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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. “Sufism” is the English term used to refer to mystical interpretations and practices of the Islamic religion. This mystical strand is designated in Arabic by the term tasawwuf, while in Persian the term irfan (gnosis) is also used. Proponents of Sufism see it as inextricably arising from the Qurʾanic teachings of an immanent divinity who is “closer than the jugular vein,” and whose “signs are on the horizons and in your selves” (41:53). For Sufis, the religious and mystical experiences of the Prophet Muhammad, such as his Night Journey (Miraj), establish a precedent for his followers to pursue mystical practice. Opponents contend that the term “Sufism” (tasawwuf) was not used in the Qurʾan or by the Prophet, and that Sufism excessively incorporated pre- and non-Islamic elements.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Helpful discussions of the earliest Western contacts and studies of Sufism are surveyed by Schimmel 1975 and Ernst 1997. Colonial engagement with regions of the Muslim world led to some of the early writings on Sufism by Europeans. Late-19th-century and early-20th-century scholarship on Sufism emerged concurrently with the new field of the “science” of religious studies, and both were occupied with questions such as the search for origins. Contemporary currents in the study of religion, such as Carl Jung’s psychology, and other attempts to retrieve universal elements of human religiosity characterized much of the mid-20th-century scholarship on Sufism. An influential interpretive school known as perennialism, or traditionalism, was inspired by figures such as Rene Guenon (1886–1951) and Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998), Sufi convert intellectuals who remained outside of the academy. Such interpretations of religion, Islam, and, in particular, Sufism continue to find academic exponents in figures such as the Iranian émigré Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933), whose students often specialize in the study of Sufi doctrines, particularly the thought of Ibn al-˓Arabi (see Nasr 1999, Nasr 2007). Academic studies of Sufism are at present either primarily doctrinal/philosophical, involving philological expertise and interpretive exegesis of classical Sufi texts; or ethnographic, especially following the rise of area studies and foreign language training that emerged during the Cold War period.
  8.  
  9. Arberry, A J. Introduction to the History of Sufism. London: Longmans, Green, 1943.
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  11. An early classic by a British Orientalist and translator of Sufi texts from Arabic and Persian.
  12. Arberry, A J. Introduction to the History of Sufism. London: Longmans, Green, 1943.
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  14. Baldick, Julian. Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism. 2d rev. ed. London: I. B. Tauris, 2000.
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  16. A historical overview in which Baldick argues against Sufism being derived from the Qurʾan and stresses its links to Eastern Christianity.
  17. Baldick, Julian. Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism. 2d rev. ed. London: I. B. Tauris, 2000.
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  19. Cornell, Vincent J. “Fruit of the Tree of Knowledge: The Relationship between Faith and Practice in Islam.” In The Oxford History of Islam. Edited by John Esposito, 63–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  21. In a style both academically sound and straightforward, this chapter is a basic introduction to the importance of Sufism in the Islamic tradition.
  22. Cornell, Vincent J. “Fruit of the Tree of Knowledge: The Relationship between Faith and Practice in Islam.” In The Oxford History of Islam. Edited by John Esposito, 63–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  24. Ernst, Carl W. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1997.
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  26. Ernst takes up where Schimmel left off and expands more critically on themes in the study of Sufism, including sources, sainthood, practices, orders, poetry, music, and contemporary developments such as the role of the state, media, and new styles of Sufi leadership. Includes a chapter reviewing the history of the academic study of Sufism in the West.
  27. Ernst, Carl W. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1997.
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  29. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Sufi Essays. 3d ed. Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1999.
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  31. A topical treatment of themes in classical Sufism, such as the Sufi master and the spiritual states.
  32. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Sufi Essays. 3d ed. Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1999.
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  34. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Garden of Truth: The Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam’s Mystical Tradition. New York: HarperOne, 2007.
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  36. A philosophically oriented overview from an “insider” perspective aimed at introducing the field to educated nonspecialists.
  37. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Garden of Truth: The Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam’s Mystical Tradition. New York: HarperOne, 2007.
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  39. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
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  41. The most complete and comprehensive survey of Sufi history, doctrines, practices, and academic studies in the field up to the mid-1970s. Features an extensive bibliography and index.
  42. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
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  44. Textbooks
  45.  
  46. The first survey of Sufism in English was Nicholson 1914. Some sixty years later, Annemarie Schimmel published Mystical Dimensions of Islam (see General Overviews). This demonstrates how far the field had come by that point in having translations, critical editions, and studies of individual mystics and regional mystical subcultures available so that a much more detailed presentation of Sufism’s history could be made. Knysh 2000 and Sedgwick 2000 take historical approaches to presenting Sufism, while Ernst 1997 (listed under General Overviews) stresses themes and religious and cultural theory. Chittick and Sachiko 1994 and Chittick 2000 take a more philosophical approach and attempt to offer an insider’s perspective.
  47.  
  48. Chittick, William. Sufism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.
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  50. An overview that is philosophically and doctrinally, rather than historically, oriented. Important technical terms are clearly explained.
  51. Chittick, William. Sufism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.
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  53. Chittick, William, and Sachiko Murata. The Vision of Islam. New York: Paragon House, 1994.
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  55. A textbook on Islam written from a “traditionalist” Sufi perspective, focusing on central philosophical or theological doctrines and their existential implications rather than historical events and the activities of prominent individuals within the religious tradition.
  56. Chittick, William, and Sachiko Murata. The Vision of Islam. New York: Paragon House, 1994.
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  58. Knysh, Alexander. Islamic Mysticism: A Short History. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  60. This volume is not, in fact short, at more than three hundred pages, but rather a work full of historical detail and insights largely focused on Middle Eastern developments.
  61. Knysh, Alexander. Islamic Mysticism: A Short History. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  63. Nicholson, Reynold A. The Mystics of Islam. London: G. Bell, 1914.
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  65. The first scholarly overview of the topic to include excerpts from major Sufi texts and poetry. Explores themes such as the path, ecstasy, gnosis, love, mystical union, and the Sufi saints. Reprinted in 1975 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul).
  66. Nicholson, Reynold A. The Mystics of Islam. London: G. Bell, 1914.
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  68. Sedgwick, Mark J. Sufism: the Essentials. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 2000.
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  70. A brief, accessible, and basic introduction by a historian of contemporary Islam.
  71. Sedgwick, Mark J. Sufism: the Essentials. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 2000.
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  73. Bibliographies
  74.  
  75. Among the most convenient bibliographic sources are those available online. For example, Oxford Islamic Studies Online, available through library subscription, includes bibliographic search accessible by author, title, subject, country, region, and era. The websites listed below offer useful citations and links for teaching and basic research. The Hermansen 2007 and Knysh 2005 articles review scholarly trends in the study of Sufism and offer some bibliographical guidance.
  76.  
  77. Bibliography of Sufism in UNC Libraries.
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  79. Provides an extensive list of works on Sufism, compiled by Carl Ernst.
  80. Bibliography of Sufism in UNC Libraries.
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  82. Hermansen, Marcia. “The Academic Study of Sufism at American Universities.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24.3 (2007): 23–45.
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  84. A review essay of current scholarly studies and their approaches to Sufism within the context of broader cultural and academic trends.
  85. Hermansen, Marcia. “The Academic Study of Sufism at American Universities.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24.3 (2007): 23–45.
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  87. Knysh, Alexander. “Historiography of Sufi Studies in the West.” In A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Edited by Youssef M. Choueiri, 106–131. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005.
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  89. A conceptual and bibliographical review article about some of the important issues and debates in scholarship on Sufism, especially among European experts before the 1970s.
  90. Knysh, Alexander. “Historiography of Sufi Studies in the West.” In A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Edited by Youssef M. Choueiri, 106–131. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005.
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  92. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
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  94. Searchable by author, title, era, county, region, and topic. Serves as a more specialized database on Islamic studies, with separate searches available for bibliography, biography, and primary sources.
  95. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
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  97. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
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  99. Contains an extensive bibliography of primary and secondary sources up to the mid-1970s.
  100. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
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  102. Sufism: An Annotated Resource Guide.
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  104. An annotated list of resources compiled by an interested librarian, Paul Yachnes.
  105. Sufism: An Annotated Resource Guide.
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  107. Sufism’s Many Paths.
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  109. A compilation of Internet resources on Sufism, primarily from sympathetic and insider perspectives, including online texts and translations available on Prof. Alan Godlas’s site.
  110. Sufism’s Many Paths.
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  112. Anthologies
  113.  
  114. The anthologies listed below offer excerpts and selections ideal for introductory reading or classroom use. Sells 1996 and Renard 2004 focus on early classical Sufism. Ernst 1999 is more broadly accessible while Fadiman and Frager 1997 presents Sufism as a source of personal transformation.
  115.  
  116. Ernst, Carl W., ed. and trans. Teachings of Sufism. Boston and London: Shambhala, 1999.
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  118. A set of original translations of Sufi texts from the 10th century to the contemporary period, topically arranged on mystical Qurʾan interpretation, the Prophet, spiritual practice, music, the master-disciple relationship, and so on. Designed to accompany Ernst’s Shambhala Guide.
  119. Ernst, Carl W., ed. and trans. Teachings of Sufism. Boston and London: Shambhala, 1999.
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  121. Fadiman, James, and Robert Frager, eds. Essential Sufism. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997.
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  123. Features brief excerpts from Sufi hagiography and teaching stories organized thematically for a popular audience. The compilers are both psychologists—this is reflected in the way they highlight the “transformational” aspect of Sufi practice.
  124. Fadiman, James, and Robert Frager, eds. Essential Sufism. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997.
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  126. Renard, John, ed. and trans. Knowledge of God in Classical Sufism: Foundations of Islamic Mystical Theology. New York: Paulist Press, 2004.
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  128. A selective anthology of fundamental texts adapted from previous translations of works from the 9th– to the 13th century. Includes as-Sarraj, al-Kalabadhi, al-Makki, al-Hujwiri, al-Ghazali, and more.
  129. Renard, John, ed. and trans. Knowledge of God in Classical Sufism: Foundations of Islamic Mystical Theology. New York: Paulist Press, 2004.
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  131. Sells, Michael Anthony, ed. and trans. Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʾan, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings. New York: Paulist Press, 1996.
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  133. Contains annotated selections from classical Sufi writings, with interpretive critical introductions that trace continuing literary themes from pre-Islamic poetry through the Qurʾan as sources for the mystical concepts and metaphors developed by classical Sufis.
  134. Sells, Michael Anthony, ed. and trans. Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʾan, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings. New York: Paulist Press, 1996.
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  136. Prominent Sufis
  137.  
  138. The growth of academic literature on Sufism in recent decades has made available a range of studies of prominent individual Sufis, in particular al-Ghazali, Ibn al-˓Arabi, and Rumi.
  139.  
  140. Al-Ghazali
  141.  
  142. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058–1111) is a major figure in Islamic thought generally, as well as a noted Sufi.
  143.  
  144. Works in Translation
  145.  
  146. Al-Ghazali’s most famous work, Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya ʿUlum al-Din) attempts to explain the inner dimensions of Islamic ritual practices and teachings. The two most accessible of al-Ghazali’s mystical works are The Niche of Lights (al-Ghazali 1998) and Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism (al-Ghazali 2000). There are dozens of fine translations of al-Ghazali’s work, but space limitations demand leaving out many titles, including his books on marriage, brotherhood, the Ninety-nine Names of God, and refutations of Greco-Islamic philosophy. The only complete translation al-Ghazali’s masterwork, the Ihya (Karim 1999) is inadequate. New scholarly renderings of portions of this work continue to appear. See T. J. Winter’s bibliography in On Disciplining the Soul (al-Ghazali 1995), p. 255 ff., or a more recent list in Ormsby 2008 (pp. 145–146).
  147.  
  148. al-Ghazali. Inner Dimensions of Islamic Worship. Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1983.
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  150. A translation of one section of the Ihya, which demonstrates the work’s goal of providing the spiritual logic behind the outer forms of religion.
  151. al-Ghazali. Inner Dimensions of Islamic Worship. Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1983.
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  153. al-Ghazali. On Disciplining the Soul. Translated by T. J. Winter. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1997.
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  155. In addition to translating one section of the classic Ihya ʿUlum al-Din (Revival of the religious sciences) this work contains an extensive bibliography on al- Ghazali, including previous English translations of the Ihya.
  156. al-Ghazali. On Disciplining the Soul. Translated by T. J. Winter. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1997.
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  158. al-Ghazali. The Niche of Lights. Translated by David Buchman. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1998.
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  160. A scholarly, annotated translation of al-Ghazali’s mystical commentary on the Light Verse of the Qurʾan, featuring the Arabic original on facing pages.
  161. al-Ghazali. The Niche of Lights. Translated by David Buchman. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1998.
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  163. al-Ghazali. Imam Ghazzali’s Ihya Ulum-Id-Din. 4 vols. Translated by Fazlul Karim. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications Bureau, 1999.
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  165. An inadequate translation that does provide the entirety of al-Ghazali’s classic work in abridged form derived from a Bengali translation, rather than the original Arabic.
  166. al-Ghazali. Imam Ghazzali’s Ihya Ulum-Id-Din. 4 vols. Translated by Fazlul Karim. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications Bureau, 1999.
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  168. al-Ghazali. Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism: His Deliverance from Error (al-Munqidh min al-Dalal) and Five Key Texts. Translated by R. J. McCarthy. 2d ed. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2000.
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  170. Based on the earliest manuscripts available, this translation of al-Ghazali’s autobiography is often used in place of W. M. Watt’s 1953 classic, The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali.
  171. al-Ghazali. Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism: His Deliverance from Error (al-Munqidh min al-Dalal) and Five Key Texts. Translated by R. J. McCarthy. 2d ed. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2000.
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  173. al-Ghazali. Letter to a Disciple. Translated by Tobias Mayer. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2005.
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  175. A bilingual edition of this treatise, with notes and introduction by the translator.
  176. al-Ghazali. Letter to a Disciple. Translated by Tobias Mayer. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2005.
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  178. Studies of al-Ghazali
  179.  
  180. Overviews of al-Ghazali’s life and work are provided by Watt 1963 and, more recently, Ormsby 2008. Gianotti 2001 is a traditional study of major doctrines of al-Ghazali, while Moosa 2005 applies recent critical theory to bring al-Ghazali’s ideas and role into broader conversation with contemporary concerns.
  181.  
  182. Gianotti, Timothy J. Al-Ghazālī’s Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of theIḥyāī. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston: E. J. Brill, 2001.
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  184. After early chapters on the theological (kalam) discussion of the soul in al-Ghazali, Gianotti moves to more mystical aspects of al-Ghazali’s discussions of the heart, soul, and esoteric eschatology.
  185. Gianotti, Timothy J. Al-Ghazālī’s Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of theIḥyāī. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston: E. J. Brill, 2001.
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  187. Moosa, Ebrahim. Ghazali and the Poetics of Imagination. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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  189. Moosa’s heavily theoretical work brings al-Ghazali into conversation with postmodernism and literary theory.
  190. Moosa, Ebrahim. Ghazali and the Poetics of Imagination. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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  192. Ormsby, Eric. Ghazali: The Revival of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
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  194. An overview of al-Ghazali’s life and works, published in a series on great thinkers in Islam.
  195. Ormsby, Eric. Ghazali: The Revival of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
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  197. Salazar, Ovidio, dir. Al-Ghazali, the Alchemist of Happiness. DVD, 80 min. London: Matmedia Productions, 2006.
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  199. A documentary film about al-Ghazali’s life and thought.
  200. Salazar, Ovidio, dir. Al-Ghazali, the Alchemist of Happiness. DVD, 80 min. London: Matmedia Productions, 2006.
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  202. Watt, Montgomery. Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
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  204. An early and influential attempt to situate al-Ghazali’s intellectual concerns in the context of his time, including debates prominent in theology, philosophy, and Sufism.
  205. Watt, Montgomery. Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
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  207. Ibn ˓Arabi
  208.  
  209. Ibn ˓Arabi (or Ibn al-˓Arabi, b. 1165–d. 1240) is also known as the “Greatest Shaykh” (al-shaykh al-akbar). He was a master of Sufi philosophical doctrine and metaphysical speculation, and he is revered as a saint by pilgrims to his tomb in Damascus. Issues in Ibn ˓Arabi studies include his mystical cosmology of emanation from the One, and whether he originated a monistic philosophical doctrine known as the “unity of existence” (wahdat al-wujud). He inspired a pervasive school of mystical thought that was widely popularized and disseminated across the Muslim world through poetic imagery.
  210.  
  211. Resources and Journals
  212.  
  213. Muhyiddin Ibn ˓Arabi Society.
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  215. This society maintains a website with articles and a bibliography, including the article by Steven Hirtenstein, “Selected Major Works of Ibn ˓Arabi.” The society also publishes a journal that contains both devotional and academic articles.
  216. Muhyiddin Ibn ˓Arabi Society.
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  218. Works in Translation
  219.  
  220. While remaining a major influence on Sufi thought, Ibn ˓Arabi’s works were strongly critiqued in other circles and at times banned as heretical. For those who are beginning the study of Ibn˓Arabi, it would be best to combine readings from his metaphysical works, such as The Bezels of Wisdom (Ibn al-˓Arabi 1980) and The Meccan Revelations (Ibn al-˓Arabi 2002–2004), with his autobiography (Ibn al-˓Arabi 1981) and his gentle advice to a novice on the path (Ibn al-˓Arabi 1997).
  221.  
  222. Elmore, Gerald T. Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn al-˓Arabī’s Book of the Fabulous Gryphon. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
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  224. A heavily annotated translation and study of a mystical treatise.
  225. Elmore, Gerald T. Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn al-˓Arabī’s Book of the Fabulous Gryphon. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
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  227. Ibn al-˓Arabi. The Bezels of Wisdom. Translated by R. W. J. Austin. New York: Paulist Press, 1980.
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  229. A translation of Fusus al-Hikam, Ibn al-˓Arabi’s important mystical interpretation of the essential qualities as embodied by various prophets. The first chapter, on Adam, contains Ibn al˓rabi’s teachings on the oneness of Being and the meaning of multiplicity.
  230. Ibn al-˓Arabi. The Bezels of Wisdom. Translated by R. W. J. Austin. New York: Paulist Press, 1980.
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  232. Ibn al-˓Arabi. Sufis of Andalusia, The Ruh al-Quds and Al-Durrat al-Fakhirah. Translated by R. W. J. Austin. Sherborne, UK: Beshara Publishers, 1988.
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  234. A lively autobiography of Ibn al-˓Arabi’s early years, especially interesting for portraits of his female Sufi teachers. First published in 1971 (Berkeley: University of California Press).
  235. Ibn al-˓Arabi. Sufis of Andalusia, The Ruh al-Quds and Al-Durrat al-Fakhirah. Translated by R. W. J. Austin. Sherborne, UK: Beshara Publishers, 1988.
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  237. Ibn al-˓Arabi. Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbirat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah). Translated by Shaykh Tosun Bayrak al-Helveti al-Jerrahi. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1997.
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  239. A translation of this treatise on the levels of the divine names, as well as two others (What the Seeker Needs and The One Alone).
  240. Ibn al-˓Arabi. Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbirat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah). Translated by Shaykh Tosun Bayrak al-Helveti al-Jerrahi. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1997.
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  242. Ibn al-˓Arabi. The Meccan Revelations. 2 vols. Edited by Michel Chodkiewicz, Translated by Cyrille Chodkiewicz and Denis Gril. New York: Pir Press, 2002–2004.
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  244. Translated excerpts from what is possibly the most important, and also challenging, of Ibn al-˓Arabi’s works, a dense series of abstract mystical reflections now considered to be an extended Qurʾan commentary.
  245. Ibn al-˓Arabi. The Meccan Revelations. 2 vols. Edited by Michel Chodkiewicz, Translated by Cyrille Chodkiewicz and Denis Gril. New York: Pir Press, 2002–2004.
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  247. Ibn al-˓Arabi, and ˓Abd al-Karim Jili (commentator). Journey to the Lord of Power: A Sufi Manual on Retreat. Translated by Rabia Terri Harris. New York: Inner Traditions International, 1981.
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  249. A translation of a text and classical commentary geared to those who want to follow the path of Ibn al-˓Arabi.
  250. Ibn al-˓Arabi, and ˓Abd al-Karim Jili (commentator). Journey to the Lord of Power: A Sufi Manual on Retreat. Translated by Rabia Terri Harris. New York: Inner Traditions International, 1981.
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  252. Studies of Ibn ˓Arabi
  253.  
  254. Addas 1993, thick with historical details and translations from his works, may be regarded as one of the best introductions to the life and thought of Ibn al-˓Arabi. Chittick 1989 provides the closest reading of specific texts that are translated and interpreted in this important work on Ibn ˓Arabi’s Futuhat. Chodkiewicz 1993a and Chittick 1998 discuss the legacy of Ibn al-˓Arabi in specific regions.
  255.  
  256. Addas, Claude. Ibn ˓Arabi: the Voyage of No Return. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2000.
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  258. An introduction to the life and thought of Ibn al-˓Arabi, including his major works, his doctrines, and his influence on later thinkers.
  259. Addas, Claude. Ibn ˓Arabi: the Voyage of No Return. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2000.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Addas, Claude. Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn ˓Arabi. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1993.
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  263. A biography of Ibn al-˓Arabi based on the master’s own writings and on extensive research in other sources. Addas attempts to reconstruct a “historical” portrait free from the accretions of legend.
  264. Addas, Claude. Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn ˓Arabi. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1993.
  265. Find this resource:
  266. Chittick, William C. The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn Al-‘Arabi’s Metaphysics of Imagination. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
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  268. A thematic philosophical analysis of major doctrines of Ibn al-˓Arabi, based on the accompanying translations of extensive passages from the voluminous work, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revelations).
  269. Chittick, William C. The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn Al-‘Arabi’s Metaphysics of Imagination. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
  270. Find this resource:
  271. Chittick, William C. The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn al-˓Arabi’s Cosmology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.
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  273. Continues the study of major themes in Ibn al-˓Arabi based on extensive translations from his student, al-Qunawi, topically arranged and philosophically oriented. In this volume the focus is on cosmology and doctrines, arranged in three sections: cosmos, order of the worlds, and structure of the microcosm.
  274. Chittick, William C. The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn al-˓Arabi’s Cosmology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.
  275. Find this resource:
  276. Chodkiewicz, Michel. An Ocean Without Shore: Ibn ˓Arabī, the Book, and the Law. Albany: State University of New York, 1993a.
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  278. Focuses on the legacy of Ibn al-˓Arabi with a focus on the Maghreb and Africa.
  279. Chodkiewicz, Michel. An Ocean Without Shore: Ibn ˓Arabī, the Book, and the Law. Albany: State University of New York, 1993a.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Chodkiewicz, Michel. Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn ˓Arabi. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1993b.
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  283. A study of one of the most important doctrines of Ibn al-˓Arabi, the idea of the seal of the saints.
  284. Chodkiewicz, Michel. Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn ˓Arabi. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1993b.
  285. Find this resource:
  286. Corbin, Henry. Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Sūfism of Ibn ˓Arabī. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
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  288. A classic study in which Corbin draws on his affinity with Jungian ideas of creative imagination to discuss Ibn al-˓Arabi’s concept of the world of images (˓alam al-mithal).
  289. Corbin, Henry. Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Sūfism of Ibn ˓Arabī. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Hirtenstein, Stephen, ed. The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn ˓Arabi. Ashland, OR: White Cloud Press, 1999.
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  293. A compilation of articles and translations by associates of the Ibn ˓Arabi Society.
  294. Hirtenstein, Stephen, ed. The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn ˓Arabi. Ashland, OR: White Cloud Press, 1999.
  295. Find this resource:
  296. Nettler, Ronald L. Sufi Metaphysics and Qurānic Prophets: Ibn ˓Arabī’s Thought and Method in the Fusus Al-Hikam. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2003.
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  298. A discussion of the sources and implications of Ibn al-˓Arabi’s ordering and discussion of the lineage of prophets in this seminal text. Some elements of Nettler’s interpretation are disputed by G. Elmore in an extensive review in the Journal of Qurʾanic Studies 7.1 (2005): 81–97.
  299. Nettler, Ronald L. Sufi Metaphysics and Qurānic Prophets: Ibn ˓Arabī’s Thought and Method in the Fusus Al-Hikam. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2003.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Rumi
  302.  
  303. Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207–1273) the Persian mystic and poet has received extensive scholarly and popular attention. His major work is considered to be the Mathnawi (or Mathnavi) originally translated into English by R. Nicholson (Rumi 1925). Translations of various portions and of other works of Rumi have been updated, with the most popularly successful being renditions of Rumi’s verses by the American poet Coleman Barks. The comprehensive work of Lewis 2000 has become the critical standard in studies of Rumi. Schimmel 1980 and Chittick 1983 approach Rumi though isolating themes running throughout his work. Scholarly literature debates the accuracy of textual transmission and the fidelity of translations to the original, as well as discussing Rumi’s thought and style.
  304.  
  305. Banani, Amin, Richard Hovannisian, and Georges Sabagh, eds. Poetry and Mysticism in Islam: The Heritage of Rūmī. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Includes papers on Rumi presented at a conference in honor of Annemarie Schimmel.
  308. Banani, Amin, Richard Hovannisian, and Georges Sabagh, eds. Poetry and Mysticism in Islam: The Heritage of Rūmī. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  309. Find this resource:
  310. Chittick, William. The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983.
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  312. A thematic study with extensive translations from Rumi’s oeuvre, accompanied by brief, philosophically oriented introductions.
  313. Chittick, William. The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Friedlander, Shems. Rumi and the Whirling Dervishes: Being an Account of the Sufi Order Known as the Mevlevis and its Founder the Poet and Mystic Mevlana Jalaluʾ:ddin Rumi. New York: Parabola Books, 2003.
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  317. Heavily illustrated with photographs, this is an accessible and popular introduction by a contemporary American Mevlevi.
  318. Friedlander, Shems. Rumi and the Whirling Dervishes: Being an Account of the Sufi Order Known as the Mevlevis and its Founder the Poet and Mystic Mevlana Jalaluʾ:ddin Rumi. New York: Parabola Books, 2003.
  319. Find this resource:
  320. Khamush.com.
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322. An online site with extensive bibliographic information and other links, maintained by Rumi fans.
  323. Khamush.com.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Lewis, Franklin. Rumi, Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings and Poetry of Jalâl al-Din Rumi. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.
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  327. Lewis’s work has become the critical standard in Rumi studies, due to its comprehensive review of existing scholarship and the reception of Rumi and the tradition surrounding him in various academic and popular contexts. Includes an exhaustive bibliography.
  328. Lewis, Franklin. Rumi, Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings and Poetry of Jalâl al-Din Rumi. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000.
  329. Find this resource:
  330. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. The Mathnawi of Jalaluddin Rumi. 8 vols. Translated by R. A. Nicholson. London: Luzac, 1925.
  331. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  332. The classical translation with the Persian text by a great British Orientalist.
  333. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. The Mathnawi of Jalaluddin Rumi. 8 vols. Translated by R. A. Nicholson. London: Luzac, 1925.
  334. Find this resource:
  335. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. Signs of the Unseen: The Discourses of Jalaluddin Rumi. Translated by W. M. Thackston Jr. Boston: Shambhala, 1999.
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337. Selections from Rumi’s prose work, Fihi ma Fihi.
  338. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. Signs of the Unseen: The Discourses of Jalaluddin Rumi. Translated by W. M. Thackston Jr. Boston: Shambhala, 1999.
  339. Find this resource:
  340. Schimmel, Annemarie. The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalāloddin Rumi. London: East-West Publications, 1980.
  341. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  342. A thematic study of major themes in Rumi’s poetry.
  343. Schimmel, Annemarie. The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalāloddin Rumi. London: East-West Publications, 1980.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Other Individual Sufis
  346.  
  347. This section lists some of the most prominent studies of other important Sufis, such as al-Junayd (Abdel-Kader 1962), Shah Wali Allah (Baljon 1986), Abu Madyan (Cornell 1996), ˓Alaʾ ad-Dawla as-Simnani (Elias 1995), Ibn al-Farid (Homerin 1994), Mahmud Shabistari (Lewisohn 1995), Attar (Lewisohn and Shackle 2007), al-Hallaj (Massignon 1982), and al-Tirmidhi (al-Tirmidhi 1996).
  348.  
  349. Abdel-Kader, Ali Hassan. The Life, Personality, and Writings of al-Junayd. London: Luzac, 1962.
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  351. The standard study of this important early (d. 910) Sufi, known for establishing the “sober” Baghdadi school and articulating the doctrine of annihilation (fana). A portion of the work consists of translations of al-Junayd’s extant treatises.
  352. Abdel-Kader, Ali Hassan. The Life, Personality, and Writings of al-Junayd. London: Luzac, 1962.
  353. Find this resource:
  354. Baljon, J. M. S. Religion and Thought of Shāh Walī Allāh Dihlawī, 1703–1762. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1986.
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  356. A detailed study of the life, works, and major doctrines of a major figure in 18th-century South Asian Sufism.
  357. Baljon, J. M. S. Religion and Thought of Shāh Walī Allāh Dihlawī, 1703–1762. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1986.
  358. Find this resource:
  359. Cornell, Vincent. The Way of Abu Madyan. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1996.
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  361. Detained translations with critical apparatus and Arabic edited text from a North African Sufi master of the 12th century.
  362. Cornell, Vincent. The Way of Abu Madyan. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1996.
  363. Find this resource:
  364. Elias, Jamal J. The Throne Carrier of God: The Life and Thought of ˓Ala ad-Dawla as-Simnānī. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
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  366. A comprehensive study of Simnani’s (b. 1256–d. 1336) life, context, and doctrines.
  367. Elias, Jamal J. The Throne Carrier of God: The Life and Thought of ˓Ala ad-Dawla as-Simnānī. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Homerin, Th. Emil. From Arab Poet to Muslim Saint: Ibn al-Fārid, His Verse and His Shrine. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
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  371. In addition to translations and analyses of this famous Egyptian’s ecstatic and erotic poetry, the author has written a social history of the cult that rose at the poet’s tomb.
  372. Homerin, Th. Emil. From Arab Poet to Muslim Saint: Ibn al-Fārid, His Verse and His Shrine. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
  373. Find this resource:
  374. Lewisohn, Leonard. Beyond Faith and Infidelity: The Sufi Poetry and Teachings of Mahmud Shabistari. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon, 1995.
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  376. A study of the milieu and poetic themes of a Persian 14th-century Sufi, the author of the Gulshan-e Raz.
  377. Lewisohn, Leonard. Beyond Faith and Infidelity: The Sufi Poetry and Teachings of Mahmud Shabistari. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon, 1995.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Lewisohn, Leonard, and Christopher Shackle, eds. ˓Atṭār and the Persian Sufi Tradition: The Art of Spiritual Flight. London: Institute for Ismaili Studies, 2007.
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  381. Presents papers from a conference on various approaches to Attar.
  382. Lewisohn, Leonard, and Christopher Shackle, eds. ˓Atṭār and the Persian Sufi Tradition: The Art of Spiritual Flight. London: Institute for Ismaili Studies, 2007.
  383. Find this resource:
  384. Massignon, Louis. The Passion of al-Hallāj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam. Translated by Herbert W. Mason. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
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  386. The first volume of a definitive, four-volume study on al-Hallaj by a scholar devoted to studying his works.
  387. Massignon, Louis. The Passion of al-Hallāj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam. Translated by Herbert W. Mason. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. al-Tirmidhi, Hakim. The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism. Edited by Berndt Radtke and John O’Kane. Richmond, Surrey UK: Curzon Press, 1996.
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  391. Includes the translated texts of two works: al-Tirmidhi’s autobiography, and a work entitled “The Life of the Friends of God.”
  392. al-Tirmidhi, Hakim. The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism. Edited by Berndt Radtke and John O’Kane. Richmond, Surrey UK: Curzon Press, 1996.
  393. Find this resource:
  394. Sufi Qurʾan Commentary (Tafsir)
  395.  
  396. That Sufism is in essence derived from the interpretation of Qurʾanic themes features in the seminal study of Massignon 1982. Habil 1987 and Godlas’s article on “Sufi Tafsir” provide overviews of the genre. While early anthologies of Qurʾan commentary in translation may have treated Sufi elements briefly, studies of the genre and of individual Sufi Qurʾan commentaries emerged with Bowering’s important study of the early portions of al-Tustari (Bowering 1980). The Qurʾanic roots of a number of Sufi doctrines may be explored through the anthology of Sells 1995. Sands 2006 is a detailed review and analysis of Sufi hermeneutical principles.
  397.  
  398. Böwering, Gerhard. The Mystical Vision of Existence in Classical Islam: The Qurʾānic Hermeneutics of the Sūfī Sahl At-Tustarī (d.283/896). Berlin: de Gruyter, 1980.
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400. A phenomenological and historical study of the contents and terminology of the earliest extent complete Sufi Qurʾan commentary.
  401. Böwering, Gerhard. The Mystical Vision of Existence in Classical Islam: The Qurʾānic Hermeneutics of the Sūfī Sahl At-Tustarī (d.283/896). Berlin: de Gruyter, 1980.
  402. Find this resource:
  403. Godlas, Alan. “Sufi Qurʾan Commentary: Sufi Tafsir.”
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  405. An overview of Sufi Qurʾan commentary, based on an article from the Encyclopedia Iranica.
  406. Godlas, Alan. “Sufi Qurʾan Commentary: Sufi Tafsir.”
  407. Find this resource:
  408. Habil, Abdurrahman. “Traditional Esoteric Commentaries on the Quran.” In Islamic Spirituality: Foundations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 24–47. New York: Crossroads, 1987.
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  410. A basic and clear survey of Sufi Qurʾan commentaries, organized chronologically.
  411. Habil, Abdurrahman. “Traditional Esoteric Commentaries on the Quran.” In Islamic Spirituality: Foundations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 24–47. New York: Crossroads, 1987.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Keeler, Annabel. Sufi Hermeneutics: The Qurʾan Commentary of Rashid al-Din Maybudi. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  415. Analyzes this important Persian commentary by a Sufi of the 12th century who is associated with Abdullah Ansari of Herat. The commentary includes both exoteric and esoteric elements. Keeler applies a theory of mystical understanding and the way of love to Maybudi’s analysis of the Qurʾanic stories of Abraham, Moses, and Joseph.
  416. Keeler, Annabel. Sufi Hermeneutics: The Qurʾan Commentary of Rashid al-Din Maybudi. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  417. Find this resource:
  418. Massignon, Louis. Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism. Translated by Benjamin Clark. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997.
  419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  420. Primarily draws on the texts of al-Hallaj to trace his use of technical terms mostly derived from the Qurʾan. French original was published in 1954.
  421. Massignon, Louis. Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism. Translated by Benjamin Clark. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997.
  422. Find this resource:
  423. Sands, Kristin Zahra. Ṣūfī Commentaries on the Qurʾān in Classical Islam. London: Routledge, 2006.
  424. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  425. A detailed review of Sufi tafsir, including hermeneutical principles, the methods of numerous early commentators, and examples of treatments of the Moses and Khidr story, the account of Mary, and the Light Verse.
  426. Sands, Kristin Zahra. Ṣūfī Commentaries on the Qurʾān in Classical Islam. London: Routledge, 2006.
  427. Find this resource:
  428. Sells, Michael. Early Islamic Mysticism. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1995.
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  430. In addition to selections from the writings of important Sufis of the 9th–11th centuries, Sells offers a lengthy treatment of passages from the Qurʾan that have been central to Sufi thought, such as the verses on Muhammad’s Ascension into heaven (the Miʾraj) and the Light Verse.
  431. Sells, Michael. Early Islamic Mysticism. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1995.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Sufi Biography and Hagiography
  434.  
  435. Biographical compendia form an important genre of Islamic historical and religious literature because of its role in establishing authenticity of tradition. In the case of Sufis, hagiographies preserve early Sufi sayings and terminology. They also establish tropes of the saintly in terms of miracles and activities of Sufis. Attar 1990 is a prime example of the classical genre of biographical compendium, Renard 2008 is an anthology of saintly biographies from various regions and epochs, while Hermansen 1997 and Mojaddedi 2001 discuss the form and function of hagiography.
  436.  
  437. Attar, Farid al-Din. Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya’. Translated by A. J. Arberry. New York: Penguin, 1990.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Excerpts from one of the most important Sufi biographical compendia.
  440. Attar, Farid al-Din. Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya’. Translated by A. J. Arberry. New York: Penguin, 1990.
  441. Find this resource:
  442. Hermansen, Marcia. “Religion and Literature in Muslim South Asia.” Muslim World 87.3–4 (1997): 315–329.
  443. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  444. A study of the tazkira genre in South Asia and how it is associated with the memorialization of cities and saints.
  445. Hermansen, Marcia. “Religion and Literature in Muslim South Asia.” Muslim World 87.3–4 (1997): 315–329.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Kugle, Scott. Sufis and Saints Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, and Sacred Power in Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2007.
  448. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  449. A study informed by critical theories of embodiment, explored in Muslim contexts through the identification of specific Sufi saints with particular body parts and elements. Also addresses feminism, queer theory, and sexuality through this material.
  450. Kugle, Scott. Sufis and Saints Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, and Sacred Power in Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2007.
  451. Find this resource:
  452. Mojaddedi, Jawed A. The Biographical Tradition in Sufism: The Ṭ abaqāt Genre from al-Sulamī to Jāmī. London: Routledge/Curzon, 2001.
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454. A literary analysis of the Sufi tabaqat (biographical compendium) genre, from al-Sulami’s (d. 1021) foundational Arabic work to the Persian collection by Jami (d. 1492). Exposes the functions of this genre in defining the identity of the Sufi community.
  455. Mojaddedi, Jawed A. The Biographical Tradition in Sufism: The Ṭ abaqāt Genre from al-Sulamī to Jāmī. London: Routledge/Curzon, 2001.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Renard, John. Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. An overview of Islamic hagiography based on a broad survey of texts. Looks at life story narratives, miracle stories, social context, and literary and theological aspects.
  460. Renard, John. Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
  461. Find this resource:
  462. History Of Sufism
  463.  
  464. Some of the major questions in Sufi studies concern the origins of Sufism; historical stages in its development; the nature of its doctrines and practices; the development of Sufi institutions, especially the Sufi Orders; and how Sufism has adjusted to elements of modernity. For long a neglected area of study, scholars are increasingly focusing on the relationships between Sufism and the state and between Sufism and society in particular historical contexts, rather than on internal teachings and the extraordinary figures of Sufism.
  465.  
  466. Early Sufism and Sufi Origins
  467.  
  468. The first Sufis were ascetic and pious Muslims who individually pursued the mystical life. Although early European scholarship located the origins of Sufism outside of Islam, later scholars have focused on the Qurʾan as a source of Sufi doctrine. Scholars and the public often sought the source of Sufism outside of Islam in Christianity (Smith 1978, Andrae 1987); in Greek philosophy, especially Neoplatonism; and in Indian religious thought, such as Vedanta or Buddhism (Zaehner 1960). Persianists, such as Henri Corbin (see Corbin 1977) and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, emphasized Iranian elements within Sufi thought. Seminal translations of classic works by al-Hujwiri (al-Hujwiri 1936), al-Qushayri (al-Qushayri 1995), and al-Kalabadhi (al-Kalabadhi 1935) represent the development of Sufi doctrine and practice. Karamustafa 2007 is the best overview of early developments in Sufism.
  469.  
  470. Andrae, Tor. In the Garden of Myrtles: Studies in Early Islamic Mysticism. Translated by Birgitta Sharpe. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
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  472. A study of Muslim mystics of the early period, emphasizing their personal relationships with God and their affinity for comparable theme s in Christian spirituality. The original was published in Swedish in 1947.
  473. Andrae, Tor. In the Garden of Myrtles: Studies in Early Islamic Mysticism. Translated by Birgitta Sharpe. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
  474. Find this resource:
  475. Corbin, Henry. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shiʿite Iran. Translated by Nancy Pearson. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
  476. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  477. Attempts to trace the continuity of themes, such as the spiritual body, from pre-Islamic to classical Iranian Sufi thought.
  478. Corbin, Henry. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shiʿite Iran. Translated by Nancy Pearson. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
  479. Find this resource:
  480. Ernst, Carl. “Mystical Language and the Teaching Context in the Early Sufi Lexicons.” In Mysticism and Language. Edited by Steven T. Katz, 181–201. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  482. Surveys several early Sufi lexicons (al-Sarraj, al-Qushayri, Kashani, etc.), determining that the source of the vocabulary is experiential as well as Qurʾanic, and that terms arise within specific teaching contexts rather than being philosophical abstractions. Available online.
  483. Ernst, Carl. “Mystical Language and the Teaching Context in the Early Sufi Lexicons.” In Mysticism and Language. Edited by Steven T. Katz, 181–201. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. al-Hujwiri. The Kashf al-Mahjub: The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism. Translated by R. A. Nicholson. London: Luzac, 1936.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. An important early work by al-Hujwiri (d. c. 1078) that contains discussions of Sufi terminology and the stages and states of the mystical path. An engaging and sometimes personal style makes excerpts from this text useful for classroom use.
  488. al-Hujwiri. The Kashf al-Mahjub: The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism. Translated by R. A. Nicholson. London: Luzac, 1936.
  489. Find this resource:
  490. al-Kalabadhi. The Doctrine of the Sufis. Translated by Arthur J. Arberry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1935.
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  492. A classic early work of Sufi theory.
  493. al-Kalabadhi. The Doctrine of the Sufis. Translated by Arthur J. Arberry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1935.
  494. Find this resource:
  495. Karamustafa, Ahmet T. Sufism: The Formative Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
  496. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  497. A synthetic overview of the early development of Sufism.
  498. Karamustafa, Ahmet T. Sufism: The Formative Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
  499. Find this resource:
  500. al-Qushayri, Abd al-Karim. Principles of Sufism. Translated by Barbara von Schlegell. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1992.
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502. A partial translation of an important work of early Sufi doctrine and terminology. Al-Qushayri (b. 986–d. 1074) precedes al-Ghazali (b. 1058–d. 1111) in bringing out the compatibility of Sufism with normative and nomocentric Islam.
  503. al-Qushayri, Abd al-Karim. Principles of Sufism. Translated by Barbara von Schlegell. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1992.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Smith, Margaret. al-Muḥāsibī: An Early Mystic of Baghdad. London: The Sheldon Press, 1935.
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  507. Study of an early pietistic and sober Sufi (d. 857).
  508. Smith, Margaret. al-Muḥāsibī: An Early Mystic of Baghdad. London: The Sheldon Press, 1935.
  509. Find this resource:
  510. Smith, Margaret. The Way of the Mystics: the Early Christian Mystics and the Rise of the Sūfīs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
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  512. The original was published in 1931.
  513. Smith, Margaret. The Way of the Mystics: the Early Christian Mystics and the Rise of the Sūfīs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
  514. Find this resource:
  515. Zaehner, R. C. Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. New York: Schocken, 1960.
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  517. Argues that al-Hallaj had Hindu teachers from Sind and that there are Indian influences in Sufism.
  518. Zaehner, R. C. Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. New York: Schocken, 1960.
  519. Find this resource:
  520. Medieval (Middle Period) Sufism
  521.  
  522. This period is characterized by more interest in metaphysics, and a shift from the “training sheikh” to the “teaching sheikh,” according to a typology developed by the Sufi Ibn ˓Abbad of Ronda (1332–1390). Sufi residential and social institutions such as ribats, khanqahs, and zawiyas appeared after the 14th century. Razi 1982 is the best work for understanding the master-disciple relationship, Sufi community life, and esoteric teachings of this period.
  523.  
  524. Awn, Peter. Satan’s Tragedy and Redemption: Iblīs in Sufi Pyschology. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1983.
  525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526. Traces an important motif in classical Sufi thought: the status of evil and the possibility of transformation in a cosmos where God is the sole power.
  527. Awn, Peter. Satan’s Tragedy and Redemption: Iblīs in Sufi Pyschology. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1983.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Karamustafa, Ahmet T. God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups in the Later Middle Period: 1200–1550. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press, 1994.
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  531. A study of the antinomian and renunciant piety of socially marginal and deviant dervish groups such as the Qalandars in the Later Middle Period of Islamic history. Theoretical considerations include the validity of viewing such groups as typifying a distinct manifestation of “popular” religion. Karamustafa is able comparatively to ascertain the distinct nature of groups such as the Abdalis, Bektashis, Jamis, and Shams-i Tabrizis in the Ottoman sphere. One observation is that such groups primarily flourished in non-Arab cultural spheres, another that they have a relationship to Sufis; however, tariqa (or tariqah) Sufism was much more able to sustain and integrate this-worldly piety in broader Muslim society.
  532. Karamustafa, Ahmet T. God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups in the Later Middle Period: 1200–1550. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press, 1994.
  533. Find this resource:
  534. Razi, Najm ud-Din. The Path of God’s Bondsmen from Origin to Return. Translated by Hamid Algar. Delmar, NY: Caravan, 1982.
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  536. Translation of an important 13th-century work on theoretical Sufism. Especially useful for describing the master-disciple relationship in Sufi orders.
  537. Razi, Najm ud-Din. The Path of God’s Bondsmen from Origin to Return. Translated by Hamid Algar. Delmar, NY: Caravan, 1982.
  538. Find this resource:
  539. Winter, Michael. Society and Religion in Early Ottoman Egypt: Studies in the Writings of ˓Abd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʾrānī. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1982.
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  541. A detailed study by a historian of a polymath and prolific Sufi scholar and compiler whose work on law was probably the source of later reformist Sufi ideas on ijtihad.
  542. Winter, Michael. Society and Religion in Early Ottoman Egypt: Studies in the Writings of ˓Abd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʾrānī. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1982.
  543. Find this resource:
  544. The Sufi Orders in Social and Historical Context
  545.  
  546. Tariqa Sufism, or the proliferation of mystical orders with specific allegiances and rituals, developed in the mid-12th century. Sufi orders are characterized by distinctive litanies (awrad), rituals (dhikr, hadra), lineage (shajara), and writings. Trimingham 1971 put forth an influential model of the historical evolution of Sufi institutions that formulated three developmental stages, beginning with the khanqah stage of the 10th century that is characterized as individualistic and aristocratic in orientation. The second, tariqa stage, of the period 1100–1400, witnessed the transmission of Sufi doctrine, rules, and method as well as collective practices for inducing ecstasy, which Trimingham associated with the bourgeois classes. The third stage was that of the taifa, a sect whose inception Trimingham dates to the 15th century. This phase was marked by the founding of saint cults, defined by the transmission of allegiance and a popularization of participation and rituals. Abun-Nasr 2007 focuses on the role and sociology of orders following the 18th century, while Wolper 2003 examines their role in Anatolian material culture. McGregor 2004 examines a specific Egyptian family order in medieval times.
  547.  
  548. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. Muslim Communities of Grace: The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic Religious Life. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  549. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  550. Looks at the style and social context of Sufi communalism as well as the nature of religious authority in Islam. The later chapters deal with the continued role of Sufism in contemporary societies organized around what Abun Nasr terms an 18th-century shift from tariqa to “brotherhood” and its carry over into various types of reform movements led by Sufi sheikhs. The work is most detailed concerning the African sphere of Sufism.
  551. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. Muslim Communities of Grace: The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic Religious Life. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. McGregor, Richard J. A. Sanctity and Mysticism in Medieval Egypt: The Wafā Sufi Order and the Legacy of Ibn ˓Abd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʾrānī Arabī. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. A local order loosely connected with Shadhili tradition, the Wafaʾ family provides a good example of what emerges with the combination of personal charisma and the right social circumstances. Shows the enduring influence of Ibn al-˓Arabi in organized Sufism after his time.
  556. McGregor, Richard J. A. Sanctity and Mysticism in Medieval Egypt: The Wafā Sufi Order and the Legacy of Ibn ˓Abd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʾrānī Arabī. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
  557. Find this resource:
  558. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
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  560. A groundbreaking sociohistorical and doctrinal study that attempted to trace the development of Sufism through three stages: khanaqah (lodge), tariqa (order), and taifa (sect). It should be noted that the latter term applies to Sufism as a whole and thus has been rejected in this context by specialists in Sufism. Includes helpful charts of the major Sufi lineages. Reprinted in 1998.
  561. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
  562. Find this resource:
  563. Wolper, Ethel Sara. Cities and Saints: Sufism and the Transformation of Urban Space in Medieval Anatolia. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
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  565. A study of dervish lodges, patronage, and the urban geographical context of Sufism in various Turkish cities, such as Sivas, Tokat, and Amasya.
  566. Wolper, Ethel Sara. Cities and Saints: Sufism and the Transformation of Urban Space in Medieval Anatolia. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
  567. Find this resource:
  568. Neo-Sufism
  569.  
  570. One scholarly debate in Sufi studies concerns whether there was an 18th-century “neo-Sufi” revival that emphasized hadith studies and devotion to the Prophet Muhammad and moved away from or critiqued previous philosophical monist tendencies (wahdat al-wujud). A second discussion concerns whether a “decline” of Sufism has occurred in recent centuries and, if so, what the characteristics of and causes for this decline are. Both Western scholars and the Sufis themselves have accepted that, along with a broadening of the outreach of Sufism to the popular level, a qualitative “decline” in Sufi standards occurred. While many Western scholars had defined the “golden age” of Sufism as the period of ascetic, wandering Sufis, many of whom challenged the normative “routinized” Islamic practices of the jurists, it is clear that in later periods many Sufis were very involved in the process and theory of Islamic law. Despite modernizing trends and literalist criticisms in much of the Muslim world, Sufi orders retain vitality and continue to influence other social movements. Rahman 1979 introduced the term and discussion of “neo-Sufism,” which is analytically used by Voll 1980. Hoffman 1992 and Radtke and O’Fahey 1993 argue against the neo-Sufi hypothesis.
  571.  
  572. Hoffman, Valerie. “Devotion to the Prophet and His Family in Egyptian Sufism.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 615–637.
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574. Contests the neo-Sufism thesis by tracing the persistence of devotion to the Prophet’s descendants in Egypt.
  575. Hoffman, Valerie. “Devotion to the Prophet and His Family in Egyptian Sufism.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 615–637.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. O’Fahey, R. S. Enigmatic Saint: Ahmad ibn Idris and the Idrisi Tradition. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1990.
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  579. Reviews the debate about neo-Sufism (pp. 1–9) as part of a study on this influential 18th-century Moroccan leader of a Shadhili sub-brotherhood.
  580. O’Fahey, R. S. Enigmatic Saint: Ahmad ibn Idris and the Idrisi Tradition. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1990.
  581. Find this resource:
  582. Radke, Berndt, and R. S. O’Fahey. “Neo-Sufism Reconsidered.” Der Islam: Zeitschrift fur Geschichte und Kultur des Orients 70.1 (1993): 52–87.
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  584. Attempts to disprove major tenets of the neo-Sufi hypothesis.
  585. Radke, Berndt, and R. S. O’Fahey. “Neo-Sufism Reconsidered.” Der Islam: Zeitschrift fur Geschichte und Kultur des Orients 70.1 (1993): 52–87.
  586. Find this resource:
  587. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979.
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589. Includes the first use of the term “neo-Sufism” (p. 206), as well as a definition of what sort of changes it entailed in Sufi doctrine.
  590. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979.
  591. Find this resource:
  592. Voll, John O. “Hadith Scholars and Tariqahs: An Ulama Group in the 18th Century Haramayn and their Impact in the Asian World.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 15. 3–4 (July–October 1980): 262–267.
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  594. An influential article on the circulation of Sufi reformist ideas to the wider world in the 18th century through scholarly networks based in Mecca and Medina.
  595. Voll, John O. “Hadith Scholars and Tariqahs: An Ulama Group in the 18th Century Haramayn and their Impact in the Asian World.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 15. 3–4 (July–October 1980): 262–267.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Reformist and Early “Modern” Sufism 18th–20th
  598.  
  599. Trimingham 1998 concludes with the 19th-century revival of Sufism. In a new preface to Trimingham’s book, first published in 1971, John O. Voll expands on the concept of Sufi revival movements as a fourth developmental stage. Another way of understanding historical changes in the style and concerns of Sufism draws on changing styles of authority. Buehler 1998, the best overview and application of this argument, argues that the classical period of Sufism featured educator sheikhs who trained their disciples in spiritual exercises, allowing followers to experience intimacy with God. This model persisted into the 18th century, the time of the rise of a number of Sufi movements taking the name “Muhammadan path” when veneration of the Prophet came into ascendancy. It seems that this veneration enhanced the sheikhs’ own authority as charismatic mediators. Knysh 1995 and Nafi 2002 are important articles on the Sufi reformist circle surrounding the 18th-century figure al-Kurani. Lapidus 1988 and Trimingham 1998 are broader in scope.
  600.  
  601. Buehler, Arthur. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
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  603. A neo-Weberian look at a Naqshbandi branch of Jamaat Ali Shah in 19th-century South Asia that integrates religious studies with historical and sociological perspectives on the shifts in Sufi authority in modernizing contexts.
  604. Buehler, Arthur. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
  605. Find this resource:
  606. Knysh, Alexander. “Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī (d. 1101/1690), an Apologist for waḥdat al-wujūd.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, ser. 3, 5.1 (1995): 39–47.
  607. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  608. A study of the important Mecca-based Sufi whose ideas influenced Sufi reformist thought in other regions.
  609. Knysh, Alexander. “Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī (d. 1101/1690), an Apologist for waḥdat al-wujūd.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, ser. 3, 5.1 (1995): 39–47.
  610. Find this resource:
  611. Lapidus, Ira. A History of Muslim Societies. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  613. An influential synthesis and interpretation that discusses the historical position and social role of Sufism at various points in the broader context of Muslim societies. Lapidus replicates the thesis that Sufism declined from the era of charismatic individual mystics to later static tomb cults.
  614. Lapidus, Ira. A History of Muslim Societies. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  615. Find this resource:
  616. Meier, Fritz. Essays on Islamic Piety and Mysticism. Translated by John O’Kane with Bernd Radtke. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
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  618. A collection of seminal articles on Sufism by a major German scholar, together with a bibliography of his published works.
  619. Meier, Fritz. Essays on Islamic Piety and Mysticism. Translated by John O’Kane with Bernd Radtke. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Nafi, Basheer M. “Tasawwuf and Reform in Pre-Modern Islamic Culture: In Search of Ibrahim al-Kurani.” Die Welt des Islams 42.3 (2002): 307–355.
  622. DOI: 10.1163/15700600260435010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. An important article on Sufism and reform during this period.
  624. Nafi, Basheer M. “Tasawwuf and Reform in Pre-Modern Islamic Culture: In Search of Ibrahim al-Kurani.” Die Welt des Islams 42.3 (2002): 307–355.
  625. Find this resource:
  626. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. With a new foreword by John O. Voll. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628. The preface by Voll is particularly germane to this section’s topic of reformist Sufism.
  629. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. With a new foreword by John O. Voll. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  630. Find this resource:
  631. Contemporary Sufism and Sufi-Inspired Modern Movements
  632.  
  633. Sufism’s adaptations, especially to modern, urban settings, are receiving more scholarly attention, as are the Sufi origins and methods adopted by some contemporary reformist movements in Muslim societies. Among these movements are the Barelvi, Deobandi, and Tablighi Jama˓at interpretations of Islam originating in the Indian subcontinent. In the case of Turkey, the Nur movement and its branches exemplify Sufi-inspired pietistic reform groups. Sufi elements are also found, although less directly, in certain aspects of Islamist piety and social organization. In the case of Turkey, Mardin 1989 is the pioneering study of socioreligious aspects of the Nur movement. Yavuz and Esposito 2003 is the primary source on Gulen and contemporary offshoots of the Nur movement. Metcalf 1982, a study of Deoband, is the definitive work and the best source for understanding South Asian reformist Sufism, while Sanyal 1996 is the definitive study of the founder of the Barelvi interpretation of Islam in Muslim South Asia. Johansen 1996 treats Sufism and modern issues in Egypt, while van Bruinessen and Howell 2007 assembles articles considering Sufism and modernity in multiple regions and contexts.
  634.  
  635. Johansen, Julian. Sufism and Islamic Reform in Egypt: The Battle for Islamic Tradition. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
  636. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  637. Treats recent attempts to reform Sufism from within in the face of secular and Islamist critiques.
  638. Johansen, Julian. Sufism and Islamic Reform in Egypt: The Battle for Islamic Tradition. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
  639. Find this resource:
  640. Mardin, Serif. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
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  642. An important sociological and historical look at Said Nursi, a 20th-century Turkish scholar whose pietistic movement and Sufi-inspired interpretation of Islam has inspired mass devotion and mobilization among the new generation of Turks.
  643. Mardin, Serif. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Masud, Khalid Muhammad, ed. Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jama˓ at as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  647. A volume of articles on the Tablighi movement that originated in India in the 1920s and took much influence and inspiration from Sufism while being a “post-tariqa” form.
  648. Masud, Khalid Muhammad, ed. Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jama˓ at as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2000.
  649. Find this resource:
  650. Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
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  652. A historian’s study of the Deoband madrasa in India that exemplified elements of reformist Sufism and continues to be increasingly influential among South Asian movements, including some elements of the Taliban.
  653. Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
  654. Find this resource:
  655. Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and his movement, 1870–1920. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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  657. A historian’s look at the widespread Barelvi interpretation of Islam in South Asia, which features a Sufi devotional orientation.
  658. Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and his movement, 1870–1920. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  659. Find this resource:
  660. van Bruinessen, Martin, and Julia Day Howell. Sufism and the “Modern” in Islam. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
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  662. An edited volume considering the adjustments within Sufism as a response to modernity in various regions.
  663. van Bruinessen, Martin, and Julia Day Howell. Sufism and the “Modern” in Islam. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Yavuz, M. Hakan, and John L. Esposito, eds. Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003.
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  667. An edited volume of papers studying this Sufi-inspired Turkish movement with global activities in education and interfaith dialogue.
  668. Yavuz, M. Hakan, and John L. Esposito, eds. Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003.
  669. Find this resource:
  670. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Ashraf Ali Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
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  672. A study of an important Deobandi scholar of the early 20th century who developed a legalistic and Sufi-inspired reformist piety that continues to influence South Asian interpretations and practice of Islam.
  673. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Ashraf Ali Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
  674. Find this resource:
  675. Anti-Sufi Polemic
  676.  
  677. Even early in its history, Sufism was not without its detractors. Legal scholars argued that there was no basis for some Sufi doctrines and practices, for example, and ecstatic utterances of Sufis could be considered heretical. In the modern period, Sufis have also been accused of inculcating passivity and collaborating with colonial powers. The best overviews of anti-Sufi polemic are de Jong and Radtke 1999 and Sirriyeh 1999. Ernst 1985 offers the primary discussion of the genre of controversial ecstatic utterances of Sufis.
  678.  
  679. de Jong, Frederick, and Bernd Radtke, eds. Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
  680. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  681. An edited volume that treats the topic both historically and regionally.
  682. de Jong, Frederick, and Bernd Radtke, eds. Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1999.
  683. Find this resource:
  684. Ernst, Carl. Words of Ecstasy in Sufism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
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  686. A study of Sufi ecstatic utterances informed by religious studies, textual analysis, and historical context. One chapter looks at the polemic surrounding of the execution of Mansur al-Hallaj for heresy in 922.
  687. Ernst, Carl. Words of Ecstasy in Sufism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Ibn al-Jawzi. Talbis Iblis. Translated by D. Margoliouth. Edited by N. K. Singh. Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2008.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. A work by a noted medieval Hanbali scholar condemning some aspects of Sufism. Originally published in Islamic Culture IX–XII (1935–1948).
  692. Ibn al-Jawzi. Talbis Iblis. Translated by D. Margoliouth. Edited by N. K. Singh. Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2008.
  693. Find this resource:
  694. Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn ˓Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
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  696. Studies the reception of Ibn al-˓Arabi and his ideas through biographical and polemic writings, primarily in the Arabic sphere of influence.
  697. Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn ˓Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  698. Find this resource:
  699. Ridgeon, Lloyd V. J. Sufi Castigator: Ahmad Kasravi and the Iranian Mystical Tradition. London: Routledge, 2006.
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  701. A study of an early-20th-century Iranian intellectual who rejected Sufism and the mystical literary heritage as incompatible with modern Persian nationalist aspirations.
  702. Ridgeon, Lloyd V. J. Sufi Castigator: Ahmad Kasravi and the Iranian Mystical Tradition. London: Routledge, 2006.
  703. Find this resource:
  704. Sirriyeh, Elizabeth. Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defense, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the Modern World. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon, 1999.
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  706. An overview of reformers, within and without Sufism, and modernists, Salafis, secularists, and Wahhabi anti-Sufi discourse and activism.
  707. Sirriyeh, Elizabeth. Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defense, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the Modern World. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon, 1999.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Zilfi, Madeline C. “The Kadizadelis: Discordant Revivalism in Seventeenth-Century Istanbul.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45.4 (1986): 251–269.
  710. DOI: 10.1086/373194Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Examines an influential anti-Sufi movement based on popular preaching and disparaging innovations from the Sunna that arose in Ottoman times.
  712. Zilfi, Madeline C. “The Kadizadelis: Discordant Revivalism in Seventeenth-Century Istanbul.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45.4 (1986): 251–269.
  713. Find this resource:
  714. Works On Specific Sufi Orders
  715.  
  716. Sufis are organized according to various initiatic teaching traditions known as tariqa/turuq). While Trimingham considered the later dominance of Sufi orders to represent a deterioration into conformity and decay, more recent studies of Sufism see tariqas as historical and institutional organizations with social and cultural importance, in addition to political and philosophical significance. See the Journal of the History of Sufism.
  717.  
  718. Journal of the History of Sufism.
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  720. Special issues have looked at the Qadariyya (Qadariyah) (Vol. 1, 2000), the Naqshbandiya Khalidiyya (Naqshbandiyah Khalidiyah) (Vol. 5, 2007) as well as other aspects of Sufism.
  721. Journal of the History of Sufism.
  722. Find this resource:
  723. Chishtis
  724.  
  725. This order, which is primarily found in the South Asian cultural sphere, is noted for its embrace of ritual audition of Qawwali music and its influence on the Hindu-Muslim synthesis that emerged under certain of the Mughal rulers. Ernst and Lawrence 2002 is the best overview of the Chishti Order. Lawrence 1992, a translation of Morals for the Heart, makes available the most important record of the teachings of a major saint of the order.
  726.  
  727. Currie, P. M. The Shrine and Cult of Mu˓īn al-Dīn Chishtī of Ajmer. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  728. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  729. A study of the legend, history, and administrative aspects of the shrine of one of the most popular of the Chishti sheikhs in India.
  730. Currie, P. M. The Shrine and Cult of Mu˓īn al-Dīn Chishtī of Ajmer. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  731. Find this resource:
  732. Ernst, Carl W., and Bruce B. Lawrence. Sufi Martyrs of Love: Chishti Sufism in South Asia and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
  733. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  734. A study of the major Sufis of the Chishti order, including their history and doctrines.
  735. Ernst, Carl W., and Bruce B. Lawrence. Sufi Martyrs of Love: Chishti Sufism in South Asia and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Lawrence, Bruce, trans. Nizam ad-Din Awliya: Morals for the Heart. New York: Paulist Press, 1992.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Makes available the most important of the Chishti malfuzat, recorded sessions of the Sufi master, Nizam al-Din Awliya, as compiled in Persian by his disciple, Hasan Sijzi, in the early 14th century.
  740. Lawrence, Bruce, trans. Nizam ad-Din Awliya: Morals for the Heart. New York: Paulist Press, 1992.
  741. Find this resource:
  742. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmed. The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizam-uʾd-din Auliya. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabyat-i Delli, 1991.
  743. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  744. A noted Indian historian of the Chishtis presents material on the life of one of the founding saints.
  745. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmed. The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizam-uʾd-din Auliya. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabyat-i Delli, 1991.
  746. Find this resource:
  747. Naqshbandis
  748.  
  749. This Sufi order with global reach and persistent vitality takes its name from the Central Asian master, Baha al-Din Naqshband (d. 1389). The order was revived in South Asia, inspired by the doctrines of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1625), also known as the “renewer” (Mujaddid) of the 2nd millennium. Subsequent Naqshbandi-Mujaaddidi branches spread through the Ottoman Empire, including Turkey and the Arab Middle East. Algar 1976 and Algar 1990 provide thorough historical introductions. Weismann 2007 is a comprehensive overview of the Naqshbandi order and its saints and teachings. Friedman 1971 remains the definitive work on Sirhindi. Le Gall 2005 is an important work on Naqshbandis in the premodern Ottoman context.
  750.  
  751. Algar, Hamid. “The Naqshbandi Order: A Preliminary Survey of Its History and Significance.” Studia Islamica 44 (1976): 123–152.
  752. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  753. Reviews the history and major figures of this widely influential order.
  754. Algar, Hamid. “The Naqshbandi Order: A Preliminary Survey of Its History and Significance.” Studia Islamica 44 (1976): 123–152.
  755. Find this resource:
  756. Algar, Hamid. “Political Aspects of Naqshbandi History.” In Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique musulman. Edited by M. Gaborieau, A. Popovic, and Th. Zarcone, 123–152. Istanbul and Paris: Editions Isis, 1990.
  757. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  758. From the beginning, Algar argues, the Naqshbandi order has been active in political life wherever it is practiced. In addition to engagement with or against the state, many Naqshbandis have participated in military action in defense of Islam.
  759. Algar, Hamid. “Political Aspects of Naqshbandi History.” In Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuelle d’un ordre mystique musulman. Edited by M. Gaborieau, A. Popovic, and Th. Zarcone, 123–152. Istanbul and Paris: Editions Isis, 1990.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Friedman, Yohanan. Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī: An Outline of his Thought and a Study of his Image in the Eyes of Posterity. Montreal: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. A thorough and definitive study of Sirhindi (c. 1564–1624), his doctrines, and their reception in Islamic thought, especially in the Indian subcontinent.
  764. Friedman, Yohanan. Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī: An Outline of his Thought and a Study of his Image in the Eyes of Posterity. Montreal: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971.
  765. Find this resource:
  766. Garborieau, Marc, Alexandre Popovic, and Thierry Zarcone, eds. Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuaelle d’un ordre mystique musulmane. Istanbul and Paris: Editions Isis, 1990.
  767. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  768. A collection of diverse scholarly articles, many of them in English, on aspects of this tariqa.
  769. Garborieau, Marc, Alexandre Popovic, and Thierry Zarcone, eds. Naqshbandis: Cheminements et situation actuaelle d’un ordre mystique musulmane. Istanbul and Paris: Editions Isis, 1990.
  770. Find this resource:
  771. Le Gall, Dina. A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 1450–1700. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005.
  772. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  773. A historian’s study of post-Mongol tariqa Sufism and the early dissemination of the Naqshbandiyah into the Ottoman world.
  774. Le Gall, Dina. A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 1450–1700. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005.
  775. Find this resource:
  776. Ter Haar, J. G. G. Follower and Heir of the Prophet: Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī as Mystic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Het Oosters Instituut, 1992.
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778. A study of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi’s thought based on his collected letters, the Maktubat.
  779. Ter Haar, J. G. G. Follower and Heir of the Prophet: Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī as Mystic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Het Oosters Instituut, 1992.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Rahman, Fazlur. Selected Letters of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1968.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Important and philosophically informed translations from some of the letters found in Sirhindi’s influential collection, Maktubat. Contextualizes their content in light of philosophical and Sufi doctrines.
  784. Rahman, Fazlur. Selected Letters of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1968.
  785. Find this resource:
  786. Yavuz, Hakan. “Matrix of Modern Turkish Islamic Movements: The Naqshbandi Sufi Order.” In The Naqshbandis in Western and Central Asia: Change and Continuity. Edited by Elisabeth Ozdalga. London: Curzon Press, 1999.
  787. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  788. An article considering the important influence of offshoots of the Naqshbandiyya in contemporary Turkey.
  789. Yavuz, Hakan. “Matrix of Modern Turkish Islamic Movements: The Naqshbandi Sufi Order.” In The Naqshbandis in Western and Central Asia: Change and Continuity. Edited by Elisabeth Ozdalga. London: Curzon Press, 1999.
  790. Find this resource:
  791. Weismann, Itzchak. The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2007.
  792. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793. A complete and detailed overview of the Naqshbandi tariqa in various periods and regions that draws on the wealth of existing scholarship. The author is particularly interested in modern developments in various regions.
  794. Weismann, Itzchak. The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2007.
  795. Find this resource:
  796. Shadhiliyah
  797.  
  798. This Order is primarily known in North Africa and the Levant. It has experienced a revival in the 20th century drawing in large part from followers of Sheikh al-˓Alawi (1869–1934), an Algerian master who founded a branch of the Shadhiliyah (or Shadhiliyya) named al-Darqawiyah-al-˓Alawiyah. Modern-day branches are found in Algeria, Syria, Jordan, South Africa, and the United States. Danner 1978 captures the flavor of one of the most famous works of the Order. Read along with Lings 1961, it can provide background for a section on Sufism for students in an undergraduate Introduction to Islam course, if the perennialist perspective is to be projected.
  799.  
  800. Danner, Victor. Ibn ˓Ata Allah: The Book of Wisdom. New York: Paulist Press, 1978.
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802. A translation of the important aphorisms of Ibn ˓Ataʾ Allah (d. 1309), the major early literary figure of the order, that are a source of Shadhili teachings. This volume also contains the Manajat of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, itself an important work in Sufi spirituality.
  803. Danner, Victor. Ibn ˓Ata Allah: The Book of Wisdom. New York: Paulist Press, 1978.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Danner, Victor. “The Shadhiliyya and North African Sufism.” In Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 26–48. New York: Crossroad, 1997.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. A historical and doctrinal overview of the order.
  808. Danner, Victor. “The Shadhiliyya and North African Sufism.” In Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 26–48. New York: Crossroad, 1997.
  809. Find this resource:
  810. al-Darqawi, Muhammad al-˓Arabi. Letters of a Sufi Master. Translated by Titus Burckhardt. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1998.
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  812. An important example of the direct guidance of a Sufi master, who died in Morocco in 1823, to his disciples, in the main on prescriptions for dhikr. The author formed the Shadhili suborder al-Darqawiyah, which was regarded as a threat by the French administration. First published in 1969 (London: Perennial).
  813. al-Darqawi, Muhammad al-˓Arabi. Letters of a Sufi Master. Translated by Titus Burckhardt. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1998.
  814. Find this resource:
  815. Douglas, Elmer H., trans. The Mystical Teachings of al-Shadhili: Including His Life, Prayers, Letters, and Followers. Albany: State University of New York, 1993.
  816. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  817. Translates a biography of al-Shadhili and summary of his teachings by the later Sufi, Ibn al-Sabbagh.
  818. Douglas, Elmer H., trans. The Mystical Teachings of al-Shadhili: Including His Life, Prayers, Letters, and Followers. Albany: State University of New York, 1993.
  819. Find this resource:
  820. Geoffroy, Eric, ed. Une voie soufie dans le monde: La Shâdhiliyya. Edited by Eric Geoffroy. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose, 2005.
  821. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  822. A trilingual collection of articles on the thought, major figures, and activities of this Order from the classical founders until the present.
  823. Geoffroy, Eric, ed. Une voie soufie dans le monde: La Shâdhiliyya. Edited by Eric Geoffroy. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose, 2005.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Ibn ˓Ajiba, Ahmad. The Autobiography of a Moroccan Sufi. Translated by Jean-Louis Michon and David Streight. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. Unusually detailed account of 18th-century Tetuan, Morocco, and the author’s life as the Shadhili-Darqawi sheikh there.
  828. Ibn ˓Ajiba, Ahmad. The Autobiography of a Moroccan Sufi. Translated by Jean-Louis Michon and David Streight. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999.
  829. Find this resource:
  830. Ibn ˓Ataʾ Allah. The Key to Salvation and the Lamp of Souls. Translated by Mary Ann Koury Danner. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1996.
  831. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832. Translations of a 13th-century text on invocations and spiritual retreat.
  833. Ibn ˓Ataʾ Allah. The Key to Salvation and the Lamp of Souls. Translated by Mary Ann Koury Danner. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1996.
  834. Find this resource:
  835. Lings, Martin. A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century: Shaikh Ahmad al-˓Alawi, His Spiritual Heritage and Legacy. London: Allen & Unwin, 1961.
  836. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  837. A study of the 20th-century Algerian Sufi whose ideas and charisma inspired a Shadhili revival in the Arab world and spread to the West through his connection to Guenon and Schuon. Includes translations of al-˓Alawi’s poetry.
  838. Lings, Martin. A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century: Shaikh Ahmad al-˓Alawi, His Spiritual Heritage and Legacy. London: Allen & Unwin, 1961.
  839. Find this resource:
  840. Sufism in Specific Countries and Regions
  841.  
  842. Whereas certain Sufi orders have a transregional reach, such as the Qadiriyah and Naqshbandiyah, others are more local in scope. In addition, in each region Sufism has specific manifestations and history. Across most regions, shared general themes have been influenced by pre-Islamic traditions and customs on Sufism and its adaptations to local environments, the effect of colonial rule on Sufi institutions and leadership, and the results of nationalism and state structures on modern articulations of mystical practice and institutions.
  843.  
  844. North Africa
  845.  
  846. Colonial administrators in early studies were concerned with potential resistance from the Sufi orders and also viewed their practices as exotic. This region in particular attracted interest from great anthropologists (Gellner 1969, Geertz 1971, and Evans-Pritchard 1949 in an earlier epoch). Cornell 1998 work is an important historical and doctrinal work on Moroccan Sufism.
  847.  
  848. Cornell, Vincent J. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
  849. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  850. Presents a systematic history of Moroccan Sufism, especially of the Jazuliyah order through the 15th and 16th centuries, and a comprehensive study of Moroccan Sufi doctrine. Discusses the implications for Sufi political involvement by considering the relationship of the doctrine of sainthood as closeness to the Divine presence (walaya) to the exercise of worldly authority (wilaya).
  851. Cornell, Vincent J. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. A historical and anthropological study of Libyan Bedouin members of the Sanusiyah order, a movement founded in the 1840s by a Sufi teacher, and their relations with the Italian colonizers
  856. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949.
  857. Find this resource:
  858. Geertz, Clifford. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
  859. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  860. Geertz’s influential work compares Moroccan and Indonesian styles of Islam based on the models of early local Sufis, exploring how each society has increasingly embraced a “scripturalist” paradigm of Muslim identity with modernity.
  861. Geertz, Clifford. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
  862. Find this resource:
  863. Gellner, Ernest. Saints of the Atlas. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969.
  864. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  865. An anthropological study focusing on authority structures and social segmentation.
  866. Gellner, Ernest. Saints of the Atlas. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969.
  867. Find this resource:
  868. Kugle, Scott Alan. Rebel between Spirit and Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, and Authority in Islam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  869. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  870. A study of an influential 15th-century North African Sufi (b. 1442–d. 1493) that situates him in an intellectual, social, and political context. As an exemplar of “juridical sainthood” Zarruq’s activism and stance against interpretations that could lead to religious violence is related to present-day debates about scholarly authority in Islam, demonstrating the continuing influence of the author on Traditionalist Muslims in the modern West.
  871. Kugle, Scott Alan. Rebel between Spirit and Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, and Authority in Islam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Africa, Sudan, and Sub-Saharan
  874.  
  875. A major issue in African Sufism is the question of how much influence indigenous Sufis had in spreading Islam south of the Sahara. The belief was that Sufis from Egypt, the Hijaz, and North Africa were the vectors for spreading Islam in the region. However, another question confronting scholars of Sufism in Africa is how sheikhs can remake an order with little reference to what has transpired in the past. Martin 1976 provides the most comprehensive view of African Sufi orders. Abun-Nasr 1965 is an authoritative work on the Tijaniyah, Lewis 1998 is the primary source on Somalia, McHugh 1994 on Sudan, Nimtz 1980 on East Africa, and Soares 2005 on Mali.
  876.  
  877. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. A study of this order, originating in North Africa but now more widespread in West Africa, particularly in Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Mali, Northern Nigeria, and Sudan. This was the first work to analyze the secret incantations of the founder, who claimed to have received them from God.
  880. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
  881. Find this resource:
  882. Bang, Anne K. Sufis and Scholars of the Sea: Family Networks in East Africa, 1860–1925. Indian Ocean Series. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  883. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  884. A study of the Alawiyah, their scholars, and their networks, spanning Zanzibar, Oman, and Yemen.
  885. Bang, Anne K. Sufis and Scholars of the Sea: Family Networks in East Africa, 1860–1925. Indian Ocean Series. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  886. Find this resource:
  887. Cruise O’Brien, Donald B., and Christian Coulon. Charisma and Brotherhood in African Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  888. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  889. An edited collection of articles on this topic in various regions of Africa.
  890. Cruise O’Brien, Donald B., and Christian Coulon. Charisma and Brotherhood in African Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  891. Find this resource:
  892. Karrar, Ali Salih. Sufi Brotherhoods in the Sudan. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1992.
  893. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  894. A detailed picture of many of the prominent Sufi orders in the Sudan.
  895. Karrar, Ali Salih. Sufi Brotherhoods in the Sudan. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1992.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Lewis, I. M. Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-Based Society. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1998.
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899. Studies the three most prominent Somali orders, the Qadariyah, Ahmadiyah, and Salihiyah in sociohistorical context.
  900. Lewis, I. M. Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-Based Society. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1998.
  901. Find this resource:
  902. Martin, Bradford G. Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
  903. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904. The authoritative standard in the histories of the Sufi orders in Africa and their varying stances toward colonialism and political authorities.
  905. Martin, Bradford G. Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
  906. Find this resource:
  907. McHugh, Neil. Holymen of the Blue Nile: The Making of an Arab-Islamic Community in the Nilotic Sudan, 1500–1850. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1994.
  908. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  909. Discusses how indigenous Sufis were responsible for the Islamization and Arabization of the Sudan and in much of sub-Saharan Africa, where Sufism is the most dynamic form of Islam.
  910. McHugh, Neil. Holymen of the Blue Nile: The Making of an Arab-Islamic Community in the Nilotic Sudan, 1500–1850. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1994.
  911. Find this resource:
  912. Nimtz, August H., Jr. Islam and Politics in East Africa: The Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980.
  913. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  914. Focuses on the political importance of the Sufi tariqa as an institution in the context of the roles of other African social elements such as descent groups.
  915. Nimtz, August H., Jr. Islam and Politics in East Africa: The Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Soares, Benjamin F. Islam and the Prayer Economy: History and Authority in a Malian Town. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919. A study of Malian orders, the Hamawiyah and the Tijaniyah from colonial to modern times, in social and political context.
  920. Soares, Benjamin F. Islam and the Prayer Economy: History and Authority in a Malian Town. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
  921. Find this resource:
  922. Central Asia
  923.  
  924. While literature on the former Soviet republics focuses on the tussle between Wahhabi and Sufi movements in Central Asia, earlier periods are marked by Islamic transregional trends as well as specific local practices. De Weese 1994 and Olcott 2007 are the best works to consult on Central Asia.
  925.  
  926. De Weese, Devin. Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928. Explores the rule of Turkish charismatic Sufis in converting Central Asian tribal peoples to Islam. Rich in analysis and historical detail.
  929. De Weese, Devin. Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.
  930. Find this resource:
  931. Olcott, Martha Brill. Sufism in Central Asia: A Force for Moderation or a Cause of Politicization? Carnegie Paper. New York: Carnegie Endowment, 2007.
  932. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  933. Overview with a focus on the strategic policy implications of developments in Central Asian Sufism since the Soviet collapse. Available online.
  934. Olcott, Martha Brill. Sufism in Central Asia: A Force for Moderation or a Cause of Politicization? Carnegie Paper. New York: Carnegie Endowment, 2007.
  935. Find this resource:
  936. China
  937.  
  938. Studies of Sufism in China consider the incorporation of indigenous Chinese elements in Sufi thought. Sufism represents a diverse and vibrant practice among Chinese Muslims, who mainly follow the Naqshbandi or Qadari orders. Izutsu 1984 and Murata 2000 focus on comparative philosophical and doctrinal dimensions rather than history.
  939.  
  940. Gladney, Dru C. “Islam.” In The Journal of Asian Studies 54.2 (1995): 371–377.
  941. DOI: 10.2307/2058742Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  942. While dated, this review article on scholarship about Islam in China includes a bibliography that provides many sources, including articles on Sufism.
  943. Gladney, Dru C. “Islam.” In The Journal of Asian Studies 54.2 (1995): 371–377.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Izutsu, Toshihiko. Sufism and Taoism. A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
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  947. A philosophical study by an important scholar of Islam that focuses on Ibn al-˓Arabi’s thought in comparison to Taoism concepts derived from works of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, especially with regard to the doctrine of the “Perfect Man.”
  948. Izutsu, Toshihiko. Sufism and Taoism. A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
  949. Find this resource:
  950. Murata, Sachiko. Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000.
  951. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952. A study of how Chinese interpretations of Sufi writings were able to incorporate local Confucian principles.
  953. Murata, Sachiko. Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000.
  954. Find this resource:
  955. Egypt
  956.  
  957. Hoffman 1995 exhibits a deep awareness of contemporary popular Sufism at practical and doctrinal levels. De Jong 1978 offers an overview of the 19th century, while Gilsenan 1973 is a pioneering sociological look at developments in the mid-20th century.
  958.  
  959. Gilsenan, Michael. Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt: An Essay in the Sociology of Religion. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
  960. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  961. An influential study on an urban Cairene order and its adaptations to contemporary pressures and developments.
  962. Gilsenan, Michael. Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt: An Essay in the Sociology of Religion. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
  963. Find this resource:
  964. Hoffman, Valerie. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.
  965. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  966. Based on extensive fieldwork, this book combines religious textual and anthropological perspectives on the practice of popular Sufism and its concepts in contemporary Egypt.
  967. Hoffman, Valerie. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Jong, F. de. Ṭuruq and Ṭuruq-Linked Institutions in Nineteenth Century Egypt: A Historical Study in Organizational Dimensions of Islamic Mysticism. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1978.
  970. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  971. A meticulous study featuring a historian’s approach to the Sufi orders in 19th-century Egypt.
  972. Jong, F. de. Ṭuruq and Ṭuruq-Linked Institutions in Nineteenth Century Egypt: A Historical Study in Organizational Dimensions of Islamic Mysticism. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1978.
  973. Find this resource:
  974. Iran
  975.  
  976. In earlier periods of academic study, scholars such as Henry Corbin saw Iranian forms of Sufism as the most central and normative (see Corbin 1978). Although such studies emphasize esoteric and philosophical dimension of Iranian Sufism, later scholarly work, such as the masterful studies of Babayan 2002 and Bos 2002, have considered social, cultural, and political aspects of Iranian Sufism in practice. The volumes of conference papers edited by Lewisohn (Lewisohn 1992, Lewisohn 1999) treat aspects of Iranian and Persianate Sufism from multiple perspectives.
  977.  
  978. Babayan, Kathryn. Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
  979. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  980. A masterful study of Safavid Sufism and its mystical and esoteric doctrines in historical and cultural context.
  981. Babayan, Kathryn. Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
  982. Find this resource:
  983. Bos, Matthijs van den. Mystic Regimes: Sufism and the State in Iran, from the Late Qajar Era to the Islamic Republic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  984. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  985. Explores the relationship of Sufism to Shiʿism and the state.
  986. Bos, Matthijs van den. Mystic Regimes: Sufism and the State in Iran, from the Late Qajar Era to the Islamic Republic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  987. Find this resource:
  988. Corbin, Henry. The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism. Translated by Nancy Pearson. Boulder, CO: Shambhala, 1978.
  989. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  990. Concentrates on esoteric philosophical currents running though the works of Sufis such as Ruzbihan Baqli (b. 1128–d. 1209), Najmuddin Kubra (b. 1145–d. 1220), Simnani (d. 1336), and the mysticism of light and colors.
  991. Corbin, Henry. The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism. Translated by Nancy Pearson. Boulder, CO: Shambhala, 1978.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Lewisohn, Leonard, ed. The Legacy of Mediæval Persian Sufism. London: Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. This volume of edited papers addresses themes and figures from a later period in the development of Persian Sufism.
  996. Lewisohn, Leonard, ed. The Legacy of Mediæval Persian Sufism. London: Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.
  997. Find this resource:
  998. Lewisohn, Leonard, ed. The Heritage of Sufism. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999.
  999. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1000. An important edited collection of conference papers focusing on the development of Persian Sufism. The bibliography should also be noted.
  1001. Lewisohn, Leonard, ed. The Heritage of Sufism. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999.
  1002. Find this resource:
  1003. Purjavadi, Nasr Allah. Kings of Love: The Poetry and History of the Ni˓matullāhī Sufi Order. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978.
  1004. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1005. An overview of an important Shi’i Sufi order.
  1006. Purjavadi, Nasr Allah. Kings of Love: The Poetry and History of the Ni˓matullāhī Sufi Order. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978.
  1007. Find this resource:
  1008. Russia
  1009.  
  1010. Bennigson 1985 is important but now dated. Bukharaev 2004 is a treatment of Sufism in the post-Soviet era.
  1011.  
  1012. Bennigson, Alexandre, and S. Enders Wimbush. Mystics and Commissars: Sufism in the Soviet Union. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
  1013. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1014. An important but now dated study of the activities of Sufi orders in areas of Central Asia and the Caucasus under Soviet rule.
  1015. Bennigson, Alexandre, and S. Enders Wimbush. Mystics and Commissars: Sufism in the Soviet Union. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Bukharaev, Ravil. “Sufism in Russia: Nostalgia for Revelation.” In Sufism in Europe and North America. Edited by David Westerlund, 64–94. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
  1018. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019. A rare look at Sufism in post-Soviet Russia.
  1020. Bukharaev, Ravil. “Sufism in Russia: Nostalgia for Revelation.” In Sufism in Europe and North America. Edited by David Westerlund, 64–94. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
  1021. Find this resource:
  1022. South Asia, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
  1023.  
  1024. In the case of South Asian Sufism, studies have considered the relationship to Hinduism, distinctive South Asia forms and practices, and the genre of malfuzat (Sufi diaries, see Lawrence 1978). Engagement with the modern has been analyzed in terms of modified Sufi concepts of authority, practice, and response to state control. Rizvi 1978–1983 features detailed documentation of individuals and texts, but little analysis. Eaton 1978, Ernst 2004, Buehler 1998, and Green 2006 offer studies of Sufi lineages and types in specific epochs and regions of South Asia. For contemporary South Asian Sufism, Ewing 1997, Werbner 1998, and Rozehnal 2007 are recommended, each taking an anthropological rather than historical approach to the material.
  1025.  
  1026. Buehler, Arthur F. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
  1027. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1028. Takes a neo-Weberian approach to examine styles of Sufi leadership in the 19th and 20th centuries, including the shift toward the role of the sheikh as a mediator. Examines a wealth of primary sources.
  1029. Buehler, Arthur F. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031. Eaton, Richard Maxwell. Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
  1032. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1033. Mines extensive hagiographic sources and popular poetry and songs in vernacular languages to develop a typology of Sufis and their activities in the Deccan region of India as warriors, literati, landowners, ascetics, reformers, and so on.
  1034. Eaton, Richard Maxwell. Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
  1035. Find this resource:
  1036. Ernst, Carl W. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. 2d ed. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1037. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1038. A study of the Chishti Sufi complex at Khuldabad. The introductory chapters discuss the academic study of Sufi in South Asia.
  1039. Ernst, Carl W. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. 2d ed. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Ewing, Katherine. Arguing Sainthood:Modernity, Psychoanalysis, and Islam. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. A study informed by psychoanalytic and postmodern approaches to the interpretation of Sufism in South Asia. Heavily theoretical.
  1044. Ewing, Katherine. Arguing Sainthood:Modernity, Psychoanalysis, and Islam. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997.
  1045. Find this resource:
  1046. Green, Nile. Indian Sufism since the Seventeenth Century: Saints, Books, and Empires in the Muslim Deccan. London: Routledge, 2006.
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  1048. A detailed study of the Sufis of late Mughal Aurangabad, drawing on literary works such as biographical dictionaries as well as Sufi poetry. A strong emphasis is placed on the role of the saints in embodying a culture of place and drawing together high and popular tradition, as well as royal and folk elements, while undergoing adaptations through the colonial to the Indian nationalist period.
  1049. Green, Nile. Indian Sufism since the Seventeenth Century: Saints, Books, and Empires in the Muslim Deccan. London: Routledge, 2006.
  1050. Find this resource:
  1051. Lawrence, Bruce B. Notes from a Distant Flute: The Extant Literature of Pre-Mughal Indian Sufism. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978.
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  1053. An important study of the genre of early Sufi malfuzat literature, purported diaries of audiences of the great Chishti Sufi saints in India. Examines themes and historical questions of provenance and authenticity.
  1054. Lawrence, Bruce B. Notes from a Distant Flute: The Extant Literature of Pre-Mughal Indian Sufism. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978.
  1055. Find this resource:
  1056. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India. 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978–1983.
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  1058. Detailed historical overview based on detailed and extensive perusal and summary of primary sources, often in manuscripts in private collections.
  1059. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India. 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978–1983.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Rozehnal, Robert. Islamic Sufism Unbound: Politics and Piety in Twenty-first Century Pakistan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
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  1063. A study of the Chishti Sabri order in Karachi against the background of currents in modern Pakistani Islam.
  1064. Rozehnal, Robert. Islamic Sufism Unbound: Politics and Piety in Twenty-first Century Pakistan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  1065. Find this resource:
  1066. Werbner, Pnina, and Helena Basu. Embodying Charisma: Modernity, Locality, and Performance of Emotion in Sufi Cults. London: Routledge, 1998.
  1067. DOI: 10.4324/9780203278550Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1068. A collection of articles, primarily authored by dynamic anthropological researchers, that explore current themes such as emotion, charisma, and locality through aspects of South Asian Sufi practice.
  1069. Werbner, Pnina, and Helena Basu. Embodying Charisma: Modernity, Locality, and Performance of Emotion in Sufi Cults. London: Routledge, 1998.
  1070. Find this resource:
  1071. Southeast Asia
  1072.  
  1073. Many earlier studies of Islam in this region focused on syncretic dimensions, especially facilitated by the pervasive influence of Sufism that perceived local Islam as somehow nonnormative. Subsequently, the idea of a Javanese Islamic practice that mirrors the same tensions between legalistic practice and mystical sensibility that exists in most areas of the Muslim world was articulated by Woodward 1989. Al-Attas 1970 focuses on classical Sufi philosophy in the works of a 16th-century figure. Riddell 2001 and Woodward 1989 are excellent overviews of Islam in the region, much of which is directly related to Sufism.
  1074.  
  1075. al-Attas, Muhammad Naguib. The Mysticism of Ḥamzah Fansūrī. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University of Malaya Press, 1970.
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  1077. A study and translation of a work by a major Southeast Asian mystic influenced by the school of Ibn al-˓Arabi.
  1078. al-Attas, Muhammad Naguib. The Mysticism of Ḥamzah Fansūrī. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University of Malaya Press, 1970.
  1079. Find this resource:
  1080. Becker, Judith O. Gamelan Stories: Tantrism, Islam, and Aesthetics in Central Java. Tempe: Arizona State University, 1993.
  1081. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1082. Includes a section on Sufi rituals.
  1083. Becker, Judith O. Gamelan Stories: Tantrism, Islam, and Aesthetics in Central Java. Tempe: Arizona State University, 1993.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Riddell, Peter G. Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. Includes basic Islamic history and materials as well as an extensive discussion of the transmission of Sufi texts, Sufi links with the broader Muslim world, and Sufi currents in modern Southeast Asian Muslim thought.
  1088. Riddell, Peter G. Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.
  1089. Find this resource:
  1090. Woodward, Mark R. Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989.
  1091. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1092. Noteworthy for arguing against Geertz that Indonesian Islam is not “synchronistic” and nonnormative but is instead reflective of a mystical Islamic synthesis that represents normative piety in that cultural context.
  1093. Woodward, Mark R. Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989.
  1094. Find this resource:
  1095. Turkey and the Balkans
  1096.  
  1097. Sufism has played a major role in Turkish life and culture and continues to be relevant and active in both traditional tariqa forms and among the 20th-century post-tariqa movements (Nur and Gulen) discussed under Contemporary Sufism and Sufi-Inspired Modern Movements. Sufism was officially banned during the early republic period in 20th-century Turkey. The selections below are historical and doctrinal: Birge 1937 on Bektashis, Norris 2006 on Balkan Sufi orders, and Lifchez 1992 on the tekke, or dervish lodge, as an institution.
  1098.  
  1099. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
  1100. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1101. A classic study including a review of Bektashi history, doctrines, and practices.
  1102. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
  1103. Find this resource:
  1104. Lifchez, Raymond, ed. The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  1105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1106. A collection of articles on social, material cultural, historical, and musical aspects of dervish lodge life.
  1107. Lifchez, Raymond, ed. The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Norris, H. T. Popular Sufism in Eastern Europe: Sufi Brotherhoods and the Dialogue with Christianity and “Heterodoxy.” London: Routledge, 2006.
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  1111. Examines the origins, doctrines, and distinctive nature of Sufi orders among Bosnians, Bulgarians, Albanians, and Tatars.
  1112. Norris, H. T. Popular Sufism in Eastern Europe: Sufi Brotherhoods and the Dialogue with Christianity and “Heterodoxy.” London: Routledge, 2006.
  1113. Find this resource:
  1114. Syria and Palestine
  1115.  
  1116. Although Damascus and, to a lesser degree, Jerusalem were great centers for Sufi activity, there have been few serious studies of the two cities, and even less on the so-called “popular Sufism” that was part of daily life for Muslims in Greater Syria. Ephrat 2008 is an excellent introduction to Sufism in Palestine. Weismann 2000 portrays the complexities of Sufi, Sufi-tinged, and anti-Sufi forces in the lead-up to the modern era in Syria.
  1117.  
  1118. Ephrat, Daphna. Spiritual Wayfarers, Leaders in Piety: Sufis and the Dissemination of Islam in Palestine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  1119. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1120. From the Muslim Arab conquest to Ottoman rule, the author credits Sufism with Islamicizing Palestine.
  1121. Ephrat, Daphna. Spiritual Wayfarers, Leaders in Piety: Sufis and the Dissemination of Islam in Palestine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  1122. Find this resource:
  1123. Pinto, Paulo. “Sufism and the Political Economy of Morality in Syria.” In Sufism and Politics: The Power of Spirituality. Edited by Paul L. Heck, 103–136. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2007.
  1124. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1125. A consideration of how Sufism is enmeshed in politics as the state seeks Islamic legitimacy among Sunni Muslims in Syria.
  1126. Pinto, Paulo. “Sufism and the Political Economy of Morality in Syria.” In Sufism and Politics: The Power of Spirituality. Edited by Paul L. Heck, 103–136. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2007.
  1127. Find this resource:
  1128. Sirriyeh, Elisabeth. Sufi Visionary of Ottoman Damascus: ˓Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulusi, 1641–1731. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon: 2005.
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  1130. A biography of the greatest Syrian Sufi in the early modern period, with fine sections on dream interpretation and mystical travel writing.
  1131. Sirriyeh, Elisabeth. Sufi Visionary of Ottoman Damascus: ˓Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulusi, 1641–1731. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon: 2005.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Weismann, Itzchak. Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  1135. Argues that modern Islamic movements such as the Salafis have their roots in Damascene ulema and Sufi reformists. Weismann shows how they responded to the challenges of modernity and helped shape nationalism in the region.
  1136. Weismann, Itzchak. Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
  1137. Find this resource:
  1138. Weismann, Itzchak. “Sufi brotherhoods in Syria and Israel: A Contemporary Overview.” In History of Religions 43.4 (2004): 303–318.
  1139. DOI: 10.1086/426738Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1140. Contains some of the most up-to-date observations of contemporary Sufi leadership and activity in this region.
  1141. Weismann, Itzchak. “Sufi brotherhoods in Syria and Israel: A Contemporary Overview.” In History of Religions 43.4 (2004): 303–318.
  1142. Find this resource:
  1143. Winter, Michael. “Sheikh ˓Ali Ibn Maymun and Syrian Sufism in the Sixteenth Century.” Israel Oriental Studies 7 (1977): 281–308.
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  1145. A fascinating study of a Moroccan traveler’s observations of holy shrines and life in Damascus.
  1146. Winter, Michael. “Sheikh ˓Ali Ibn Maymun and Syrian Sufism in the Sixteenth Century.” Israel Oriental Studies 7 (1977): 281–308.
  1147. Find this resource:
  1148. Sufi Ritual
  1149.  
  1150. In addition to regular Islamic practices and their mystical interpretations, Sufi ritual incorporates specific practices and their justification. Many of these rituals involve visitation (ziyara) of the tombs of prominent Sufis of the past, and there has been a strong debate both for and against such practices. Sufi practices include contemplation, repetition of pious litanies, and Sufi healing. For actual Sufi texts on ritual, see Suhrawardi 1975, Valiuddin 1980, and Padwick 1996. Biegman 1990 and Hoda 2003 are primarily historical treatments of Sufi ritual. Anthropological and religious considerations of elements of Sufi healing ritual are undertaken by Fleuckiger 2006. Rituals and other elements of Sufi shrine cultures are treated by Pinto 1995 and in the papers in Troll and Gaborieau 2003.
  1151.  
  1152. Biegman, Nicolaas H. Egypt: Moulids, Saints, Sufis. London and New York: Kegan Paul International, 1990.
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  1154. A study of the customs and practices surrounding saints’ death anniversaries in Egypt.
  1155. Biegman, Nicolaas H. Egypt: Moulids, Saints, Sufis. London and New York: Kegan Paul International, 1990.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Ewing, Katherine P. “The Politics of Sufism: Redefining the Saints of Pakistan.” In The Journal of Asian Studies 42.2 (1983): 251–268.
  1158. DOI: 10.2307/2055113Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1159. Traces how successive Pakistani governments, from Ayoub Khan to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and to Zia al-Haq, promulgated images of the saints as modernizers, socialists, or Islamizers, according to the prevailing political ideologies of their respective regimes.
  1160. Ewing, Katherine P. “The Politics of Sufism: Redefining the Saints of Pakistan.” In The Journal of Asian Studies 42.2 (1983): 251–268.
  1161. Find this resource:
  1162. Fleuckiger, Joyce. In Amma’s Healing Room: Gender and Vernacular Islam in South India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
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  1164. A study of a popular healer in Hyderabad, India, whose clientele and practices cross communal lines.
  1165. Fleuckiger, Joyce. In Amma’s Healing Room: Gender and Vernacular Islam in South India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  1166. Find this resource:
  1167. Hoda, Qamar-ul. Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhrawardi Sufis. London: Routledge/Curzon, 2003.
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  1169. A study of both classical texts and the history of the order from the 13th to the 15th century, especially in South Asia.
  1170. Hoda, Qamar-ul. Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhrawardi Sufis. London: Routledge/Curzon, 2003.
  1171. Find this resource:
  1172. Padwick, Constance. Muslim Devotions: A Study of Prayer Manuals in Common Use. Oxford: Oneworld, 1996.
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  1174. An early and important survey with extensive translations from a range of popular devotional guidebooks and manuals used by Sunni, Shi’a, and Sufi Muslims. First published in 1961.
  1175. Padwick, Constance. Muslim Devotions: A Study of Prayer Manuals in Common Use. Oxford: Oneworld, 1996.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Pinto, Desiderio. Piri-Muridi Relationship: A Study of the Nizamuddin Dargah. New Delhi: Manohar, 1995.
  1178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. A study of practices surrounding the culture of the Nizamuddin shrine in Delhi.
  1180. Pinto, Desiderio. Piri-Muridi Relationship: A Study of the Nizamuddin Dargah. New Delhi: Manohar, 1995.
  1181. Find this resource:
  1182. Suhrawardi, Abu al-Najib. A Sufi Rule for Novices. Translated by Menahem Milson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975.
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  1184. Translation of portions of an important early Sufi adab manual used as a standard by many South Asia Sufis.
  1185. Suhrawardi, Abu al-Najib. A Sufi Rule for Novices. Translated by Menahem Milson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975.
  1186. Find this resource:
  1187. Troll, Christian W., and Marc Gaborieau, eds. Muslim Shrines in India: Their Character, History, and Significance. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  1188. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1189. A collection of articles on various Sufis shrines and the beliefs and practices that surround them.
  1190. Troll, Christian W., and Marc Gaborieau, eds. Muslim Shrines in India: Their Character, History, and Significance. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  1191. Find this resource:
  1192. Valiuddin, Mir. Contemplative Disciplines in Sufism. Edited by Gulshan Khakee. London: East-West Publications, 1980.
  1193. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1194. Based on translations from two esoteric works by Shah Wali Allah of Delhi.
  1195. Valiuddin, Mir. Contemplative Disciplines in Sufism. Edited by Gulshan Khakee. London: East-West Publications, 1980.
  1196. Find this resource:
  1197. Female Sufis
  1198.  
  1199. As in other areas of women and gender studies, attempts to recover classical voices of Sufi women and to document and analyze their ongoing participation are ongoing. Because of Sufism’s popular appeal and incorporation of local traditions and practices, such as shrine visitation, the scope for female participation and, in some cases, religious leadership is enhanced. This view is articulated by Elias 1988. Smith 2001, first published in 1928, is an early study of female mystics in Islam, including the famous Rabiʾa. A philosophical approach to Sufi views of gender complementarity is taken by Murata 1992. For South Asian women mystics see Abbas 2002. Cornell’s translation of as-Sulami provides an early example of hagiography of female Sufis (as-Sulami 1999).
  1200.  
  1201. Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices of Pakistan and India. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
  1202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1203. A study of aspects of female participation in South Asian Sufi shrine culture, including musical performance, poetry, and legend.
  1204. Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices of Pakistan and India. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
  1205. Find this resource:
  1206. Clancy-Smith, Julia. “The House of Zainab: Female Authority and Saintly Succession in Colonial Algeria.” In Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries In Sex and Gender. Edited by Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron, 254–274. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  1207. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1208. In 19th-century Algeria, Lalla Zainab struggles to succeed her Sufi father despite opposition from a male cousin and the French colonial authorities.
  1209. Clancy-Smith, Julia. “The House of Zainab: Female Authority and Saintly Succession in Colonial Algeria.” In Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries In Sex and Gender. Edited by Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron, 254–274. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
  1210. Find this resource:
  1211. Elias, Jamal J. “Female and Feminine in Islamic Mysticism.” Muslim World 78 (1988): 209–224.
  1212. DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1988.tb02824.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1213. Argues that Sufism was virtually the only avenue for women to participate in religion, in compensation for being shut out of “orthodoxy.” One of the first academic treatments of women and Sufism.
  1214. Elias, Jamal J. “Female and Feminine in Islamic Mysticism.” Muslim World 78 (1988): 209–224.
  1215. Find this resource:
  1216. Hutson, Alaine S. “African Sufi Women and Ritual Change.” Journal of Ritual Studies 18.2 (2004): 61–73.
  1217. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1218. Examines the position of Tijani Sufi women in both Islamic and Sufi practices in Northern Nigeria during more recent decades.
  1219. Hutson, Alaine S. “African Sufi Women and Ritual Change.” Journal of Ritual Studies 18.2 (2004): 61–73.
  1220. Find this resource:
  1221. Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  1222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223. A “traditionalist” reading of Ibn al-˓Arabi and his commentators that presents men and women as embodying gender complementarity in human relations but androgyny on the cosmic level.
  1224. Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  1225. Find this resource:
  1226. Raudvere, Catharina. The Book and the Roses: Sufi Women, Visibility, and Zikir in Contemporary Istanbul. Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2002.
  1227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1228. An anthropological study of contemporary female Helveti Sufis in Istanbul.
  1229. Raudvere, Catharina. The Book and the Roses: Sufi Women, Visibility, and Zikir in Contemporary Istanbul. Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2002.
  1230. Find this resource:
  1231. Reinhertz, S. Women Called to the Path of Rumi: The Way of the Whirling Dervish. Prescott, AZ: Hohm Press, 2001.
  1232. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1233. An insider’s perspective on American women who learn the whirling of the Mevlevi dervishes and confront gender discrimination on the spiritual path.
  1234. Reinhertz, S. Women Called to the Path of Rumi: The Way of the Whirling Dervish. Prescott, AZ: Hohm Press, 2001.
  1235. Find this resource:
  1236. as-Sulami, Abu ˓Abd ar-Rahman. Early Sufi Women: Dhikr an-Niswa Al-muta˓abbidāt aṣ-Ṣūfiyyāt. Edited and translated by Rkia E. Cornell. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999.
  1237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1238. A translation and interpretation of an early biographical work on female Sufis.
  1239. as-Sulami, Abu ˓Abd ar-Rahman. Early Sufi Women: Dhikr an-Niswa Al-muta˓abbidāt aṣ-Ṣūfiyyāt. Edited and translated by Rkia E. Cornell. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999.
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241. Smith, Margaret. Muslim Women Mystics: The Life and Work of Rābi˓a and Other Women Mystics in Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2001.
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243. A classic work on early Sufi women. First published in 1928.
  1244. Smith, Margaret. Muslim Women Mystics: The Life and Work of Rābi˓a and Other Women Mystics in Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2001.
  1245. Find this resource:
  1246. Sufi Music
  1247.  
  1248. Treatises in favor of or condemning the use of music in Sufi ritual circulated from an early period. Regional differences as well as distinctive perspectives across Sufi orders resulted in diverse attitudes and implementation of music genres and instruments. Ernst 1997 is a clear and interesting introduction for teaching about Sufi music. Ethnomusicological approaches are taken by Qureishi 1995 and Feldman 1992. Waugh is a historian of religion who interprets contemporary Sufi music in social and ritual context in Egypt (Waugh 1989) and Morocco (Waugh 2005).
  1249.  
  1250. During, Jean. “What Is Sufi Music?” In The Heritage of Sufism, Vol. 2, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism (1150-1500). Edited by Leonard Lewisohn, 277–287. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999.
  1251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252. An accessible introduction to Sufi music by a French expert in the field.
  1253. During, Jean. “What Is Sufi Music?” In The Heritage of Sufism, Vol. 2, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism (1150-1500). Edited by Leonard Lewisohn, 277–287. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999.
  1254. Find this resource:
  1255. Ernst, Carl. “Sufi Music and Dance.” In The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. By Carl W. Ernst, 179–198. Boston: Shambhala, 1997.
  1256. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1257. Provides a concise overview of Sufi use of and discourses on music. Also incorporates material on the popularity of Sufi musical forms and performance in new international contexts and in modernizing Muslim societies.
  1258. Ernst, Carl. “Sufi Music and Dance.” In The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. By Carl W. Ernst, 179–198. Boston: Shambhala, 1997.
  1259. Find this resource:
  1260. Feldman, Walter. “Musical Genres and Zikr of the Sunni Tarikats of Istanbul.” In The Dervish Lodge. Edited by R. Lifchez, 187–202. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  1261. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1262. An ethnomusicological study of the context and music of Turkish tariqa Sufism.
  1263. Feldman, Walter. “Musical Genres and Zikr of the Sunni Tarikats of Istanbul.” In The Dervish Lodge. Edited by R. Lifchez, 187–202. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265. Michon, Jean Louis. “Sacred Music and Dance in Islam.” In Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 469–505. New York: Crossroads, 1991.
  1266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1267. A broad overview of theories about music and dance in Islam, including regional expressions.
  1268. Michon, Jean Louis. “Sacred Music and Dance in Islam.” In Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 469–505. New York: Crossroads, 1991.
  1269. Find this resource:
  1270. Qureishi, Regula. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Context, and Meaning in Qawwali. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
  1271. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1272. An ethnomusicologist studies Qawwali performance in social and religious context. Later editions include a compact disc of this music.
  1273. Qureishi, Regula. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Context, and Meaning in Qawwali. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
  1274. Find this resource:
  1275. Waugh, Earle H. Memory, Music, and Religion: Morocco’s Mystical Chanters. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005.
  1276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1277. A work on Sufism in contemporary Moroccan culture, using both textual analysis and interviews with local Sufism, Waugh explores dhikr as a form and practice of collective memory.
  1278. Waugh, Earle H. Memory, Music, and Religion: Morocco’s Mystical Chanters. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005.
  1279. Find this resource:
  1280. Waugh, Earle H. The Munshidīn of Egypt: Their World and Their Song. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.
  1281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1282. A study of the Sufi singers, primarily in Cairo, that discusses the complexity and meaning of performance that is aimed to induce ecstasy. Also considers the position of music in Islam generally, as well as Sufi ritual. Based on fieldwork as well as textual analysis.
  1283. Waugh, Earle H. The Munshidīn of Egypt: Their World and Their Song. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Films
  1286.  
  1287. Films dealing directly or indirectly with Sufism may take religious studies or anthropological perspectives on the subject material. A few feature films also incorporate Sufi themes. The Inner Life (Keeler 1976), while dated, is useful in presenting an overview of Sufi concepts and practices. I Am a Sufi: I Am a Muslim (Dumon 1996) would need contextualization and some anthropological sophistication to show in a classroom setting, but for illustrating popular Sufi practices in South Asia it is the best choice. Sufi Soul (Broughton 2008) and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (Asaro 2001) are oriented to Sufi music.
  1288.  
  1289. Allione, Costanzo, dir. Habiba: A Sufi Saint from Uzbekistan. 30 mins. New York: Mystic Fire Video, 1996.
  1290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. A film about a Central Asian female Sufi shaman.
  1292. Allione, Costanzo, dir. Habiba: A Sufi Saint from Uzbekistan. 30 mins. New York: Mystic Fire Video, 1996.
  1293. Find this resource:
  1294. Asaro, Giuseppe, dir. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan: A Voice from Heaven. 75 mins. New York: Fox Lorber Centrestage, 2001.
  1295. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1296. A documentary film about the famous Pakistani Qawwal and world-beat musician.
  1297. Asaro, Giuseppe, dir. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan: A Voice from Heaven. 75 mins. New York: Fox Lorber Centrestage, 2001.
  1298. Find this resource:
  1299. Broughton, Simon, dir. Sufi Soul: The Mystic Music of Islam. 48 mins. Songlines/MWTV (UK), 2008.
  1300. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1301. William Dalrymple wrote the script for this survey of various regional forms of Sufi music.
  1302. Broughton, Simon, dir. Sufi Soul: The Mystic Music of Islam. 48 mins. Songlines/MWTV (UK), 2008.
  1303. Find this resource:
  1304. Dumon, Dirk, dir. I am a Sufi, I am a Muslim. 52 mins. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 1996.
  1305. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1306. Filmed by a Belgian TV crew in Pakistan, Turkey, and the Balkans, this film illustrates Sufi practices in cultural contexts including dhikr sessions, graphic Rifaʾi piercings, Qawwali by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, and shrine visitation.
  1307. Dumon, Dirk, dir. I am a Sufi, I am a Muslim. 52 mins. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 1996.
  1308. Find this resource:
  1309. Farshad, Aryana, dir. Mystic Iran: The Unseen World. 52 mins. Hollywood, CA: Aryana F Productions, 2002.
  1310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1311. Within a Persian nationalist and feminist perspective, the film incorporates footage of Kurdish dhikr rituals among males and females.
  1312. Farshad, Aryana, dir. Mystic Iran: The Unseen World. 52 mins. Hollywood, CA: Aryana F Productions, 2002.
  1313. Find this resource:
  1314. Hartley, Elda. Islamic Mysticism: The Sufi Way. Commentary by Huston Smith. 30 mins. Westport, CT: Hartley Film Foundation, 1979.
  1315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1316. An outline of Sufism as a spiritual path that emphasizes philosophical and universalist aspects.
  1317. Hartley, Elda. Islamic Mysticism: The Sufi Way. Commentary by Huston Smith. 30 mins. Westport, CT: Hartley Film Foundation, 1979.
  1318. Find this resource:
  1319. Keeler, Paul, dir. The Inner Life. Part VI of Traditional World of Islam. Produced by Stephen Cross. 25 mins. Saugerties, NY: Institutional Cinema, 1976.
  1320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1321. Treats Sufism reverentially as the inner core of Islam and presents scenes of Sufi ritual from Morocco, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and India.
  1322. Keeler, Paul, dir. The Inner Life. Part VI of Traditional World of Islam. Produced by Stephen Cross. 25 mins. Saugerties, NY: Institutional Cinema, 1976.
  1323. Find this resource:
  1324. Kiziltan, Ozer, dir. Takva. Written by Onder Cakar. 96 mins. Hamburg, Germany: Corazón International, 2006.
  1325. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1326. This portrayal of one man’s struggle within a contemporary Sufi community order in Turkey is complex and critical of some aspects of contemporary tariqas. The film includes some dhikr scenes.
  1327. Kiziltan, Ozer, dir. Takva. Written by Onder Cakar. 96 mins. Hamburg, Germany: Corazón International, 2006.
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329. Llewelyn-Davies, Melissa, dir. Saints and Spirits. Produced by Elizabeth Fernea. 26 mins. Brooklyn, NY: Icarus Films, 1979.
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. Now rather dated, this ethnographic film explores popular practices among Moroccan women.
  1332. Llewelyn-Davies, Melissa, dir. Saints and Spirits. Produced by Elizabeth Fernea. 26 mins. Brooklyn, NY: Icarus Films, 1979.
  1333. Find this resource:
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