
  630.         <s coords="9,367.36,331.48,94.13,13.50;9,129.77,344.88,330.96,14.85;9,129.77,356.76,286.50,14.85">
  631.          Mast people reserve their moral condenmation for Chose we ho Violate some moral orm, such as the norm against taking another person's property.
  632.         </s>
  633.         <s coords="9,425.49,356.76,37.14,14.85">
  634.          They de
  635.         </s>
  636.        </p>
  637.       </div>
  638.      </figdesc>
  639.      <table>
  640.      </table>
  641.      <note>
  642.       <p>
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  644.         not condemn those whe indul uge in Jury in stead | af giving to f amine
  645.        </s>
  646.       </p>
  647.      </note>
  648.     </figure>
  649.     <figure type="table" xml:id="tab_6" xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
  650.      <label>
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  655.         <s coords="14,129.77,312.30,332.51,14.85;14,130.31,326.44,147.95,13.50">
  656.          something af comparable moral significance, toes seem to require reducing ourselves to a the level.
  657.         </s>
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  659.          af: gare ginal bailey 4 ae ald also s gay Ts | niles, 'to do sc, we "had to , sacrifice 'something ceccally signifies ante only in order to show that even om this surely undeniable prinaiple a great change im our way of life is required.
  660.         </s>
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  662.          On the more moderate principle, if may not follow that we ought to reduce aurselves to the level of marginal atility, for one might hold that to reduce coneself and one's family to this level ie to cause something: Shy 'ifieantly bad ta happen.
  663.         </s>
  664.         <s coords="14,172.61,444.24,290.14,14.85;14,129.77,457.20,331.33,14.85;14,128.87,469.98,168.93,14.85">
  665.          Whether this is sn | shall not discuss, since, as I have said, [carn see no good reason for holding the moderate version of the 'prin ciple rather than the strong version.
  666.         </s>
  667.         <s coords="14,305.08,469.98,157.19,14.85;14,128.87,484.12,332.74,13.50;14,128.87,496.80,333.72,14.85">
  668.          Even if we a accepted the principle only in dis moderate form, however, it should be clear that we would have to give away enough ta ensure that the corsumer society,
  669.         </s>
  670.        </p>
  671.       </div>
  672.      </figdesc>
  673.      <table>
  674.       <row>
  675.        <cell>
  676.         copter
  677.        </cell>
  678.        <cell>
  679.         a6 As em Peopie spending "8 Give 'Rather: t than, Biving to
  680.        </cell>
  681.       </row>
  682.       <row>
  683.        <cell cols="2">
  684.         are sev eal reasons hy dis would be inks able j in » itself, "The val ine and necessity of connomic growth are now heing question xed not only by conservationists, but by economists as wells There j is ne doulst, too,
  685.        </cell>
  686.       </row>
  687.      </table>
  688.     </figure>
  689.     <note n="4" place="foot" xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
  690.      . Se seme Theologics, HAE, Question 66, Ardele 7, in Agutnas,. Selected Paligd cal Wrivtwa, ed, A. BP. PEmtweves, trans. J, G. Dawson (Guford, ra353, Pp RPL
  691.     </note>
  692.     <back>
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  695.       </listbibl>
  696.      </div>
  697.     </back>
  698.    </text>
  699.   </tei>
  700.  </body>
  701. </html>
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