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Nation, Nationhood, and Nationalism (Atlantic History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Nationalism reflects the desire of “nations” for a system of government that secures their interests and fundamental character. Nationalism has also come to mean an expression of identity that glorifies, or at least invokes, a deep and abiding connection between individuals of the “nation” that informs, complements, and often transcends other identities rooted in religious belief and affiliation, class imperatives, gender roles, and regional affinities. The real sticking point in much of the literature relates to how one defines a “nation” and how early “true” nationalism can be said to exist. Originally nations were assumed to be self-evident. Nations were a people sharing a common immutable ethnicity, which dated to the mists of time and could be seen by their shared language, history, bloodline, culture, character, habits, and manners. It was not necessary that these national peoples had an independent existence as a state, but there was a growing assumption that the nation was the people, the people were ultimately sovereign, and therefore nations should have their own state—a vision which had a certain efflorescence in the late 18th century in the Americas and Europe, a perspective that dominated the transformations of Europe after World War I, and an agenda that gave succor to numerous anti-imperial movements throughout the world in the 20th century. More recently, as the study of nationalism has exploded—it is a concept seriously studied by sociologists, anthropologists, political scientists, historians, philosophers, and critical theorists—most theorists of nationalism have argued for the manufactured and “modern” quality of all national identity, that nations are “constructed” and “imagined” out of a very diverse collection of polities and that nationalism is a fairly recent phenomenon that dates to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, although debate continues on this historical narrative. While nationalism remains a major concern of contemporary politics in the world, and thus spawns a massive scholarly literature, this bibliography will confine itself (with the exception of some major theoretical approaches) to studies of nationalism in the history of the Atlantic world before the mid-19th century.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. Selected here are works that represent the current dominant approach to the problem of nationalism, both as a historical phenomenon and as an ongoing dilemma. Until the late 1970s the assumptions of most sociologists and many historians about the character of nationalism in history reflected a view articulated by Kohn 1944, which asserted that nationalism had been important throughout Western history but its scope had changed over time. The spirit of community that once characterized a person’s relationship to a region or a city-state gradually came to be expressed over a larger territory. While Hobsbawm 1990, Kedourie 1993, Gellner 1983, Anderson 1991, and Breuilly 1985 associate the birth and rise of nationalism with the birth of “the modern” or modernization, their approaches are somewhat distinct. While Hobsbawm 1990 argues for the “invention” of the nation as a political program of an interested elite, or a middle class that sought to control development, Breuilly 1985 understands nationalism to be a political strategy that heals the crisis of community caused by the rise of the modern state. Gellner 1983 links an insistence on national uniformity with the demands of industrialization, and Anderson 1991 sees the “imagined community” as an impulse and an identity made possible by the modernization of communications, the spread of literacy, and print capitalisms. While this range of work has been extremely influential, it has also been criticized by other theorists, such as in Smith 1986 and Greenfeld 1992, which reject the idea that national identity and nationalism are necessarily modern.
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  7. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. ed. London and New York: Verso, 1991.
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  10.  
  11. Argues that nationalism only arrived with the spread of print capitalism and the growth of vernacular literacy, which allowed people to imagine themselves to be part of a community in which one individual could never see all his or her fellow nationals face-to-face. Located the decisive emergence of nationalism on the periphery of the European world, in the United Sates and most importantly the Spanish Americas in the early 19th century.
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  13. Find this resource:
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  15.  
  16. Breuilly, John. Nationalism and the State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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  19.  
  20. Breuilly argues that nationalism is a political movement that only becomes important after the rise of the modern state. The modern state needs to mobilize resources on a grand scale and therefore requires a political rhetoric with broad reach that claims to represent the essential element—the nation. One of the historians in the debate.
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  24.  
  25. Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983.
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  28.  
  29. Classic account of nationalism as a phenomenon of the modern world. Geller focuses attention on the importance of the Industrial Revolution and the needs of capitalism for a common language. Not particularly applicable to the Atlantic world.
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  34. Greenfeld, Leah. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.
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  37.  
  38. Argues that England, with the national takeover of the church, became the first modern nation and that nationalism essentially emerged as other polities competed with the original. The further from the ideal, Greenfeld argues, the more extreme the version of nationalism.
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  43. Hobsbawm, Eric J. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  46.  
  47. One of the most aggressive proponents of the understanding of nations and nationalism as a modern phenomenon, Hobsbawm asserts that nationalism should be linked to the emergence of class consciousness and vernacular language, both necessary for the mass politics that characterizes nationalism.
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  51.  
  52. Kedourie, Elie. Nationalism. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
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  55.  
  56. Classic series of lectures from the 1950s in which Kedourie provided an intellectual history of nationalism, calling it an ideology and tracing its pedigree to the late 18th century. He understood nationalism to be the opposite of socialism, which allowed a new sense of national community to soften the impact of the breakdown of traditional society from industrialization.
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  60.  
  61. Kohn, Hans. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study of Its Origins and Background. New York: Macmillan, 1944.
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  64.  
  65. For much of the 20th century, what the scholarly community understood about nationalism reflected the perspective of Hans Kohn, who first articulated a distinction between civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism. Kohn used this analysis to argue for both a Western and an Eastern version of nationalism. A recent edition edited with a scholarly introduction by Craig Calhoun helps to orient the importance and influence of Kohn.
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  70. Smith, Anthony D. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
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  73.  
  74. Rejects the argument of modern theorists by emphasizing the long past of most nations and the common “ethnic” formed from a shared language, memory, and culture, which are the fundamental elements of any successful nation.
  75.  
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  78.  
  79. Bibliographies
  80. Web resources and online databases are common on the topic of nationalism. None deal with the Atlantic world as an organizing concept, and in fact little work on nationalism has a truly Atlantic focus, although much of it is transnational and comparative. The H-Net Nationalism list is active, and the Nationalism Project is the place to start looking for help understanding the vast scholarship on nationalism.
  81.  
  82. H-Net Nationalism.
  83.  
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  85.  
  86. Discussion list for students and scholars of nationalism.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
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  90.  
  91. Nationalism Project.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. Extraordinarily useful website with bibliographies, commentaries, links, and other resources. Continuing to be updated, some of the entries are less useful than others.
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  97. Find this resource:
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  100. Anthologies
  101. Given the scope and diversity of writing on the phenomena, it is useful to combine a sense of the major general studies with the numerous anthologies and edited volumes that have helped to bring order to the study of nationalism. Some of these readers provide a collection of both primary and secondary literature exploring the problem of nationalism (Dahbour and Ishay 1995), others focus on the comparative approaches to nationalism of scholars (Hutchinson 1995, Ely and Suny 1996), and others were the product of a singularly interesting moment, such as a conference (Beiner 1999).
  102.  
  103. Beiner, Ronald, ed. Theorizing Nationalism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  104.  
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  106.  
  107. Given that political philosophers and political theorists came to the problem of nationalism later than some of the other social scientists, this collection of essays attempts to bridge the gap. Numerous interesting essays on a diverse array of topics, including origins of nationalism, types of nationalism, and political ideologies and nationalism.
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  109. Find this resource:
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  111.  
  112. Dahbour, Omar, and Micheline R. Ishay, eds. The Nationalism Reader. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1995.
  113.  
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  115.  
  116. An important reader of primary texts concerned with the development of nationalism and sophisticated essays introducing different theorists in context. The themes of universalism and nationalism are often discussed throughout.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
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  120.  
  121. Eley, Geoff, and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds. Becoming National: A Reader. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  122.  
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  124.  
  125. Contains useful bibliographies of the authors featured here. Essays concern the origin of nations and topics interesting to historians of the Atlantic world, namely colonialism, race and identity, and the limits of “the nation.”
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Hutchinson, John, eds. Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  131.  
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  133.  
  134. Important introductory reader, concerned with distinguishing between the vibrant debates over the origins, types, and character of nationalism. Fine introductory essay.
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  136. Find this resource:
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  138.  
  139. Journals
  140. Given the wide interest in the problem of nationalism throughout the world and the variety of disciplines that have approached the problem, there are a number of journals that specialize on the problem of nationalism. The broadest and most important are Nations and Nationalism, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, and National Identities, which although interested in transnational comparisons, rarely take up the challenge of “the Atlantic world.” Nevertheless, there are often essays of interest concerning early modern and revolutionary nationalism.
  141.  
  142. National Identities.
  143.  
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  145.  
  146. Relatively new interdisciplinary journal that focuses exclusively on the problem of national identity, mostly in the 19th and 20th centuries.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150.  
  151. Nations and Nationalism.
  152.  
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  154.  
  155. Edited by Anthony Smith, one of the most important modern theorists of nationalism, this journal publishes a variety of offerings, with a heavy concentration in sociology and debates regarding the meaning of nationalism and the relative modernity of nations.
  156.  
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  159.  
  160. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism.
  161.  
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  163.  
  164. Examines the relationship between race, nation, and ethnicity throughout history. Interdisciplinary with exceptional resources for graduate students.
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  168.  
  169. Contemporary Treatises
  170. Given the ongoing controversy concerning the history and meaning of nationalism, it is dangerous to suggest a canon of authors. Nevertheless these are included with a strong sense of hindsight, to suggest some of the different elements necessary for the emergence of nationalism in the Atlantic world by the end of the 18th century. Included here are four texts not necessarily about nationalism but that express assumptions held by later nationalism or are necessary antecedents to later mature national sentiment. Some, such as Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince (Machiavelli 2005), are only marginally interested in the purposes of patriotism, as a path to glory, but understood that ruthless destruction of local independence would be necessary for national strength. The Bible1997 (1611) represents an important early link between religion and nationalism, Hugo Grotius’s work (see Grotius 1949) asserts a world of nation-states, and Montesquieu 1989 provides an analysis of the purpose and character of government, in which the best governments rule in a way that accommodates and strengthens the character of the nation being ruled. Von Herder 1959, Fichte 2008, Bolívar 1951, and “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen 1996” are from the age of revolutions, which is considered to be the era of the “modern” birth of nationalism and reflects the broad importance of nationalism throughout the Atlantic world. All of these texts, in both their original languages and in translated English versions, are widely available online.
  171.  
  172. The Bible: Authorized King James Version with Apocrypha. Edited by Robert Carroll and Stephen Prickett. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  173.  
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  175.  
  176. Some historians have suggested that the English developed a precocious nationalism dating to the unification of the medieval kingdom. Whether this is true or not, the King James version of the Bible presents a vision of a world of nations and suggests that England is the equivalent of Israel, a perspective crucial to English and British nationalism in the early modern world.
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  178. Find this resource:
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  180.  
  181. Bolívar, Simón. “Reply of a South American to a Gentleman of This Island (1815).” In Selected Writings of Bolivar. Edited by Harold A. Bierck, Jr. and Lewis Bertrand, 103–122. New York: Colonial, 1951.
  182.  
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  184.  
  185. Originally published in 1815. Bolívar is an “American” nationalist, and this letter, written to an English gentleman in Jamaica about the Spanish Caribbean, the state of Europe, the destiny of Africans in the New World, and the possibility of a revolutionary national birth in Spanish America, marks him as the most Atlantic of all the nationalists on this list.
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  189.  
  190. von Herder, Johann Gottfried. “Ideas upon the Philosophy and History of Mankind.” In Theories of History. Edited by Patrick L. Gardiner, 34–49. New York: Free Press, 1959.
  191.  
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  193.  
  194. Originally published in 1784. A crucial work in spurring the German romantic nationalism of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Herder linked the importance of history and philology to the emergence of a sense and consciousness of national identity, and he identified a common class of the volk that shared a national purpose and destiny.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198.  
  199. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. Fichte: Addresses to the German Nation. Edited by Gregory Moore. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  200.  
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  202.  
  203. Originally published in 1807. Often considered one of the fathers of modern nationalism, Fichte’s seminal addresses here are actually interpreted differently by numerous scholars, some of whom stress Fichte’s emphasis on language and culture and others his sense of destiny and ethnicity.
  204.  
  205. Find this resource:
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  207.  
  208. Grotius, Hugo. The Law of War and Peace (De Jure Belli Ac Pacis). New York: Walter J. Black, 1949.
  209.  
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  211.  
  212. Originally published 1625. Although not often thought of as a nationalist, Grotius defended a world of nation-states against a vision of a universal church and a universal monarchy.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
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  216.  
  217. Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. Edited by William J. Connell. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.
  218.  
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  220.  
  221. Written by the famous Florentine public servant and expert on political thought, The Prince is intended as an instruction on the gaining, holding, and improving of a state. Its final chapter includes a strident call for the liberation of Italy from the barbarians.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
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  225.  
  226. Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat. The Spirit of the Laws. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
  227.  
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  229.  
  230. Originally published in 1748. Broad examination of the origins, character, and various types of governments, with the best governments reflecting the national character of spirit of the people, extremely influential in great Britain and its American colonies in the 18th century, banned by the Catholic Church.
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  232. Find this resource:
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  234.  
  235. “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.” In The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History. Edited by Lynn Hunt, 77–79. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1996.
  236.  
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. Originally published in 1789. The text had an explosive impact on the aspirations of various peoples in Europe and throughout the Atlantic world in the early 19th century. Calls upon nations to have control of their governments and notes in Article 3 that “the principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.”
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  243.  
  244. State Formation
  245. Before national states came to dominate Europe and the Americas in the 19th century, the Atlantic was dotted by city-states, composite monarchies, and imperial unions, with the counteracting forces of local autonomy and universal aspirations impeding any easy or inevitable “rise” of the nation-state. Beginning with Elliot 1992, a seminal article on the importance of composite monarchies to the arrangement of political power and identity in the 15th and 16th centuries, one can extend the analysis throughout the emerging Atlantic world, which possessed only the hints of modern nations or nation-states, where nationalism and national identity were largely unknown, or at least of limited use. MacKenny 1993 is a synthesis of 16th-century Europe that emphasizes both the problems of effective state power and the innovations and successes in both the theory and the example of state power that would have long-term consequences not only in Europe but in the New World as well. Thornton and Heywood 2007 is a study of “creolization” in Africa that provides a window into this complex world. Although European observers would often characterize the peoples of Africa as being different “nations” based largely upon language differences, the situation remained complex as ethnic, religious, language, and political allegiance could hold sway depending upon the particular people. Salisbury 1996 allows us to think creatively about the process of political change before the arrival of the Europeans in North America, while Hinderaker 1997 deals with the changing aspects and potential of empire and identity in the Ohio Valley. The remaining titles in this list highlight literature on state formation, which is necessarily heavily weighted toward Europe. The Tilly 1992 grand overview of the relationship of war making, trade, and imperial expansion to the creation of the modern nation-state merits serious consideration, while Duffy 1980 presents a series of important essays examining the relationship between the “military revolution” and the emergence of the nation-state in the early modern world. The Braddick 2000 synthetic analysis of state formation in England over two centuries emphasizes state formation as a process with political, social, and cultural consequences.
  246.  
  247. Braddick, Michael J. State Formation in Early Modern England, c. 1550–1700. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  248.  
  249. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511612527Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. Braddick limits his discussion to England proper but with an awareness of the implications for expanding English power elsewhere, particularly in the naval and fiscal regimes. Emphasizes not only institutional growth but also the process of governing in a variety of realms: financial, confessional, dynastic, and legal.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. Duffy, Michael, ed. The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800. Exeter, UK: Exeter University Press, 1980.
  257.  
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  259.  
  260. Although not solely focused on the problem of nationhood, this collection of essays provides an excellent introduction to the controversy concerning the “military revolution,” its timing, its importance to state formation, and the mobilization of popular nationalism related to longer, more expensive war making in the early modern world.
  261.  
  262. Find this resource:
  263.  
  264.  
  265. Elliott, J. H. “A Europe of Composite Monarchies.” Past and Present 137 (November 1992): 48–71.
  266.  
  267. DOI: 10.1093/past/137.1.48Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. This important essay historicizes the limits of the centralized national state as a political solution to the competing demands of diversity and integration that have long been a part of European history, from the perspective of early modern European composite monarchies.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273.  
  274. Hinderaker, Eric. Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800. New York and Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  275.  
  276. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511528651Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. Focusing on the area north of the Ohio Valley, Hinderaker examines the processes and negotiations that defined empire for over one hundred years. With a comparison of French, English, and American efforts to colonize the valley, Hinderacker emphasizes that the shifting definitions and types of empire ultimately dictated the character of interaction. Not until the American vision of widespread private competition in the region would the Native people be marginalized.
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  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282.  
  283. MacKenny, Richard. Sixteenth Century Europe: Expansion and Conflict. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.
  284.  
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  286.  
  287. At once synthetic and original, MacKenny’s introduction to 16th-century Europe rejects teleology but still manages to detail, in addition to much else, a history of the rise of national states. Excellent on the contemporary theories of the state and the importance of religion in mobilization of supposedly “secular” national aspirations.
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  289. Find this resource:
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  291.  
  292. Salisbury, Neal. “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans.” William and Mary Quarterly 53 (July 1996): 435–458.
  293.  
  294. DOI: 10.2307/2947200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. Essay represents an overview of the rise and fall of “paramount chiefdoms,” city-states, and obscure polities in North America before the arrival of Europeans on the scene. Emphasizing the processes of historical change and environmental stress that existed before the onset of Europeans, the essay serves as a useful introduction to the types of polities that characterized the pre-European contact.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300.  
  301. Thornton, John K., and Linda M. Heywood. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  302.  
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  304.  
  305. Thornton and Haywood argue for the importance of the peoples of West Central Africa in the formation of African cultures throughout the hemisphere. Also, presents a highly readable introduction into the varieties of polities, kingdoms, and African confederacies that interacted with Europeans on the coast, their relationship to national, ethnic, and religious identities, and their fortunes over a long period of war and conflict.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309.  
  310. Tilly, Charles. Coercion, Capital, and European States AD 990–1992. Cambridge, UK: Blackwell, 1992.
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. A compelling argument for the relationship of war making to the long-term rise and character of the modern European state. With increasing costs and expertise needed to win wars, governments needed to organize and extract more wealth from their people, which in turn would lead to concessions toward consent and ultimately concern for the health, welfare, and employment of the national peoples.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. Nation-States and National Empires
  320. While the theorists of nationalism often assert that the modern origins of nationalism can be dated to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there is very little consensus as to the details of that emergence, and historians generally have not seemed too eager to pursue such problems, touched as they are with some grand ahistorical assumptions. The topic is large, and this list is by no means definitive. But this list does reflect some recent seminal work in the field that draws upon the various modern theories of nationalism but is also rigorously historical in approach, focusing particularly on the history of nationalism of the three great empires of the Atlantic world: Great Britain, France, and Spain. While Herzog 2003 emphasizes the local meaning of belonging and rejects the notion of national identity before the nationalist movements of the 18th century, Bell 2003, Godochet 1971, and Kidd 1999 emphasize not only the continuity of national identity but also the process by which it is refashioned over time. Cañizares-Esguerra 2006 stresses the importance of political, economic, historical, and scientific thinking to the project of national state formation. Newman 1997 approaches the problem of British nationalism with a capacious notion of culture, and Dziembowski 1998 reminds one of the cynical uses that patriotism was used for, even in the 18th century. The edited volume Doyle and Pamplona 2006 asks why nationalism has not been the focus of much attention in literature about the New World.
  321.  
  322. Bell, David A. The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–1800. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
  323.  
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  325.  
  326. A searching account of the process by which allegiance to the French crown also meant a shared national identity. Shows particularly the continuities in French identity and the importance of religion in shaping what it meant to be French.
  327.  
  328. Find this resource:
  329.  
  330.  
  331. Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge. Nature, Empire, and Nation: Explorations of the History of Science in the Iberian World. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.
  332.  
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  334.  
  335. An exploration of the history of science and ideas in early modern Spain, which covers a broad variety of texts and intellectual problems, linking the imperial imperatives of these investigations with the symbolic uses of science for nation building.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Doyle, Don Harrison, and Marco Antonio Villela Pamplona, eds. Nationalism in the New World. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006.
  341.  
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  343.  
  344. Attempts to fill in the gap of the lack of studies on nationalism in the Americas with a series of essays on the United States and Latin America. Introduction explores recent theories of nationalism. Good for students.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348.  
  349. Dziembowski, Edmond. Un nouveau patriotisme français, 1750–1770: La France face à la puissance anglaise à l’époque de la guerre de Sept Ans. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1998.
  350.  
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  352.  
  353. Moving well beyond attempts to locate the most interesting transformations of French national identity in the French Revolution, Dziembowski suggests the place for a popular change in the meaning of French patriotism, and a connection to the nation can be found in the French experience in the Seven Years’ War. Here the monarchy attempts to use French suspicion of the English to mobilize support during the war.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357.  
  358. Godechot, Jacques. “Nation, patrie, nationalisme et patriotisme en France au XVIIIe siècle.” Annales de l’histoire de la Révolution française 206 (1971): 481–501.
  359.  
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  361.  
  362. Classic statement by Godechot of the character of nationalism and patriotism in France during the 18th century, an aggressive attack upon the occasional widespread notion that the French had no national identity until the French Revolution.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Herzog, Tamar. Defining Nations: Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Herzog rejects the notion of nationalism and citizenship and instead focuses on the role of municipalities and localities, both in Iberian and colonial Spain, in the definition of the rights and meaning of belonging and the regulation of strangers and others. An extremely important book for the consideration of Atlantic historians.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. Kidd, Colin. British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  377.  
  378. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511495861Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. Impressive examination of the problems of identity and ethnicity in the early modern British world as the diversity of peoples—Scottish, Welsh, English, and Anglo-American—struggled to understand its place in a world defined by the truth of scripture and a series of dramatic transformative events.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. Newman, Gerald. The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. Both a literary analysis, serious theoretical treatise, and history of the meaning and character of English nationalism in the age of George III, the essay broke new ground in providing a compelling historical account of a cultural phenomenon.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Race and Nation
  395. In the Atlantic world racial identities and national identities formed in close interaction, in the midst of violence, in law, and with a flexibility that has come to characterize the field. Sweet 2006 focuses on the process of racial conflict between Native Americans and the English, Bell 2001 explores the meaning of race in an old European society, while James Sidbury 2007 and Kidd 2006 provide two distinct ways to think about the process of the formation of racial consciousness, as both a badge of dishonor and a point of solidarity. Lasso 2007 and Blackburn 1988 provide vivid examples of the interaction between national identity and racial identity in the emergence of the new revolutionary nations, and Gilroy 1993 provides a theoretical approach that helps frame that experience. The Dubois 2004 synthesis of the Haitian Revolution encapsulates the most dramatic revolutionary interaction between racial and national identities.
  396.  
  397. Bell, David. “Jumonville’s Death: Nation and Race in Eighteenth-Century France.” In The Age of Cultural Revolutions. Edited by Colin Jones and Dror Wahrman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. While the French often claim not to have a conception of race, Bell knows better in this compelling case study of persistent French attitudes toward racial difference.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405.  
  406. Blackburn, Robin. The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London: Verso, 1988.
  407.  
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. Vigorous narrative-driven analytical synthesis of the breakdown of the colonial regimes of the 18th century and the emergence of revolutionary abolitionism and emancipation. The Haitian Revolution and the actions of the enslaved throughout the Atlantic have a crucial role to play in an analysis of this “general crisis” of warfare, revolution, and counterrevolution.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Dubois, Laurent. Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Well-conceived and balanced synthesis of the Haitian Revolution, the most dramatic, violent, and compelling creation of a national people in the age of revolutions. Racial and national identities are a constant problem throughout, often effecting political mobilization in unexpected ways.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. Modern classic study extending W. E. B. DuBois’s suggestions about the dual sense of identity experienced by African Americans in the United States to the black Atlantic. The introduction may be the only part of the book particularly useful for historians.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Kidd, Colin. The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. A look at the role of the Bible in the shaping of notions of racial difference. When read against Kidd’s work on nationalism above Kidd 1999 cited under Nation-States and National Empires, it makes for a dynamic commentary on the problem of race in the early modern Atlantic.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Lasso, Marixa. Myths of Harmony: Race and Republicanism during the Age of Revolution, Colombia, 1795–1831. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Lasso shows that political contestation—broad, popular, and sophisticated—shaped the legislation that ended the caste laws and declared racial equality for all men. Pardos (free blacks) successfully used a claim to equal rights to help fashion a nationalism that drew inclusive boundaries, and they established an ideology of racial harmony that is potent in Colombian history and historiography.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Sidbury, James. Becoming African in America: Race and Nation in the Early Black Atlantic. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. Broad look at the emergence of a sense of African identity among a diverse group of tribal people. Sidbury traces the evolution of the meaning of “African” from a term of degradation to a term of pride.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Sweet, John Wood. Bodies Politic: Negotiating Race in the American North, 1730–1830. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. Sweeping analysis of the interactions between Native Americans, English settler communities, and Africans in New England. Traces the development and continuity of the meaning of race in the American North.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Revolutionary Nationalism
  470. The notion that the French Revolution launched an age of nationalism in Europe and beyond is encapsulated in the Kohn 1967 comparative study of the French and German cases during the Revolution and the Napoleonic era. For all the attention to nationalism as a phenomenon born in the age of revolutions, a number of scholars are severely critical of the easy history given by the theorists. While this may reflect the lack of clear relationship between nationalism and ideology, it may also reflect the discomfort of historians dealing with a concept that had not yet become a part of the political language of the day, as can be seen in numerous essays in Gould and Onuf 2005. Young 2006 is perhaps the most trenchant critique of modernist literature’s use of history, but Colley 1992 and Bell 1995 suggest an alternative trajectory than the one suggested by literature that focuses on the era of revolution. Waldstriecher 1997 presents a model for approaching the role of popular politics and the emergence of a common national political culture. The edited volume by Dann and Dinnwiddy 1988 is a useful and broad selection of essays that speak to the complex forms and consequences of different nationalisms, not only in the French case but also throughout Europe. Davis 1985 represents a comparative overview of the revolutions of the Atlantic world, which stresses the lack of significant nationalism in Hispanic America, a view that has since been aggressively challenged.
  471.  
  472. Bell, David A. “Lingua Populi, Lingua Dei: Language, Religion, and the Origins of French Revolutionary Nationalism.” American Historical Review C.5 (1995): 1403–1437.
  473.  
  474. DOI: 10.2307/2169864Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. Explores the long history behind the explosion of nationalism in the French Revolution, with a focus on efforts to create a common language and the celebration of the community of the church.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480.  
  481. Colley, Linda. Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  482.  
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. Seminal study bringing the insights of the new study of nationalism to the British 18th century. Explores the process of the creation of a new national identity after the Act of Union in 1707 until the mid-19th century. With consideration of the problem of identity on the peripheries, Colley opened questions of imperial identity that are still being pursued by scholars of the British Empire.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. Dann, Otto, and John Dinwiddy, eds. Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution. London and Ronceverte, WV: Hambledon, 1988.
  491.  
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. Collection of essays highlighting the diversity of European experience of nationalism in the “Age of the French Revolution.” Collection focuses on this transition in different nations in Europe, including France, Britain, Ireland, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, and emphasizes the impact of state transformation on the ultimate potentialities of nationalism.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Davis, Harold Eugene. “Hispanic American Independence: A Comparative View.” Revisita de Historia de Amèrica (July–December 1985): 63–78.
  500.  
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502.  
  503. Davis represents an older traditional view that nationalism was a weak and rather insignificant political ideology in the Hispanic American revolutions.In a comparative study Davis nicely summarizes much of the prevailing assumptions of the Hispanic revolutions from a generation ago, assumptions that many of the works in the section Citizenship are challenging.
  504.  
  505. Find this resource:
  506.  
  507.  
  508. Gould, Eliga H., and Peter S. Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
  509.  
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511.  
  512. A collection of essays probing the question of nationalism and the continuity of imperial ambition in the American Revolution. A number of essays approach the problem of nationalism in the Atlantic context, ethnicity, migration, and the relationship between state formation, empire, and nationhood.
  513.  
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516.  
  517. Kohn, Hans. Prelude to Nation-States: The French and German Experience, 1789–1815. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. Uses sketches of individuals and their views on the character of France or Germany, the political world, the nature of the people, and the purpose of the state. Kohn presents his classic argument that the French invented nationalism as part of their enthusiasm for a revolution of the people while Germans discovered nationalism through their need to defeat Napoléon’s France.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525.  
  526. Waldstriecher, David. In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes: The Making of American Nationalism, 1770–1820. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1997.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Using an interest in the notion of the public sphere and an awareness that parades are political events, Waldstriecher explores the creation of a common culture of celebration through which Americans argued over the meaning of their national identity in the twenty-five years after independence.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Young, Eric Van. “The Limits of Revolutionary Nationalism in Atlantic-World Imagined Communities and Lived Communities.” In Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Edited by Joseph Esherick, Hasan Kayalı, and Eric Van Young, 35–67. Oxford: Owen and Littlefield, 2006.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. Trenchant critique of Benedict Anderson’s vision of a cross-class, cross-ethnic nationalism driven by print culture in the Mexican Revolution. Also, Young presents an aggressive assault upon many easy nationalist myths of the Mexican Revolution.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Citizenship
  545. Although nationalism and nations do not have to be citizenship regimes, the nation-states that emerged from the age of revolutions definitely were. All of them struggled with the problems of transitioning from subjects of a monarchy to citizens of republics, and these republics—governed as they were by “the people”—were quite concerned with who those “people” were. The people were largely “national” peoples, and as such the emergence of modern citizenship in the age of revolutions is bound to the emergence of nationalism. Some of these works, such as Brubaker 1992, make these connections evident, and Rogers Brubaker’s work suggests that a comparative history of different nations is the key to understanding the diverse meanings of nationalism and identity, while others, such as Rapport 2000, emphasize the treatment of foreigners to understand the boundaries of citizenship in a new national context. Dubois 2004 explores the process by which race and colonialism impact the demand for citizenship in the French Caribbean, and Chambers 1999 emphasizes the cultural language and political practices that defined citizenship in independent Peru. An excellent overview of citizenship in the Latin American revolutions is presented by Sabato 2001, while Bradburn 2009, Dym 2006, and Helg 2004 provide an overview of the revolutionary process in Central America (Dym 2006 and Helg 2004) and the United States(Bradburn 2009) as a way to understand both the limits and possibilities of national citizenship in highly decentralized federations.
  546.  
  547. Bradburn, Douglas. The Citizenship Revolution: Politics and the Creation of the American Union, 1774–1804. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009.
  548.  
  549. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  550.  
  551. Emphasizes the two related problems of citizenship created in the breakdown of the British Empire, the problem of nationhood and the problem of equality. Resolution to these problems lasted until the early 19th century when a political consensus settled the revolutionary turbulence in a decentralized federal citizenship regime, in which the states defined citizenship and the union defined nationhood.
  552.  
  553. Find this resource:
  554.  
  555.  
  556. Brubaker, Rogers. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.
  557.  
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559.  
  560. Links the very different conceptions of belonging in France and Germany, one based in the right of the soil, the other based in the right of the blood, to the process by which these peoples became nations. Suggests the importance of comparative histories for understanding the complicated emergence of nationalism and the diverse practices of citizenship.
  561.  
  562. Find this resource:
  563.  
  564.  
  565. Chambers, Sarah. From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780–1854. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  566.  
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. Exploring the transition from subjects to citizens in Arequipa, Peru, Chambers offers a compelling and complex examination of the transformation of a regional political culture. Citizenship impacted all of the fundamental relationships in the region, including economic practices and politics, but also assumptions about masculinity, honor, race, and national identity, often in ways that marginalized those deemed outside of the new status of political citizen, particularly women.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573.  
  574. Dubois, Laurent. A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787–1804. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. Study of slave emancipation in the French Caribbean during the revolutionary age. A vivid analysis of the role of the enslaved in opening the potential of the revolutionary invocation of the “rights of man” on the fundamental institutions and political structures of the colonial Atlantic world.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Dym, Jordana. From Sovereign Villages to National States: City, State, and Federation in Central America, 1759–1839. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. Emphasizes both continuities from the late Bourbon period and crucial transformations in the politics of independence. Dym explores the impact and significance of the shift from a conception of the polity based upon contractual relationship in cities to one that finds sovereign power to be rooted in the people (e.g., from “pueblos to pueblo”).
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Helg, Aline. Liberty and Equality in Caribbean Colombia, 1770–1835. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
  593.  
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. While some scholars have attacked this book as being too polemical, Helg’s study of the relationships of the diverse peoples of the southern Caribbean to the nation building and transformation of the age of revolutions is a highly useful study of a region that serves as a nice foil for the Haitian experience—among others.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Rapport, Michael. Nationality and Citizenship in Revolutionary France: The Treatment of Foreigners 1789–1799. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. Explores the fundamental problem of the revolutionary nationalism of the age of revolutions: that the rights claimed stem from universal principles but the sovereign people that would enforce those rights are a particular “national” people. Rather than finding a rapid descent from universalism to xenophobic nationalism, Rapport emphasizes the interplay between ideals and practical rules that muddy the transformation.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609.  
  610. Sabato, Hilda “On Political Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century Latin America.” American Historical Review 106.4 (October 2001): 1290–1315.
  611.  
  612. DOI: 10.2307/2692950Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. Excellent review essay exploring the most recent work on citizenship not only in Latin American revolutions but also throughout 19th-century Latin America. An excellent resource for graduate students and scholars wanting a primer on the field.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
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