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German Colonial Rule (African Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. With the exception of Brandenburg-Prussia’s short-lived attempt to gain a foothold on the West African coast and to participate in the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, German colonialism began only in the 1880s. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called “protectorates,” in Africa: Togo and Cameroon in the west, German Southwest Africa (today’s Namibia), and German East Africa (today’s Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi) in the east. In addition, Germany obtained territories in the Pacific, such as German New Guinea and Samoa, as well as some smaller islands, and with the status of a concession territory, Kiautschou (Jiaozhou) in China. From the beginning, African men and women resisted the wrongful annexation of their territories, which led to several violent colonial wars. The Herero-Nama war of 1904 in German Southwest Africa and the Maji-Maji war in German East Africa were the most devastating ones for the local population. The German-Herero war led to the first genocide of the 20th century. Most of Germany’s African and Pacific colonies were occupied by other European colonial powers in the early stages of World War I. Only in German East Africa did General Lettow-Vorbeck and a small number of African mercenaries persevere until the end of the war. The German colonial empire ended after its defeat in the war and the Treaty of Versailles on 10 January 1920. Following the official end of German colonialism, a revanchist movement in the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany began to try and claim the former territories, and colonial literature, films, and science blossomed. Only when the Nazis’ Russian campaign of World War II began taking its heavy toll did colonial ambitions finally end. Recent literature speaks of “imaginary colonies” in the context of revisionism of the post-Versailles years.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. There are a number of excellent overviews that focus on different aspects of German colonialism. Speitkamp 2005 is a condensed, easily readable general introduction, whereas Conrad 2012 is based on an up-to-date transnational history approach. Stoecker 1987 represents the former GDR school of studying German imperialism. Forster, et al. 1988 concentrates on the early years of colonial partition, and van Laak 2005 is a short general study of two hundred years of German imperialism. Gann and Duignan 1977 deals with the German personnel in Germany’s African colonies. Steinmetz 2007 presents a comparative study of three German colonies, and Ames, et al. 2005 offers a collection of essays on all aspects of German colonialism.
  8.  
  9. Ames, Eric, Marcia Klotz, and Lora Wildenthal, eds. Germany’s Colonial Pasts. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
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  11. Offers a wide range of studies on German colonialism and its legacies. Some essays focus on the period of Germany’s formal colonial empire in Africa and the Pacific, while others examine Germany’s postcolonial era, which includes the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany and its colonial revanchism. The interdisciplinary volume includes essays in the fields of musicology, religious studies, film, and tourism studies as well as literary analysis and history.
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  13. Conrad, Sebastian. German Colonialism: A Short History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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  15. Offers an up-to-date synthesis of Germany’s colonial ventures in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific and places them in a cultural and transnational frame. It includes excellent illustrations and maps as well as an annotated critical bibliography.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Forster, Stig, Wolfgang Mommsen, and Ronald Robinson, eds. Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884–1885 and the Onset of Partition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  19. A comprehensive account of the Berlin Africa Conference of 1884 and 1885 and a study of the motives behind the partitioning of Africa. It includes essays on the different negotiators, economic interests, as well as missionary aspirations.
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  21. Gann, L., and Peter Duignan. The Rulers of German Africa, 1884–1914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977.
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  23. Although a little outdated in its approach, this study is still worthwhile reading. It focuses on Germany’s military and administrative personnel in Africa and examines their performance, educational and class background, ideology, continuing ties with the homeland, and subsequent careers.
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  25. Speitkamp, Winfried. Deutsche Kolonialgeschichte. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2005.
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  27. A short overview of German colonial history that is useful for students and a general readership.
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  29. Steinmetz, George. The Devils’ Handwriting: Precoloniality and the German Colonial State in Qingdao, Samoa, and Southwest Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
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  31. Offers a rare comparative study of three German colonies and argues for the heterogeneity of German colonial practice and policy. The author seeks to explain these differences in Germany’s precolonial ethnographic discourse and in imperial Germany’s three-way intra-elite class struggle.
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  33. Stoecker, Helmut, ed. German Imperialism in Africa: From the Beginnings Until the Second World War. London: Hurst, 1987.
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  35. Representative of East German scholarship on African history in general, especially colonial history.
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  37. van Laak, Dirk. Über alles in der Welt: Deutscher Imperialismus im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Munich: Beck, 2005.
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  39. A short study of the origin and impact of German imperialism in the 19th and 20th centuries, which the author regards as part of the globalization process.
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  41. Reference Works
  42.  
  43. There are a number of useful reference works on African history in general or on specific African countries that also include aspects of German colonialism. Shillington 2005 is a recent one that includes more than ten articles on German colonialism and additional ones on European colonialism in general. Martone 2009 focuses on the African presence in Europe and includes several articles on Africans from the German colonies who came to Germany during the colonial period. The historical dictionary series offers reference guides for historical events, important persons, geographical locations, ethnic groups, and more for those with no or little knowledge on the countries that had been German colonies (see Decalo 1996 on Togo, Ofcansky and Kurtz 1997 on Tanzania, Tonchi and Lindeke 2012 on Namibia, and Turner 2001 on Papau New Guinea).
  44.  
  45. Decalo, Samuel. Historical Dictionary of Togo. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1996.
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  47. A reference guide for historical events, important persons, geographical locations, ethnic groups and more for those with no or little knowledge of Togo’s colonial history.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. DeLancey, Mark Dike, Rebecca Mbuh, and Mark W. Delancey. Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2010.
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  51. A recent revised edition in the Historical Dictionary of Africa series. It is a reference guide for historical events, important persons, geographical locations, ethnic groups, and more for those with no or little knowledge of Cameroon’s colonial history.
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  53. Martone, Eric, ed. Encyclopedia of Blacks in European History and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2009.
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  55. Contains articles about German colonies in Africa, the Berlin Conference, African activists in the Weimar Republic, and African activists who came to Germany during the colonial period.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Ofcansky, Thomas P., and Laura S. Kurtz. Historical Dictionary of Tanzania. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1997.
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  59. A reference guide for historical events, important persons, geographical locations, and ethnic groups. Good for those with little to no knowledge of Tanzania’s colonial past.
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  61. Shillington, Kevin, ed. Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005.
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  63. Contains useful introductory articles on all German colonies in Africa, on local resistance against German colonialism, and also some general articles on the impact of colonialism in Africa. (See, e.g., Volume 1 for articles on Cameroon and Burundi, Volume 2 for articles on Namibia [Southwest Africa], and Volume 3 for articles on Tanganyika [Tanzania] and Togo.)
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Tonchi, Victor L., and William Alfred Lindeke. Historical Dictionary of Namibia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2012.
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  67. A good reference guide for newcomers to Namibia’s German colonial past.
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  69. Turner, Ann. Historical Dictionary of Papua New Guinea. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2001.
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  71. A good reference guide for those new to the study of New Guinea’s German colonial past.
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  73. Bibliographies
  74.  
  75. There is, as of the early 21st century, no bibliography focusing on German colonialism. Corfield 2008 deals with World War I in Africa and includes the German colonies in the bibliography. Mann and Schneider 2010 is an easily accessible comprehensive Internet bibliography of German scholarship on extra-European history.
  76.  
  77. Corfield, Justin J. The First World War in Africa: A Bibliography. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2008.
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  79. The author compiled about two thousand articles, archives, books, journals, and government and public records related to the topic, which are subject to four indices providing comprehensive cross references.
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  81. Mann, Michael, and Barbara Schneider. Aussereuropäische Geschichte in der deutschsprachigen Forschung: Eine Bibliographie. Hagen, Germany: Fern Universität Gesamthochschule, 2010.
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  83. An extensive six-hundred-page bibliography of extra-European history in German-language scholarship including all aspects of German colonial history.
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  85. Brandenburg-Prussian Colonies
  86.  
  87. Van der Heyden 2001 is so far the most comprehensive analysis of German early attempts at colonization in Africa.
  88.  
  89. van der Heyden, Ulrich. Rote Adler an Afrikas Küste: Die Brandenburgisch-Preussische Kolonie Grossfriedrichsburg in Westafrika. Berlin: Selignow, 2001.
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  91. A study of the duchy of Brandenburg’s attempt to establish an early colony on the west African coast (present-day Ghana) in the 17th century and her role in the transatlantic slave trade.
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  93. Cameroon
  94.  
  95. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries there has been an increasing amount of literature on Cameroon under German rule. Michels and Temgoua 2005 studies many varieties of the German-Cameroonian encounter, including the 21st-century politics of remembrance. Austen and Derrick 1999 is an important contribution to the history of the Duala from precolonial times onward. Eckert 2000 focuses on the complex relationship of the Duala and the respective colonial powers. Both have chapters on German colonial rule. Eckert 1999 deals with conflicts deriving from land-ownership policies under the Germans. Schaper 2012 studies German colonial jurisdiction as a means of oppression but also as a means of resistance. Michels 2004 is a comprehensive study of the discursive and non-discursive construction of power in the encounter between Cameroonians and Germans. Eyelom 2007 concentrates on the impact of World War I on Cameroon. Owona 1973 is a French article placing German colonialism in Cameroon in the wider context of rivalry with other European colonial powers.
  96.  
  97. Austen, Ralph A., and Jonathan Derrick. Middlemen of the Cameroons Rivers: The Duala and their Hinterland, c. 1600–c. 1960. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  98. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497261Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. A seminal study of the Duala of Cameroon, who played an important role as middlemen in European-African relations as merchant-brokers in the precolonial trade but also as colonial-era elite and anticolonial activists. Chapter 3 focuses on the period under German rule.
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  101. Eckert, Andreas. Grundbesitz, Landkonflikte und kolonialer Wandel: Douala 1880 bis 1960. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999.
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  103. Focuses on the development of land-ownership policies and land disputes from the precolonial period, through the German protectorate (Schutzgebiet) and the French occupation under the mandate of the League of Nations and the United Nations, until its independence.
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  105. Eckert, Andreas. Die Duala und Kolonialmächte: Eine Untersuchung zu Widerstand, Protest und Protonationalismus in Kamerun vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. Münster, Germany: LIT, 2000.
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  107. Analyzes the heterogeneity and ambivalence of the Duala toward the colonial powers between resistance and collaboration.
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  109. Eyelom, Franklin. L’impact de la Première Guerre Mondiale sur le Cameroun. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2007.
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  111. A French study of the impact of World War I on Cameroon, which at that time was a German colony.
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  113. Michels, Stefanie. Imagined Power Contested: Germans and Africans in the Upper Cross River Area of Cameroon, 1887–1915. Münster, Germany: LIT, 2004.
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  115. Shows how power was constructed, enacted, and contested by discursive and non-discursive strategies and practices. It emphasizes the local and historic divergence of these processes and illustrates how Germans and Africans were able to produce exclusive power arenas.
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  117. Michels, Stefanie, and Albert-Pascal Temgoua. La politique de la mémoire colonial en Allemagne et au Cameroun. Münster, Germany: LIT, 2005.
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  119. A collection of essays dealing with different aspects of the colonial encounter between Germany and Cameroon and the politics of memory in the two countries. The essays are in English or in French.
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  121. Owona, Adalbert. La naissance du Cameroun (1884–1914). Cahiers d’Études Africaines 13.49 (1973): 16–36.
  122. DOI: 10.3406/cea.1973.2724Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. This easily accessible article in French is based on original German sources and deals with Anglo-German rivalry on the coast, boundary agreements with France and Britain (1885–1908, 1911), Anglo-French conquest (1914–1916), and administrative organization.
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  125. Schaper, Ulrike. Koloniale Verhandlungen: Gerichtsbarkeit, Verwaltung und Herrschaft in Kamerun 1884–1916. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2012.
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  127. The author takes a look at colonial courts in Cameroon administered by colonial officers. She tries to show that colonial law was a means of oppression carried out by the colonial rulers that could also be exploited by the colonized population as a way of challenging the colonial power.
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  129. Togo
  130.  
  131. Laumann 2003 is an overview of the literature on former German Togoland. Sebald 1988 is still the most comprehensive study of Togo under German rule, although it is written in German. Knoll 1978 is more dated but a good English overview. Erbar 1991 focuses on German economic and administrative rule in Togo, whereas Zurstrassen 2008 is a detailed study of German civil servants in Togo. Lawrance 2000 discusses German-language policy in multilingual Togo, and Jones and Sebald 2005 is an annotated publication of a Togoan family archive covering sources from the German colonial period.
  132.  
  133. Jones, Adam, and Peter Sebald, eds. An African Family Archive: The Lawsons of Little Popo/Aneho (Togo) 1841–1938. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  135. An exceptional publication of a rare family archive created by generations of the Lawson family of Togo. It helps to understand what it meant to individual Africans to be turned almost overnight into colonial subjects. There are more than seven hundred documents included from the early 19th to the early 20th century.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Erbar, Ralph. Ein Platz an der Sonne? Die Verwaltungs- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Deutschen Kolonie Togo 1884–1914. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1991.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. This study of Germany’s colonial rule in Togo focuses on the economic and administrative history.
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  141. Knoll, Arthur. Togo under Imperial Germany 1884–1914: A Case Study in Colonial Rule. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1978.
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  143. A little dated but still relevant English overview of German colonial rule in Togo.
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  145. Laumann, Dennis. “A Historiography of German Togoland, or the Rise and Fall of a ‘Model Colony.’” History in Africa 30 (2003): 195–211.
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  147. Gives a useful historiographic overview of the still-scanty literature on Togo under German rule.
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  149. Lawrance, B. N. “Most Obedient Servants: The Politics of Language in German Colonial Togo.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 40 (2000): 489–524.
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  151. Studies the language policy of the German rulers in Togo. It examines evidence for the choice of the language of instruction and infers that these choices paved the way for proto-nationalism in postwar Togo.
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  153. Sebald, Peter. Togo 1884–1914. Eine Geschichte der Deutschen “Musterkolonie” auf der Grundlage amtlicher Quellen. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1988.
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  155. A seminal study based on archival sources by the leading scholar on Togo under German colonial rule.
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  157. Zurstrassen, Bettina. “Ein Stück Deutscher Erde schaffen”: Koloniale Beamte in Togo 1884–1914. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2008.
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  159. A study of the German colonial administration of Togo. It focuses on German officials and civil servants and their management and control by the colonial motherland.
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  161. German East Africa
  162.  
  163. Perras 2004 deals with the early years of German colonization in East Africa focusing on the life and role of Carl Peters. Pesek 2005 studies the beginning of German colonialism in East Africa from a postcolonial perspective. Baer and Schröter 2001 offers a narrative of German colonial rule in East Africa aimed at a general audience. In more specialized studies Arnold 1995 investigates the effects of colonial taxation, Sunseri 2002 studies labor policies under German colonial rule, and Koponen 1995 discusses the relationship between colonial exploitation and development. Söldenwagner 2006 focuses on the relatively small group of European settlers in German East Africa before the outbreak of World War I. Strizek 2006 is the only general study of the colonial origins of Rwanda and Burundi.
  164.  
  165. Arnold, Bernd. Steuer und Lohnarbeit im Südwesten von Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1891 bis 1916: Eine historisch-ethnologische Studie. Münster, Germany: LIT, 1995.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. A detailed regional study of the effects of colonial taxation on the different peoples living north of Lake Nyassa in German East Africa.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Baer, M., and O. Schröter. Eine Kopfjagd: Deutsche in Ostafrika, Spuren kolonialer Herrschaft. Berlin: Links, 2001.
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  171. Addresses a wider public and tells the story of German colonial rule in East Africa. Begins from the angle of anticolonial resistance of the Wahehe and the recent search for the head of their leader Mkawa.
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  173. Koponen, J. Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884–1914. Hamburg, Germany: LIT, 1995.
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  175. The author studies the interrelations between colonialism, exploitation, and development and argues that colonialism is a basically exploitative system. The focus is on the former German East Africa and includes economic policies, labor, population, technology, natural resources, and health.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Perras, Arne. Carl Peters and German Imperialism 1856–1918: A Political Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  179. Offers an account of the career of Carl Peters, one of Germany’s most prominent imperialists who became known as the founder of German East Africa. Although the title suggests otherwise, it focuses on the early years until 1892 and studies the beginning of German colonization.
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  181. Pesek, Michael. Koloniale Herrschaft in Deutsch-Ostafrika: Expeditionen, Militär und Verwaltung seit 1880. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2005.
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  183. This up-to-date and readable study focuses on the early years of Germany’s annexation of East African territories. The author’s postcolonial perspective allows for the reconstructing of African agency in encounter and stresses the structural instability of colonial rule.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Söldenwagner, Philippa. Spaces of Negotiation: European Settlement and Settlers in German East Africa, 1900–1914. Munich: Martin Meidenbauer Verlag, 2006.
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  187. Represents a recent study of European settlers in German East Africa on the eve of World War I: studies a group of about six hundred farmers and planters and delineates their relationship with the colonial administration, as well as with the local population.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Strizek, Helmut. Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter Deutscher Herrschaft. Berlin: Links, 2006.
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  191. A study of those regions of German East Africa that were to become modern Rwanda and Burundi. It analyzes the origin of the ongoing conflict between the Tutsi minority and the Hutus and discusses the relationship between the 1994 genocide and colonial policy.
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  193. Sunseri, Thaddeus. Vilimani: Labor Migration and Rural Change in Early Colonial Tanzania. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002.
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  195. Offers an analysis of labor, labor policies, migration, and practices in German East Africa between 1885 and 1916. The author also offers a novel approach to the Maji-Maji war, arguing that colonial efforts to enforce forest conservation precipitated a combined environmental and political crisis that drove village leaders into rebellion.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Colonial War and Resistance
  198.  
  199. In 1905 the so-called Maji-Maji war broke out in German East Africa and had devastating effects on the African population. The essays in Becker and Beez 2005 discuss the war and its effects from different perspectives. Gwassa and Iliffe 1968 is a rare collection of oral records concerning the war. Seeberg 1989 focuses on the war’s impact on nation-building in Tanzania, and Beez 2003 studies the socio-religious origin of the Maji-Maji movement. Giblin and Monson 2010 is a recent collection of essays on the Maji-Maji war with a focus on agency and motives of local actors. Pizzo 2007 deals with another war of resistance in German East Africa, the so-called German-Hehe war. Mann 2002 concentrates on the early years of German colonialism in East Africa from the perspectives of conflicts and military interventions. Schulte-Varendorff 2006 presents a biography of Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, who was celebrated as an undefeated military hero in German revanchist discourse.
  200.  
  201. Becker, Felicitas, and Jigal Beez, eds. Der Maji-Maji-Krieg in Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1905–1907. Berlin: Links, 2005.
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  203. A collection of seventeen essays by historians, ethnologists, and Africanists that discusses the causes of the war, the origins of the Maji cult, the course of the war, as well as its aftermath. The book addresses a general public readership and is a highly interesting read.
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  205. Beez, Jigal. Geschosse zu Wassertropfen: Sozio-religiöse Aspekte des Maji- Maji-Krieges in Deutsch-Ostafrika (1905–1907). Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2003.
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  207. Focuses on the socio-religious aspects of the Maji Maji rising in German in Africa: and therefore would be helpful to those who are especially interested in ethnological aspects of this anticolonial movement and war.
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  209. Giblin, James, and Jamie Monson, eds. Maji Maji: Lifting the Fog of War. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2010.
  210. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004183421.i-325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. A collection of essays that represent the outcome of several conferences on the Maji-Maji movement and war. The strength of the volume lies in the focus on regional topics and micro-studies that help to better understand agency and motives of local actors. The latter include at least one female leader, Nkomanile.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Gwassa, Gilbert, and John Iliffe, eds. Records of the Maji Maji Rising. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1968.
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  215. An important collection of oral records that allowed the authors to develop a historical narrative of the Maji-Maji war as resulting from German-African conflicts and as origin of Tanzanian nationalism.
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  217. Mann, Erick. Mikono ya damu: African Mercenaries and the Politics of Conflict in German East Africa, 1888–1904. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002.
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  219. Represents a comprehensive study of the German colonial conquest of Tanzania between 1888 and 1904. It discusses how rural Tanzanians experienced German colonialism and analyzes the ways in which the German conquest and administration reflected local political patterns and conflicts. Another focus is on the German military in East Africa, which was largely composed of Africans.
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  221. Pizzo, David. "’To Devour the Land of Mkwawa’: Colonial Violence and the German-Hehe War in East Africa c. 1884–1914.” PhD diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2007.
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  223. An easily accessible dissertation on the German-Wahehe colonial war in southern Tanzania in the 1890s. Focuses on the nature of colonial violence, brutality, and destruction in the face of effective African resistance.
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  225. Schulte-Varendorff, Uwe. Kolonialheld für Kaiser und Führer: General Lettow-Vorbeck-Mythos und Wirklichkeit. Berlin: Links, 2006.
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  227. This biography deconstructs the myth of the German general Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck as a presumed colonial “hero” and the only one not defeated at the end of World War I. It shows the general as a racist who did not hesitate to partake in genocidal campaigns of destruction and who until his death in 1964 did not question his colonial perspectives.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Seeberg, Karl M. Der Maji-Maji-Krieg gegen die deutsche Kolonialherrschaft: Historische Ursprünge nationaler Identität Tansanias. Berlin: Reimer, 1989.
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  231. A short study of the Maji-Maji war, with a focus on its impact on the development of a national identity in Tanzania.
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  233. German Southwest Africa
  234.  
  235. Bley 1997 presents a comprehensive English study of Namibia under German rule. Kaulich 2003 is a more recent overview in German covering all aspects of colonial administration. Zimmerer 2002 offers a different perspective on German rule in the southwest based on a postcolonial studies context. Reeh 2000 is a biography of Nama leader Hendrik Witboii, and Dreyer 1987 takes a look at German rule in the southwest from British and Cape government perspectives.
  236.  
  237. Bley, Helmut. Namibia under German Rule. Hamburg, Germany: LIT, 1997.
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  239. A thorough study of German colonialism in today’s Namibia. The author also tries to show how the roots of German totalitarianism stem from the colonial period.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Dreyer, R. F. The Mind of Official Imperialism: British and Cape Government Perceptions of German Rule in Namibia from the Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty to the Kruger Telegram (1890–1896). Essen, West Germany: Hobbing, 1987.
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  243. A detailed study of German colonialism in Namibia seen from Britain’s rival in the area.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Kaulich, Udo. Die Geschichte der ehemaligen Kolonie Deutsch-Südwestafrika (1884–1904): Eine Gesamtdarstellung. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. A detailed study of the former German colony in the southwest, which includes the different aspects of colonial processes in administration, colonial economy, settlement, and funding.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Reeh, Günther. Hendrik Witbooi: Ein Leben für die Freiheit: Zwischen Glaube und Zweifel. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 2000.
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  251. A biography of Hendrik Witbooi, the Nama leader against the German Empire during the war of 1904–1907. Focuses on the religious aspects of Witbooi’s life.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Zimmerer, Jürgen. Deutsche Herrschaft über Afrikaner: Staatlicher Machtanspruch und Wirklichkeit im kolonialen Namibia. Münster, Germany: LIT, 2002.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. This up-to-date analysis of German rule in Namibia belongs into the context of postcolonial studies. The author tries to show that the main goal of the Namibian colonial state was the establishment of a new social order based on “racial segregation.”
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Colonial War and Genocide
  258.  
  259. The centenary of the outbreak of the Herero and Nama wars in the former German Southwest Africa brought about a wealth of new publications. Förster, et al. 2004 discusses colonialism, resistance, and violence in German Southwest Africa from various perspectives addressing a general public. Melber 2005 is a more specialized collection of essays on the wars, the Herero genocide, and colonial remembrance. Zimmerer and Zeller 2008 adds the hypothesis of continuities between the Herero genocide and the holocaust to the academic discussion. Bühler 2003 is a rare study of the German-Nama war of 1904. Krüger 1999 argues for an interpretation of the German-Herero war as decisive moment in Herero history, and Gewald 1999 studies Herero agency in (re-)constructing their own history. Olusoga and Erichsen 2010 gives a general overview of the colonial wars in the southwest, and Sarkin 2011 presents a new hypothesis on the background of Germany’s colonial violence in this region.
  260.  
  261. Bühler, Andreas Heinrich. Der Namaaufstand gegen die deutsche Kolonialherrschaft in Namibia von 1904–1913. Frankfurt, Germany: IKO-Verlag für Interkulturelle Kommunikation, 2003.
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  263. Presents an in-depth military-political narrative of the German-Nama war of 1904 and its aftermath. Based predominately on German and South African (Cape and Transvaal) military and administrative records, readers will find detailed accounts of individual military and local political maneuvers.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Förster, L., D. Henrichsen, and M. Bollig, eds. Namibia-Deutschland: Eine geteilte Geschichte. Widerstand, Gewalt, Erinnerung. Wolfratshausen, Germany: Edition Minerva, 2004.
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  267. Originally a catalogue accompanying an exhibition with the same title, this is a collection of twenty essays on varying issues in the history of German colonialism in southwest Africa, its aftermath, and the politics of remembrance by an international group of scholars. It addresses a wide public and is richly illustrated.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Gewald, J. B. Herero Heroes: A Socio-political History of the Herero of Namibia, 1890–1923. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1999.
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  271. An exceptional contribution to Herero historicity that shows how the Herero determined their own history under strong external influences. The study deals with the death and funeral of Samuel Maherero—first paramount of the Herero and resistance leader. Maherero’s death and funeral was the catalyst that brought the disparate groups of Herero together to establish a Herero identity.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Krüger, Gesine. Kriegsbewältigung und Geschichtsbewußtsein: Realität, Deutung und Verarbeitung des deutschen Kolonialkriegs in Namibia 1904 bis 1907. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Deals with mental processes of historical interpretation but also contributes to the study of the history of Herero society during German colonial rule. It is argued that the German-Herero war was the one decisive turning point in Herero history.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Melber, Henning, ed. Genozid und Gedenken: Namibisch-Deutsche Geschichte und Gegenwart. Frankfurt: Brandes & Apsel Verlag, 2005.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. This collection of essays deals with Germany’s colonial wars against the Herero and Nama in former German Southwest Africa. The eight articles in the book are based on different approaches, including historical and social sciences as well as legal questions.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Olusoga, David, and Casper Erichsen. The Kaiser’s Holocaust. London: Faber and Faber, 2010.
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  283. Addresses a general public with its lively description of the colonial wars in the former German Southwest Africa. The last part of the book discusses the question of continuity between German colonialism and national socialism.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Sarkin, Jeremy. Germany’s Genocide of the Herero: Kaiser Wilhelm II, His General, His Settlers, His Soldiers. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 2011.
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  287. Argues that the Herero genocide was linked to Germany’s late entry into the colonial race, which led it frenetically and ruthlessly to acquire multiple colonies worldwide within a very short period using any means available.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Zimmerer, Jürgen, and Joachim Zeller, eds. Genocide in German South-West Africa: The Colonial War (1904–1908) in Namibia and Its Aftermath. Monmouth, UK: Merlin, 2008.
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  291. This collection of essays from prominent researchers of German colonialism discusses many aspects of the colonial war and shows how racism, concentration camps, and genocide in the German colony foreshadow Hitler’s Third Reich war crimes.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. German Samoa and German New Guinea
  294.  
  295. Germany’s Pacific colonies and their population were supposed to be the exact opposite of the African ones. They were imagined as model colonies inhabited by peaceful and beautiful people welcoming their “colonial masters.” Very soon, however, the Germans had to deal with local conflicts and risings that were comparable to those on the African continent. Hiery 2001 is the most comprehensive collection of essays on all aspects of German colonial rule in the German South Pacific. Stephenson 2009 focuses on Germany’s naval policy in the Pacific before World War I. Hempenstall 1978 deals with local handling of conflicts and Krug 2005 with German “punitive expeditions” against the islanders. Morlang 2010 presents a study of the Ponape rising against German rule in 1910–1911. Hiery 1995 concentrates on the effects of World War I on German South Pacific, whereas Bade 1987 also considers the missions’ role in the colonial encounter.
  296.  
  297. Bade, K. J. “Culture, Cash and Christianity: The German Colonial Experience and the Case of the Renish Mission in New Guinea.” Pacific Studies 10 (1987): 53–71.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Discusses the relationship between colonialism, mission, and commerce through the example of German New Guinea.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Hempenstall, P. Pacific Islanders under German Rule: A Study in the Meaning of Colonial Resistance. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978.
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  303. A study of the Pacific islanders’ reception of German rule and the ways conflicts between Berlin, the local administration, and the islanders were handled in the colonies themselves. Resistance as well as collaboration is discussed.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Hiery, Hermann Joseph. The Neglected War: The German South Pacific and the Influence of World War I. Honolulu: University of Hawai‛i Press, 1995.
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  307. Gives a new perspective on the effects of World War I on the Pacific Islands. Based on primary sources, the author discusses how the Pacific Islanders coped with the dramatic changes brought about by the war and how they tried to influence its consequences.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Hiery, Hermann Joseph, ed. Die Deutsche Südsee 1884–1914: Ein Handbuch. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag, 2001.
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  311. A detailed overview of German colonial rule in the Pacific in the tradition of empirical historiography. Subdivided into six main thematic parts, the essays cover a wide range of subjects and are accompanied by numerous maps, statistical charts, and photos.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Krug, Alexander. “Der Hauptzweck ist die Tötung von Kanaken.” Die Deutschen Strafexpeditionen in den Kolonien der Südsee 1872–1914. Tönning, Germany: Der Andere Verlag, 2005.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Offers a detailed study of the innumerable “punitive expeditions” against a population who continuously took a stand against German colonial rule.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Morlang, Thomas. Rebellion in der Südsee: Der Aufstand auf Ponape gegen die Deutschen Kolonialherren 1910/1911. Berlin: Links, 2010.
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  319. Addressing a wide readership, the author deconstructs the still-common misperception of a presumed peaceful German rule in the Pacific. The study focuses on the 1910–1911 uprising of the Sokeh people living on the Micronesian island of Ponape (today’s Pohnpei) against the oppressive German colonial rule.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Stephenson, Charles. Germany’s Asia-Pacific Empire: Colonialism and Naval Policy, 1885–1914. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2009.
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  323. An overview of Germany’s naval and imperial activities in East Asia and the Pacific in the years leading up to World War I. It studies the German acquisitions in the context of European rivalry. Contains many illustrations from the author’s extensive private collection.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Kiautschou (Jiaozhou, China)
  326.  
  327. A look at Germany’s military activities in China helps one to understand the extreme violence carried out in the different colonial wars in the African colonies. Some of the most important military leaders, as well as colonial officers, had participated in military activities in China (most of all in the violent repression of the Boxer Rebellion) before they were transferred to German Southwest Africa or German East Africa. Huang 1999 presents a comprehensive study of German colonial rule in China. Mühlhahn 2000 focuses on local agency and intercultural interaction. Kaske 2002 studies the role of German military experts in China. Leutner and Mühlhahn 2007 is a recent collection of essays on different aspects of the so-called Boxer Rebellion, edited by two leading specialists in the field.
  328.  
  329. Huang, Fu-teh. Qingdao: Chinesen unter Deutscher Herrschaft 1897–1914. Bochum, Germany: Projekt Verlag, 1999.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Based on original sources, this book presents an empirical study of the Chinese under German colonial rule.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Kaske, Elisabeth. Bismarcks Missionäre: Deutsche Militärinstrukteure in China 1884–1890. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2002.
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  335. A study of German military experts in China that analyzes biographies, motives, working conditions, and difficulties of the nearly thirty-five officers.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Leutner, Mechthild, and Klaus Mühlhahn, eds. Kolonialkrieg in China: Die Niederschlagung der Boxerbewegung 1900–1901. Berlin: Links, 2007.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A collection of twenty-six essays by international specialists in the field covering all aspects of the Boxer Rebellion of 1900–1901.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Mühlhahn, K. Herrschaft und Widerstand in der “Musterkolonie” Kiautschou. Munich: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2000.
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  343. Based on the concept of “intercultural interaction” the author attempts to analyze Germany’s colonial rule in Qingdao. One major focus is on the agency of the local population.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Military History, Colonial Wars, and Violence
  346.  
  347. Quite a number of late-20th- and early-21st-century publications deal with wars and violence. Kuss 2010 is a comparative study of three wars in different German colonies. Krech 1999 is a short overview of the military campaigns in the German colonies during World War I. A more detailed study in a broader World War I context is offered by Strachan 2004. Pesek 2010 has one important focus on African agency in World War I conflicts. Several recent, quite different studies concentrate on the role of African mercenaries in German colonial forces. Bechhaus-Gerst 2007 reconstructs the life of a Dar es Salaam–born man who served as a child soldier in the colonial army and later died in Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Mass 2006 studies German and African colonial soldiers in the context of gender construction. Morlang 2008 gives an overview of the history and role of African mercenaries in the colonial army, and Michels 2009 offers a postcolonial and deconstructive view on African soldiers in the German colonial army.
  348.  
  349. Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. “Treu bis in den Tod”: Von Deutsch-Ostafrika nach Sachsenhausen: eine Lebensgeschichte. Berlin: Links, 2007.
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  351. Reconstructs the life of a Tanzanian-born man who was recruited for the German colonial army at the age of ten and fought in World War I. He later came to Germany and represented the “truthful askari” for the colonial revanchist movement but was killed in Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1944.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Krech, H. Die Kampfhandlungen in den ehemaligen deutschen Kolonien in Afrika während des 1. Weltkrieges (1914–1918). Berlin: Köster, 1999.
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  355. A short overview (eighty-three pages) of the combat actions in the former German colonies in Africa during World War I.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Kuss, Susanne. Deutsches Militär auf kolonialen Kriegsschauplätzen: Eskalation von Gewalt zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Berlin: Links, 2010.
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  359. Argues against the thesis of continuity between the colonial period and the Nazi era. She compares three colonial wars and concludes that factors other than racism, nationalism, and “military culture” (such as geography, climate, origin of the opponents, among others) were decisive for the process and outcome of colonial wars.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Mass, Sandra. Weisse Helden, schwarze Krieger: Zur Geschichte kolonialer Männlichkeit in Deutschland 1918–1964. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2006.
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  363. A thorough study of the construction of colonial masculinity focusing on concepts of the “white (military) hero” and the “black soldier” in the period between the world wars and in Nazi Germany.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Michels, Stefanie. Schwarze deutsche Kolonialsoldaten: Mehrdeutige Repräsentationsräume und früher Kosmopolitismus in Afrika. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag, 2009.
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  367. The author deconstructs the myth of the “truthful askari” and presents a discourse-analytic study of German military history, which regards the African-German soldier as cosmo-political agents.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Morlang, Thomas. Askari und Fitafita: “Farbige” Söldner in den Deutschen Kolonien. Berlin: Links, 2008.
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  371. Based on original sources, this study gives an overview of the history of African mercenaries in the German colonial forces.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Pesek, Michael. Das Ende eines Kolonialreiches: Ostafrika im Ersten Weltkrieg. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2010.
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  375. A detailed study of specific characteristics of World War I conflicts in East Africa where neither clearly defined frontiers nor absolute solidarities operated. The author tries also to reconstruct the history of African agents in the war.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Strachan, Hew. The First World War in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  379. Originally based on a chapter in the author’s monumental study of World War I, this book analyzes military operations on the African continent in their broader context. Strachan describes how most casualties were the result of malaria or other diseases, while even company-sized units required the support of porters in enormous numbers. Tens of thousands of Africans were employed as soldiers, but hundreds of thousands or even millions were employed as porters.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Missions and Colonialism
  382.  
  383. Missions played an important role in the German colonial project, which has not yet been fully studied. Wright 1971 is a rare study of Protestant missionary activities in German East Africa. Bade 1982 is a collection of essays discussing many aspects of the relationship between mission and colonialism. Van der Heyden and Becher 2000 focuses on the subject of mission and colonial violence. Oermann 1999 is a detailed study of interaction between missions and colonial administration in German Southwest Africa.
  384.  
  385. Bade, Klaus J., ed. Imperialismus und Kolonialmission: Kaiserliches Deutschland und koloniales Imperium. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Steiner, 1982.
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  387. A collection of essays by international specialists discussing the relationship between Christian missions and German colonialism. The various articles deal with the sometimes problematic relationship between mission and colonial movement and colonial politics in Germany as well as missionary work, colonial rule, and colonial economy in the colonies.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Oermann, Nils Ole. Mission, Church and State Relations in South West Africa under German Rule, 1884–1915. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1999.
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  391. Examines the interaction of missionaries and clergymen with the colonial administration in southwest Africa/Namibia under German rule (1884–1915) on the basis of detailed archival research of German, Namibian, Finnish, South African, and English archival sources.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. van der Heyden, Ulrich, and Jürgen Becher, eds. Mission und Gewalt. Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag, 2000.
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  395. Presents a collection of essays in German or English that covers different aspects of missionary activities in general and the missions’ dealing with violence in particular.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Wright, Marcia. German Missions in Tanganyika, 1891–1914: Lutherans and Moravians in the Southern Highlands. Oxford: Clarendon, 1971.
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  399. A complex study of African and colonial, ecclesiastical, and missionary history. Although a little dated, this is still one of only few books on Protestant missions in the region.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Women and the Colonial Project
  402.  
  403. The role of women in the German colonial project was long ignored. Mamozai 1989 presents the first and still readable introduction to women’s colonial activities in Germany and in the colonies. Wildenthal 2001 is another groundbreaking study stressing the role of white women in the promotion of “racial purity” in the colonial context. Bechhaus-Gerst and Leutner 2009 is a collection of essays on all aspects of German and indigenous women’s roles during the colonial period. Kundrus 2005 discusses colonial organizations of women in imperial Germany. Violence by women is discussed in Krüger 2003 in the context of colonial wars and in O’Donnell 1999 regarding domestic servants. Schestokat 2003 analyzes written sources of German women who traveled through Cameroon, and Walgenbach 2005 is a detailed study of the construction of the German “white woman” and its function in the colonial context within the framework of “critical whiteness studies.”
  404.  
  405. Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne, and Mechthild Leutner, eds. Frauen in den Deutschen Kolonien. Berlin: Links, 2009.
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  407. Covers Germany’s overseas possessions as well as the metropole. Includes a significant number of essays focusing on the rarely discussed former Pacific territories (Qingdao, New Guinea, and Samoa). Women as colonizers/colonized are explored from multiple perspectives.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Krüger, Gesine. “Bestien und Opfer: Frauen im Kolonialkrieg.” In Völkermord in Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Der Kolonialkrieg in Namibia und seine Folgen. Edited by Jürgen Zimmerer and Joachim Zeller, 142–159. Berlin: Links, 2003.
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  411. Studies the different ways German and African women were involved in the colonial war in Namibia, 1904–1907.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Kundrus, Birthe. Die imperialistischen Frauenverbände des Kaiserreichs: Koloniale Phantasie- und Realgeschichte im Verein. Working Paper 3. Basel, Switzerland: Basler Afrika-Bibliographien, 2005.
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  415. Studies women’s imperial organizations as part of nationalist and colonial movements.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Mamozai, Martha. Schwarze Frau, weisse Herrin. Frauenleben in den Deutschen Kolonien. Hamburg, West Germany: Rowohlt, 1989.
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  419. A pioneer study that was the first to discuss the active role of German women in colonial projects: not only as exponents of German culture but also as perpetrators of violence against the local population.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. O’Donnell, Krista. “Poisonous Women. Danger, Illicit Violence and Domestic Work in German Southwest Africa, 1904–1915.” Journal of Women’s History 11.3 (1999): 31–54.
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  423. Examines how settlers adapted Western notions of gender and race to portray local conflicts and legitimate illicit sexual and nonsexual acts of violence against female domestic servants.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Schestokat, Karin U. German Women in Cameroon: Travelogues from Colonial Times. New York and Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003.
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  427. Analyzes the travelogues written by four German women who traveled through Cameroon between 1908 and 1920. Anna Rein-Wuhrmann was a missionary with the Basel mission, Grete Ziemann was the sister of a colonial doctor, and Lene Haase and Pauline Thorbecke accompanied their husbands on medical and scientific expeditions.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Walgenbach, Katharina. “Die weisse Frau als Trägerin Deutscher Kultur”: Koloniale Diskurse über Geschlecht, “Rasse” und Klasse im Kaiserreich. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2005.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Deals with constructions of gender, race, and class in the context of “critical whiteness” studies. It offers a detailed analysis of ideas and perceptions of the Frauenbundes der Deutschen Kolonialgesellschaft (Women’s League of the German Colonial Organization) mainly based on articles in the league’s journal Kolonie und Heimat (Colony and Homeland).
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Wildenthal, Lora. German Women for Empire, 1884–1945. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001.
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  435. Analyzes German women’s efforts to participate in the colonial project from its beginning up to the Nazi era. It stresses the role of white women in the promotion and maintenance of “racial purity” and the implementation of German culture in the colonies. German women campaigned against interracial marriage and took an active part in creating a discourse that constructed African and Pacific women as sexually promiscuous and inferior.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Cultural History of German Colonialism
  438.  
  439. In recent times the study of the cultural history of German colonialism has attracted more and more scholarly interest. Friedrichsmeyer, et al. 1998 was the first collection of essays dealing with colonial discourse and colonial cultures. Perraudin and Zimmerer 2010 combines political and cultural studies of German colonialism. Langbehn 2010 focuses on the impact of colonialism on visual cultures, and Nagl 2009 offers a comprehensive study of “race” in Weimar cinema. Another specialized study is Ciarlo 2011, which deals with colonial imagery in advertisements in Weimar Germany. Gouaffo 2007 concentrates on the constructions of Cameroon in German colonial discourse.
  440.  
  441. Ciarlo, David. Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
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  443. Deals with the racialization of German advertising imagery in the Wilhelmine period, which according to the author was not only the result of colonial activities but also a means to sell goods.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Friedrichsmeyer, Sara, Sara Lennox, and Suanne Zantop, eds. The Imperialist Imagination. German Colonialism and Its Legacy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
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  447. A groundbreaking collection of essays that introduced discourses and cultures, questions of race and gender, self-identification and “othering,” fantasies, memories, and legacies into the study of German colonialism.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Gouaffo, Albert. Wissens- und Kulturtransfer im kolonialen Kontext: Das Beispiel Kamerun- Deutschland (1884–1919). Wurzburg, Germany: Königshausen & Neumann, 2007.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The Cameroonian author analyzes the colonial constructions of Cameroon in German popular, missionary, political, and academic discourse and discusses the ways these constructions helped the ongoing nation-building process in Germany.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Langbehn, Volker, ed. German Colonialism, Visual Culture, and Modern Memory. New York: Routledge, 2010.
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  455. These essays have a strong focus on the impact of colonialism on visual cultures and study, for example, advertising, trading cards and postcards, cinema, and TV production.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Nagl, Tobias. Die unheimliche Maschine: Rasse und Repräsentation im Weimarer Kino. Munich: Edition Text + Kritik, 2009.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Presents a detailed and groundbreaking study of the representation of “race” in the cinema of the Weimar Republic based on postcolonial approaches.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Perraudin, Michael, and Jürgen Zimmerer, eds. German Colonialism and National Identity. New York: Routledge, 2010.
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  463. Offers a combination of political and cultural approaches to German colonialism and includes studies of literature and art and the examination of both metropolitan and local discourses and memories.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Colonial Science and Colonial Medicine
  466.  
  467. Scientific colonialism (or colonial science) represents an updated field of research within the study of colonialism. Pyenson 1985 is a study of the relationship of natural sciences and imperialism. The institutionalization of colonial science is studied in Ruppenthal 2007 using the example of the Colonial Institute in Hamburg. That this development continued during the period of colonial revanchism is demonstrated in Stoecker 2008, using the example of African Studies in Berlin. Eckart 1997 is the only detailed study of German colonial medicine.
  468.  
  469. Eckart, Wolfgang U. Medizin und Kolonialimperialismus: Deutschland 1884–1945. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1997.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A pioneering and still the only comprehensive study of German colonial medicine. Presents a colony-by-colony account of institutions, personnel, and medical issues. The author includes missionary, civilian and military doctors, and also deals with the meaning of “racial hygiene” in the founding of Germany’s tropical medicine.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Pugach, Sara. Africa in Translation: A History of Colonial Linguistics in Germany and Beyond, 1814–1945. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012.
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  475. A study of the colonial origins of African Studies or “Afrikanistik” in Germany. It argues that, based on the strong presence of missionaries in early African studies, the German approach to African difference was mainly a linguistic one.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Pyenson, Lewis. Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences: German Expansion Overseas, 1900–1930. New York: Peter Lang, 1985.
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  479. Focuses on the beginning of the 20th century when German physicists and astronomers came to staff major research and teaching institutions in Argentina, the South Pacific, and China. Examines how exact sciences interacted with imperialist strategies.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Ruppenthal, Jens. Kolonialismus als “Wissenschaft und Technik”: Das Hamburgische Kolonialinstitut 1908 bis 1919. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007.
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  483. Studies the institutionalization of colonial science, taking the example of the Colonial Institute in Hamburg and focusing on the years between 1908 and 1919. He shows those disciplines taught at the institute that were considered relevant for all who wanted to prepare for their stay in the colonies either as officials or as business persons.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Stoecker, Holger. Afrikawissenschaften in Berlin von 1919 bis 1945: Zur Geschichte und Topographie eines wissenschaftlichen Netzwerkes. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Studies colonial science with regard to Africa in the period of colonial revanchism. Uses the example of the Berlin University.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Colonial Education
  490.  
  491. How to educate of the “colonial subject” was a question often discussed in German colonial circles. Adick and Mehnert 2001 is a collection of original sources on colonial education. Van der Ploeg 1977 compares colonial schooling in Cameroon and German East Africa. Adick 1981 presents a case study of colonial education using the example of Togo. Akakpo-Numado 2005 focuses on the education of girls and women in Germany’s African colonies.
  492.  
  493. Adick, Christel. Bildung und Kolonialismus in Togo: Eine Studie zu den Entstehungszusammenhängen eines europäisch geprägten Bildungswesens in Afrika am Beispiel Togos 1850–1914. Weinheim, West Germany: Beltz, 1981.
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  495. A rare comprehensive study of an educational system implemented by the Germans. Uses the example of former colony Togo.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Adick, Christel, and Wolfgang Mehnert, eds. Deutsche Missions- und Kolonialpädagogik in Dokumenten: Eine kommentierte Quellensammlung aus den Afrikabeständen deutschsprachiger Archive 1884–1914. Frankfurt: IKO, 2001.
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  499. A collection of original German sources from different archives on colonial education with commentaries.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Akakpo-Numado, Sena Yawo. “Mädchen- und Frauenbildung in den deutschen Afrika-Kolonien (1884–1914).” PhD diss., Bochum University, 2005.
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  503. Deals with colonial and missionary education of girls and women in Germany’s African colonies and tries to reconstruct goals, educational practices, teaching, learning contents, as well as the effects of colonial education on the African women.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. van der Ploeg, Arie J. “Education in Colonial Africa: The German Experience.” Comparative Education Review 21.1 (1977): 91–109.
  506. DOI: 10.1086/445923Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Examines the introduction and development of state-supported schools in Cameroon and German East Africa. It describes the colonialist’s perspective but also deals with the African reaction to and utilization of the schools.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. The Colonial Encounter
  510.  
  511. In recent years more attention has been paid to the role of African protagonists in the German-African colonial encounter. El-Tayeb 2005 offers a more theoretical view on concepts of “blackness” and “whiteness” in colonial and postcolonial Germany. Bechhaus-Gerst and Klein-Arendt 2003 covers a wide range of aspects concerning the colonial encounter. Gerbing 2010 discusses Afro-German political activism at the end of German colonial period. Other publications focus on single protagonists and their families who came to Germany during the colonial period. Van der Heyden 2008 includes biographical essays on several of these men and women. Wimmelbücker 2009 reconstructs the life of an East African teacher in Berlin, and Eyoum, et al. 2005 focuses on the Cameroonian Bell family.
  512.  
  513. Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne, and Reinhard Klein-Arendt, eds. Die (koloniale) Begegnung: AfrikanerInnen in Deutschland 1880–1945, Deutsche in Afrika 1880–1918. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003.
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  515. Covers a variety of aspects concerning the often difficult and at times violent encounter between Africans and Germans in the African colonies and the metropole.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. El-Tayeb, Fatima. “Dangerous Liaisons. Race, Nation, and German Identity.” In Not So Plain as Black and White: Afro-German Culture and History, 1890–2000. Edited by Patricia M. Mazon and Reinhild Steingröver, 27–60. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005.
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  519. Discusses the tension that arose from the “metaphorical presence of blackness” and the simultaneous denial of the presence of people of African descent in Germany. The role of Social Darwinist sciences, as well as racialized concepts of Germanness are studied.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Eyoum, Jean-Pierre Félix, Stefanie Michels, and Joachim Zeller. Bonamanga: Eine kosmopolitische Familiengeschichte. 2005.
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  523. A study of the Bell (Bonamanga) family of Cameroon whose life was intertwined with German colonialism. Rudolf Duala Manga was educated in Germany, opposed the excesses of German colonial rule, and was executed by the colonial government in 1914.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Gerbing, Stefan. Afrodeutscher Aktivismus. Interventionen von Kolonisierten am Wendepunkt der Dekolonisierung Deutschlands 1919. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2010.
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  527. A short but important study of Afro-German political activism at the end of World War I. One focus is on Cameroonian Martin Dibobe, who initiated a petition to the national assembly at Weimar of thirty-two articles as requirements for continuing being “German.”
  528. Find this resource:
  529. van der Heyden, Ulrich. Unbekannte Biographien: Afrikaner im deutschsprachigen Europa vom 18. Jahrhundert bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Berlin: Homilius, 2008.
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  531. A collection of bibliographical essays on the history of the African presence in Germany. Fourteen of these essays focus on Africans who came to Germany during the colonial period. They give a lively picture of the difficulties inherent in survival but also of Afro-German agency.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Wimmelbücker, Ludger. Mtoro bin Mwinyi Bakari: Swahili Lecturer and Author in Germany. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota, 2009.
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  535. Biography of an East African teacher in Berlin at the beginning of the 20th century who fell from grace when he married a white German woman. The author reconstructs his life and his agency in the face of colonialism and racism.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Colonial Revanchism
  538.  
  539. There are only a few studies of colonial revanchism in the Weimar Republic and in Nazi Germany. The first and hitherto most substantial publication on the subject is Hildebrand 1969. Linne 2008 is also a scholarly book that addresses a more general public and is easier to read. Kum’a N’dumbe 1980 is a French publication on the subject by a Cameroonian specialist in the field.
  540.  
  541. Hildebrand, Klaus. Vom Reich zum Weltreich: Hitler, NSDAP und koloniale Frage 1919–1945. Munich: Fink, 1969.
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  543. The seminal and voluminous 955-page study of the relationship between the NSDAP and the colonial question. The author presents a chronological description of events but also discusses general questions concerning continuities between Wilhelminian colonialism and the colonial project of the national socialists. One hundred pages of original sources are appended.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Kum’a N’dumbe, Alexandre, III. Hitler voulait l’Afrique: Les plans secrets pour une Afrique fasciste 1944–1945. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1980.
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  547. Standard work in French on the colonial plans of the national socialists by a Cameroonian historian. Asks what would have happened to Africa if Hitler had won the war.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Linne, Karsten. Deutschland jenseits des Äquators? Die NS-Kolonialplanungen für Afrika. Berlin: Links, 2008.
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  551. Addresses a wider public and introduces the reader to the colonial revanchism of the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany. It gives detailed analyses of economic, labor, and sociopolitical ideas of the Nazi planners who envisioned an African empire for Germany and deals with a combination of actual and imaginary history.
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