RRL - DRAFT B

Review of Related Literature

Introduction
The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in classrooms worldwide has led to different perspectives on how schools should approach this phenomenon. It is crucial to understand the extent to which schools succeed in integrating ICT in teaching and learning. One approach to ICT integration suggests considering the specific context of the school. This is because schools face context-specific challenges when trying to incorporate technology in education, requiring solutions that are suitable for their particular context. According to Rabah (2015, p. 24), it would be inappropriate to ignore the school's context, setting, and environment when examining ICT-based education, as these factors have significant and varied implications.

In the context of exploring ICT integration in teaching and learning in Hong Kong, Yuen, Law, and Wong (2003) identified potential contextual challenges. These challenges include value systems, existing innovation processes, the nature of teacher commitment and support, and teacher professional development. Additionally, Karunaratne, Peiris, and Hansson (2018) highlighted the lack of resources as a negative contextual factor that hampers ICT usage in some classrooms. Khan (2020) argued that using ICT in teaching and learning has the potential to enhance learner achievement, particularly in areas with low socioeconomic status, where learner achievement is often below expectations. This underscores the need for empirical studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of how the lack of ICT resources affects teaching and learning, especially in low socioeconomic areas. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the impact of insufficient ICT resources on teaching and learning in selected primary schools in South Africa.

1.1 Research context
To understand the level of ICT integration in classrooms nationwide, it is crucial to grasp the events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes surrounding the use of ICT (Lim, 2002). This study focuses on quintile 1 (no-fee) schools, which are government-supported schools enrolling students from the same community, aiming to promote equity in education (DBE, 2011). Despite the government's efforts, schools in disadvantaged communities still lack educational resources, including ICT. Consequently, teachers may feel discouraged from integrating ICT due to resource deficiencies (Mirzajani et al., 2016). This paper seeks to address the significance of ICT resources for teaching and learning in primary schools and the impact of their absence on teaching and learning.

1.2 ICT integration in South Africa: a retrospective
South Africa has been dedicated to achieving a paperless classroom and integrating ICT to enhance learning opportunities. The National Development Plan 2030 reflects the country's commitment to ICT (Mjwara, 2017). The Gauteng Provincial education department embraced ICT integration to address challenges in the education system (Odendaal, 2017). However, schools in disadvantaged communities still lack ICT resources, compromising learners' education (Maromo, 2020; Mbuza, 2020). The DBE's e-Education strategy aims to equip schools with ICT resources, but funding limitations hinder progress (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2018). Many schools lack computer labs and Internet connectivity (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2018). This paper focuses on understanding the impact of the lack of ICT resources on teaching and learning in primary schools, given the slower pace of integration in some contexts (Chisango & Lesame, 2017).

1.3 Challenges related to the integration of ICT in South Africa
The process of integrating ICT in schools has presented various challenges, including intermittent Internet connectivity and a lack of administrative support, which have had different implications for the classroom (Wilson-Strydom, Thomson, & Hodgkinson-Williams, 2005). Furthermore, inadequate technical support to maintain ICT equipment remains a significant obstacle in South African primary schools (Papaioannou & Charalambous, 2011; Pholotho & Mtsweni, 2016; Wilson-Strydom et al., 2005). Ismail et al. (2020) consider these challenges common in developing countries. Mirzajani et al. (2016) argue that the issue of insufficient technical support for ICT integration is not unique to South African schools but can be resolved when schools and administrations collaborate closely to identify and address challenges, as well as provide appropriate guidance. This collaborative approach can ensure stable Internet connectivity and prevent underutilization of computer facilities (Pholotho & Mtsweni, 2016), thereby promoting continuous use of technological resources in classrooms. The problem of unstable Internet connectivity extends beyond South Africa and is a persistent challenge in various contexts (Arrieta, 2020; Habibi, Razak, Yusop, Mukminin, & Yaqin, 2020).

Contextual challenges can dampen educators' enthusiasm for using ICT in teaching and learning (see Bingimlas, 2009) and ultimately hinder the achievement of the DBE's ICT integration objectives nationwide. If these contextual realities are not addressed promptly, the dream of ICT integration in South Africa will remain elusive. Padayachee (2017) argues that due to existing contextual challenges, ICT integration in some South African schools is still limited, leading some educators to question the effectiveness of the Department's e-Education policy (DoE, 2004). Therefore, it is crucial for the DBE to prioritize regular audits of the technological status of individual schools to understand their experiences with ICT integration. This will enable the DBE to provide targeted assistance and facilitate the implementation process. Without such measures, the DBE's well-intentioned efforts to promote ICT integration in all schools may not be realized in a timely manner, as contextual realities restrict educators' ability to integrate ICT in the classroom. This paper aims to examine the impact of the lack of ICT resources on teaching and learning in selected South African primary schools.

2. Methods
This qualitative study examines the impact of the lack of ICT resources on students' learning and performance. The research focuses on three primary schools located in low socioeconomic communities in South Africa. Data collection involved conducting semi-structured interviews with six educators. Two Grade 7 educators were selected from each school using purposeful sampling, with the assistance of the principals who knew which educators could provide the necessary information. To ensure voluntary participation and avoid any abuse of power, an intention to participate form was given to the selected educators. Some of the educators had extensive experience teaching at the schools and possessed valuable knowledge about the challenges faced, particularly regarding ICT-related issues. The interviews, lasting between 30 to 45 minutes, were audio-recorded with participants' permission. Follow-up questions were asked for clarity, and the data were checked for validity and reliability. Manual coding was used, considering the researchers' understanding of the data, making transcription and identification of patterns easier. The coded data were then categorized into major themes using a thematic mode of analysis, chosen for its flexibility and reliability. The resulting themes include the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning and the impact of the lack of ICT resources on teaching and learning. The study received permission from the Western Cape Education Department, and participants provided written informed consent to ensure voluntary participation and protect their confidentiality. The schools and educators are assigned code names for anonymity and are referred to as School A, B, and C, and educators A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2, respectively.

3. Study Limitations
This study specifically examined the impact of the lack of ICT resources on teaching and learning in three primary schools located in a low-socioeconomic community in South Africa. The study focused on Grade 7 classrooms in each school, as Grade 7 is an important level where students are expected to possess certain skills before transitioning to high school. Two Grade 7 educators from each school were selected to participate, as they were considered to have a deep understanding of the challenges related to technology use in their schools. It is important to note that due to the limited sample size and the specific focus on Grade 7 classrooms, the findings and conclusions of this study can only be applied to the context of the schools involved and cannot be generalized to the entire South African education system. Further research with larger sample sizes is encouraged to provide additional insights and a more comprehensive understanding of ICT usage in primary school classrooms across South Africa.

4. Findings and Discussion
Undoubtedly, ICT plays a significant role in teaching and learning environments, and the absence of ICT resources has a negative impact on how learners engage and perform academically. However, it is important to note that the lack of or underutilization of ICT resources should not be the sole measure of academic performance. Nonetheless, it cannot be ignored that the absence of ICT resources affects learner motivation and their aspirations to learn (Denoon-Stevens & Ramaila, 2018; Hilton, 2018; Jimenez, 2020; Santos, Ramos, Escola, & Reis, 2019). As Genlott and Grönlund (2016, p. 69) pointed out, "While technology alone does not lead to improved student outcomes, it can be used to enhance pedagogical factors that have been shown to have a positive impact." It is important to acknowledge that the impact of ICT varies among individual schools for various reasons, including the specific resources required to support learner academic performance. However, this variation does not undermine the fact that the lack of ICT resources in the selected schools has had negative implications for the educational aspirations and performance of the learners. The findings of the study revolve around two main themes: the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning, and the impact of the absence of ICT resources on teaching and learning.

4.1 The Relevance of ICT in Teaching and Learning
Participants in the study recognized the importance of ICT resources in transforming teaching and learning, motivating learners, and improving academic performance (Denoon-Stevens & Ramaila, 2018; Hilton, 2018; Khan, 2020; Santos et al., 2019). The absence of ICT resources negatively impacted learners' access to educational opportunities and hindered their learning and performance (Padayachee, 2017; Hodgson & Khumalo, 2016). The availability of computers and internet connectivity was seen as essential for independent research, learner motivation, and engagement (Le Thi, 2020; Pohjolainen et al., 2018). However, challenges such as theft and limited access to ICT resources in under-resourced schools affected learners' ability to benefit from technology (Mbuza, 2019, 2020; Mdlongwa, 2012; Pijoos, 2020). The comparison between resourced and under-resourced schools revealed disparities in ICT access and its impact on academic performance (Participant A2; Participant B1). The integration of ICT can transform attitudes, motivations, and approaches to learning (Hilton, 2018; Hines & Lynch, 2019). However, the lack of ICT resources and related factors hindered effective technology use in the selected schools. Teacher integration and subject-specific applications are key to achieving positive change in learner perceptions and promoting higher-order thinking (Comi et al., 2017; Steiner & Mendelovitch, 2017). ICT plays a crucial role in creating conducive teaching and learning environments, particularly in subjects like Mathematics (Hegedus & Moreno-Armella, 2020).

4.2 The impact the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning.
The participants in the study highlighted several obstacles that hindered the effective use of technology in the classroom, negatively impacting learners. These challenges included theft, insufficient funds for data purchase and computer repairs, and a lack of technical and administrative support. Theft was a significant issue, with schools experiencing the theft of computers provided by the Department of Basic Education (DBE). The DBE's expectation for schools to cover their own security costs placed a burden on schools in disadvantaged communities, where security measures were often inadequate. Insurance companies were reluctant to insure schools in high-risk areas, further exacerbating the problem. Insufficient technical support and limited funds for repairs and data purchase also hindered the utilization of ICT resources in schools. The lack of technical, financial, and administrative support for schools with ICT resources remained a significant challenge. Overall, these obstacles had a negative impact on the integration of ICT in teaching and learning, depriving learners of valuable educational opportunities.

The security challenges and lack of support discussed in the study are not unique to the schools involved but are pervasive issues in South Africa. Reports of computer theft and vandalism in schools across the country highlight the vulnerability of ICT resources and the need for comprehensive solutions. The COVID-19 lockdown further exacerbated these challenges. The Department of Basic Education is aware of the problem and is actively seeking ways to address it.

In addition to theft and lack of ICT resources, technical challenges such as computer breakdowns and inadequate technical support also hindered the effective use of technology in the classroom. Schools faced financial constraints in purchasing data and conducting repairs, leading to irregular usage of ICT resources. The lack of proper technical, financial, and administrative support negatively impacted teaching and learning, emphasizing the importance of adequate support in maintaining and utilizing ICT tools effectively in educational settings.

Overall, the study highlights the need for addressing the challenges related to theft, security, technical support, and financial constraints to facilitate the effective integration of ICT in South African schools, thereby enhancing teaching and learning outcomes.

5. Conclusion
This study delved into the impact of the absence of ICT resources in primary school classrooms in South Africa. The objective was to comprehend how the lack of ICT resources affects teaching and learning. The findings unequivocally demonstrate the significance of ICT resources in the classroom and shed light on the adverse consequences resulting from their absence. The deprivation of ICT resources frustrates learners' aspirations and hampers their ability to reap the benefits associated with the integration of technology in the learning process. The prevailing conditions observed in the selected schools underscore the need for the Department of Basic Education (DBE) to reevaluate its plans and policies regarding ICT integration, particularly in addressing the specific challenges faced by individual schools across the nation.

To this end, we recommend that the DBE revamps its monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to promptly identify and address ICT-related challenges in diverse school contexts. By doing so, existing resources can be effectively utilized, preventing them from remaining unused or becoming targets of theft due to security concerns. Implementing such an approach would be instrumental in advancing the DBE's mission of providing quality education to all children, particularly in an era where technology plays an increasingly vital role in teaching and learning. Recognizing that the DBE may face limitations in its capacity to assist every school in the country comprehensively, we also suggest that schools collaborate with their communities through partnerships to foster safer environments. The widespread incidents of vandalism and theft of ICT equipment during the COVID-19 lockdown, primarily driven by inadequate security measures in schools with technological resources, further emphasize the necessity of implementing measures such as those proposed.

Furthermore, conducting additional research on ICT-related challenges across the country would yield a more comprehensive understanding of the problem and provide valuable data to inform government initiatives moving forward. By expanding the knowledge base, policymakers can make more informed decisions and take targeted actions to address the multifaceted issues hindering effective ICT utilization in schools.