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The French of England (Medieval Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. French of England studies is a field that recognizes the claim of medieval England’s French culture, as represented by nearly a thousand extant texts, to assume its place in any comprehensive history of Britain, its literature, and its culture. To that end, it takes a multidisciplinary approach to medieval England’s four-hundred-year practice of Francophony, bypassing, in so far as possible, modern one-nation, one-language understandings of medieval cultures. It accepts as a given the multilingual fluidity (English, French, and Latin, primarily) that marked the insular experience of many, and the prevalence of strong Anglo-French relations, at times less intercultural than intracultural. Historically, French was the mother tongue of royalty from the time of the Conquest (although earlier close ties between Anglo-Saxon royalty and Norman nobles meant that French was used in England before the Conquest) until the end of the 13th century. It became fashionable among the aristocracy, was learned by elite landholders, court administrators, and bureaucrats, and was used in several professions. The great surge in French vernacular literary production of the 12th and 13th centuries (historiography, romance, devotional and doctrinal literature, and saints’ lives) can be traced more often to England than to France. Especially in the 12th and 13th centuries, French was also a medium for literary patronage and composition by women. Studies in the French of England incorporate areas covered by the still useful labels “Anglo-Norman” and “Anglo-French,” with the caveat that the latter terms construct artificial boundaries inside what was a historical continuum. In literary studies, moreover, they have sometimes determined the shape of scholarship by suggesting that investigation can be restricted to work in Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French alone, and they have inadvertently encouraged the view that French in England was a defective offshoot of Continental French. Among historians, the term “Anglo-Norman” has frequently signaled a limited period of time, that of Angevin rule (1066–1216), generally studied through Latin documents. Yet there is ample evidence that French, in various forms, remained alive in England at least into the 15th century. By looking at the subject more widely—that is, by including French writing of many types, whether composed, copied, or circulated in England in dialects of insular or Continental French—French of England studies can embrace the larger and more transformative phenomenon. It looks at the history of French in England as (variously and often simultaneously) aristocracy’s cachet, a language of medicine, law, record, and administration, a medium of commerce and trade, and perhaps a marine lingua franca. Not least, French of England studies recognizes a level of mostly lexical but also syntactic intimacy between insular French and English—the matrix for “English” writers such as Chaucer, Gower, and Langland. This bibliography has been prepared in consultation with Professor Jocelyn Wogan-Browne.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. French of England studies has centered on cultural and literary matters, with an emphasis on describing the content of the field and arguing the importance of that content to any understanding of medieval England. The works cited in the subsections Monographs and Articles and Essay Collections are at once highly sophisticated and introductory: sophisticated because each breaks new ground with new evidence or fresh approaches that are the fruit of authors’ deep engagement with the subjects treated; and each is introductory because it invites and inspires further exploration. Taken together, they provide the most useful overview now available.
  8.  
  9. Monographs and Articles
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  11. Butterfield 2009 is a path-clearing treatment of later medieval English/French literary culture. Clanchy 1993 treats the culture of writing in trilingual England, a study to be read by all medievalists. Legge 1963, Legge 1950, Crane 1999, and Calin 1994 show a rising curve of interest among modern scholars in the literature in the French of England; the placement of Crane’s article on Anglo-Norman cultures in a history of English literature is a particular milestone. Salter 2010 embraces a wide field of inquiry and more than one discipline. Short 2003 is the authoritative work of a lifelong scholar in the field.
  12.  
  13. Butterfield, Ardis. The Familar Enemy: Chaucer, Language and Nation in the Hundred Years War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  15. A new and important analysis of the “co-vernaculars,” English and French, in a period understudied from that perspective. Taking language and literature as its object, this book brilliantly erases boundaries that have prevented modern scholarship from seeing the two cultures’ fateful historical engagement with each other, in the Middle Ages and after.
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  17. Calin, William. The French Tradition and the Literature of Medieval England. Toronto and Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press, 1994.
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  19. An appreciative study of the links between insular and Continental French texts by a scholar of medieval Continental French literature. Recognizes the originality of many Anglo-Norman texts.
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  21. Clanchy, Michael T. From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066–1307. 2d ed. Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993.
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  23. Analyzes the shift from memorization to writing, advancing the idea that literacy grew out of a practical need for bureaucratic record keeping and was responsible for the creation of a “literate mentality.” Emphasizes trilingual culture of England. First edition published in 1979 (London: Edward Arnold and Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). The revised edition updates the earlier one, adding many footnotes.
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  25. Crane, Susan. “Anglo-Norman Cultures in England, 1066–1640.” In The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Edited by David Wallace, 35–60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  26. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521444200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Good cultural and literary survey, and very strong on the link between writing in the French vernacular and women’s patronage of literature. Crane’s assertion that English kings no longer had French as their maternal tongue within a hundred or so years after the Conquest is contradicted by broad scholarly consensus that they did, from the time of William to the deposition of Richard II in 1399.
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  29. Legge, Mary Dominica. Anglo-Norman in the Cloisters: The Influence of the Orders upon Anglo-Norman Literature. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1950.
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  31. A survey of literature in French written by clerks, still cited in scholarship. To be read with caution, given the author’s discouraging attitude toward many of the writers and works she discusses.
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  33. Legge, Mary Dominica. Anglo-Norman Literature and Its Background. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.
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  35. In its time a pioneering introduction to literary texts in Anglo-Norman. Further work in the more than fifty years since has altered or added to Legge’s discussion, but the book remains required reading for scholars new to the field.
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  37. Salter, Elizabeth. English and International: Studies in the Literature, Art and Patronage of Medieval England. Edited by Derek Pearsall and Nicolette Zeeman. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  39. A brilliant earlier account of the cosmopolitan, multilingual nature of England’s culture in the Middle Ages. First printed in 1988, Salter’s work continues to be of importance.
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  41. Short, Ian. “Language and Literature.” In Companion to the Anglo-Norman World. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill and Elisabeth van Houts, 191–213. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2003.
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  43. Reviews the principal spheres in which the French of England was used, and comments on specific literary texts.
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  45. Essay Collections
  46.  
  47. Collections in this section have been selected for the range, variety, and quality of essays they contain. Harper-Bill and van Houts 2003 is a compact collection of eleven articles on essential topics; essays in Harper-Bill and Vincent 2007 all address important topics in readable fashion. Wogan-Browne 2009 is an exhaustive, state-of-the-art collection in French of England studies. Aurell and Tonnerre 2006 will perhaps be of special interest for the articles on Eleanor of Aquitaine. Bates and Curry 1994 remains a useful collection for its variety.
  48.  
  49. Aurell, Martin, and Noël-Yves Tonnerre, eds. Plantagenêts et Capétiens: Confrontations et héritages. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2006.
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  51. Articles arranged under three rubrics: “Aliénor d’Aquitaine” (Eleanor of Aquitaine or the power of a queen; two essays evaluate Eleanor through charters and the like, representing a relatively new approach); “Les fiefs français dans le conflit” (French fiefs in conflict); and “Culture et mécénat” (culture and patronage). All essays are in French.
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  53. Bates, David, and Anne Curry, eds. England and Normandy in the Middle Ages. London: Hambledon, 1994.
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  55. Twenty-one essays on diverse topics in insular and Norman relations, including, among others, monasteries and monasticism, book production, warfare, patronage, and the idea of nation.
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  57. Harper-Bill, Christopher, and Elisabeth van Houts, eds. A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2003.
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  59. Five essays (A. Williams, pre-Conquest England; C. Potts, pre- and post-Conquest Normandy; L. Abrams, England, Normandy and Scandinavia pre-Conquest; D. Power, Angevin Normandy; M. Bennett, Normans in the Mediterranean) provide an informative, kaleidoscopic view of the Anglo-Norman world; remaining articles (M. Chibnall, feudalism and lordship; E. Mason, administration and government; C. Harper-Bill, the Anglo-Norman church; R. Plant, ecclesiastical architecture) concentrate on England.
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  61. Harper-Bill, Christopher, and Nicholas Vincent, eds. Henry II: New Interpretations. Papers presented at a conference held at the University of East Anglia, September 2004. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2007.
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  63. Excellent collection of thirteen articles plus introduction, embracing Henry’s relations with the French king; with England’s insular neighbors; church and papacy; English common law; finance and economy; Henry, Duke of Normandy; the nature of Henry’s court; the court’s literary culture; the king’s upbringing; and Henry and Arthurian legend.
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  65. Wogan-Browne, Jocelyn, ed. Language and Culture in Medieval Britain: The French of England c. 1100–c. 1500. With the assistance of Carolyn Collette, Maryanne Kowaleski, Linne Mooney, Ad Putter, and David Trotter. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2009.
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  67. A first of its kind in the field, this essential volume of thirty-four often outstanding essays, stemming from three separate international conferences, offers the most forward-looking and comprehensive overview now available of the range of topics in French of England studies.
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  69. Bibliographies
  70.  
  71. The Anglo-Norman Online Hub, host to the Anglo-Norman Dictionary (see under Dictionaries and Specialized Glossaries), also offers a list of online Anglo-Norman Source Texts. Fordham University, well known for its Medieval Studies Program, has also been active in developing French of England studies, including an online bibliography (French of England Bibliography).
  72.  
  73. Anglo-Norman Online Hub.
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  75. This site provides a guide to Anglo-Norman texts available online. Many are editions of works originally published by the Anglo-Norman Text Society (ANTS), but there is a generous number of older non-ANTS editions. It also features a link to a bibliography of articles on Anglo-Norman lexis by Professor William Rothwell, general editor of the Anglo-Norman Dictionary (AND; cited under Dictionaries and Specialized Glossaries) and well-known lexicographer.
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  77. French of England Bibliography.
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  79. This website is dedicated entirely to French of England studies. Recently updated and enlarged, it provides extensive bibliography as well as description of conferences, educational programs, and Fordham courses devoted to topics in the French of England.
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  81. Reference Works
  82.  
  83. Until fairly recently, the reference tools required specifically for French of England studies were either nonexistent or inaccessible. Today, however, there is a rich array of excellent supporting material, both online and in hard copy, in the form of dictionaries, manuals, and guides that supplement the magisterial earlier reference works more generally devoted to Old and Middle French.
  84.  
  85. Dictionaries and Specialized Glossaries
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  87. The Anglo-Norman Dictionary (AND), with its definitions in English, is of special value to Anglophone readers but is essential to, and consulted by, all scholars working in the French of England. Gregory, et al. 2005 offers part of the dictionary in hard copy. The Dictionnaire étymologique de l’ancien français (DEAF) is a learned and thorough resource for etymologies. The Dictionnaire du Moyen Français (DMF), a resource for Continental French, is nonetheless valuable for those seeking fuller, comparative information. Olszowy-Schlanger, et al. 2008 is a pathbreaking, specialized trilingual resource. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography offers a well-known collection of biographies, including a generous number for medieval figures. Baker 1989 is a self-contained, earlier presentation of legal language in French. Hindley, et al. 2000 is a user-friendly dictionary, although its cost is still high for individual purchase, which provides a guide to the principal texts available in modern editions. It also features a link to a bibliography of articles pertaining to lexis by Professor William Rothwell, general editor of the Anglo-Norman Dictionary and well-known lexicographer; the link to the article contents is under development as of 2012. Tobler and Lommatszch 1925–1995 and Godefroy 1961 are older, foundational resources that continue to be used for their many contextualized examples of usage and for occasionally supplying examples and definitions not found elsewhere.
  88.  
  89. Baker, John H. Manual of Law French. 2d ed. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1989.
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  91. Although entries in this manual can now be found in the AND, readers may still find it a useful overview of legal terminology. First published in 1979 (Amersham, UK: Avebury).
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  93. Baldinger, Kurt, and Frankwalt Möhren, eds. Dictionnaire étymologique de l’ancien français.
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  95. Makes available items from vols. G, H, I, J, and K published in the print version of DEAF between 1974 and 2008.
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  97. Dictionnaire du Moyen Français. Analyse et traitement informatique de la langue française.
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  99. A sophisticated and complete resource for Middle French, the DMF gives sample contexts for each entry.
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  101. Godefroy, Frédéric. Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française et tous ses dialectes du IX au XV siècle. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: Scientific Periodicals Establishment, 1961.
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  103. Originally published 1880–1902 and still useful. Definitions in modern French.
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  105. Gregory, Stewart, William Rothwell, and David Trotter, eds. The Anglo-Norman Dictionary. 2 vols. London: Modern Humanities Research Association, 2005.
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  107. Hard-copy version of the dictionary through the letter E. Partial revision of the first Anglo-Norman Dictionary, 7 fascicles, edited by Louise W. Stone and William Rothwell (London: ANTS, 1977–1992), which contains the complete alphabet. Vol. 1, A–C. Vol. 2, D–E.
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  109. Hindley, Alan, Frederick W. Langley, and Brian J. Levy, eds. Old French-English Dictionary. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  111. Excellent and reliable one-volume resource, featuring definitions in English.
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  113. Olszowy-Schlanger, Judith, with Anne Grondeux and Philippe Bobichon, eds. Dictionnaire hébreu-latin-français de la Bible hébraïque de l’Abbaye de Ramsey. Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, Series in-4˚ IV. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2008.
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  115. Edition and study of a Biblical Hebrew-Latin-Old French dictionary, prepared in the third quarter of the 13th century at the Benedictine abbey of Ramsey (East Anglia) by a circle of Hebraicists. About 3,500 Hebrew entries translated into Latin and French (some English). Initially undertaken to correct the Vulgate, it became a new translation of its own, based on analysis of the language and its grammar.
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  117. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
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  119. Contains many valuable entries on political and cultural figures of the medieval period, mainly but not exclusively men. Available by subscription or through university libraries.
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  121. Tobler, Adolf, and Erhard Lommatszch, eds. Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch. Stuttgart and Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1925–1995.
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  123. In many ways, “Tobler-Lommatszch” is the most exhaustive resource available for Old and Middle French, including Anglo-Norman. Definitions in German. By the time the dictionary was completed, the very first volumes were no longer available for purchase. The continuing need for the complete dictionary is demonstrated by its availability in CD-ROM format, edited by Peter Blumenthal and Achim Stein (Franz Steiner, 2002), though probably too costly for individual purchase.
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  125. Trotter, D. A., W. Rothwell, G. De Wilde, and H. Pagan. Anglo-Norman Dictionary.
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  127. This excellent and much-needed dictionary supplies forms, culled from edited texts, and definitions not treated in dictionaries of Continental French, making it possible for the first time to read the French of England as an entity in its own right. See William Rothwell’s “Introduction to the On-Line AND”, with additional comments by Andrew Rothwell, David Trotter, and Michael Beddow.
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  129. Guides and Manuals
  130.  
  131. Dean 1999 offers a thorough overview of extant writing in Anglo-Norman. Dees, et al. 1987 includes southeast England and affords comparison with Continental dialects. Pope 1934, a pathbreaking and exhaustive linguistic study of Anglo-Norman, is now supplemented by the concise Short 2007. Hasenohr and Zink 1992 offers a revision of the 1964 Dictionnaire des Lettres françaises.
  132.  
  133. Dean, Ruth, ed. Anglo-Norman Literature: A Guide to Texts and Manuscripts. With the assistance of Maureen B. M. Boulton. Occasional Publications 3. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1999.
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  135. Lists 986 whole and partial documents divided by subject, with identifications, dates, all known manuscripts, modern editions, and related scholarship; six indices; concordance to Johan Vising’s early but much less complete Anglo-Norman Language and Literature (London: Oxford University Press /H. Milford, 1923). Essential, monumental guide to writing in French in medieval England by a scholar who personally examined nearly all the manuscripts mentioned.
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  137. Dees, Anthonij, Marcel Dekker, Onno Huber, and Karin van Reenen-Stein. Atlas des formes linguistiques des textes littéraires de l’ancien français. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 212. Tübingen, West Germany: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1987.
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  139. Collection of 517 maps showing the geographic distribution of linguistic forms as found in 200 localizable manuscripts, followed by a list of the manuscripts and their locations and an inventory of forms. For the serious student of dialectology. The title translates as “Atlas of linguistic forms from literary texts in Old French.”
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  141. Hasenohr, Geneviève, and Michel Zink, eds. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises. Vol. 1, Le Moyen Âge. Rev. ed. Paris: Fayard, 1992.
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  143. Synopses of works and topics, information about authors; bibliographies for each entry. Covers both insular and Continental subjects, but important Anglo-Norman figures or works are omitted (e.g., Nicholas Bozon; the Liber donati; Manieres de langage; Pierre d’Abernon of Fetcham and his Lumere as lais; Guernes de Pont Ste.-Maxence, and others). First edition edited by Robert Bossuat, Louis Pichard, and Guy Raynaud, 1964.
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  145. Pope, Mildred K. From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman: Phonology and Morphology. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1934.
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  147. A detailed study of the development of French from Latin, with numerous tables. The first to pay thorough attention to the French language of England in the areas of phonology and morphology. See also William Rothwell, “From Latin to Modern French: Fifty Years On,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 68 (1985): 179–209.
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  149. Short, Ian. A Manual of Anglo-Norman. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 2007.
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  151. Indispensable guide to and a mise au point of the linguistic traits that characterized insular medieval French. Professor Short, respected expert in Anglo-Norman language and literature studies, proceeds cautiously, avoiding firm conclusions about pronunciation. Those who have been working in Anglo-Norman will find many of their questions addressed here.
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  153. Language Textbooks
  154.  
  155. Although as of 2012 there is no textbook devoted entirely to the French of England, each textbook listed in this section provides a general introduction to medieval French and includes information about Anglo-Norman. Ayres-Bennett 1996 gives students the chance to observe the historical movement of French through the medieval period. Einhorn 1974 is notable for its ease of use and helpful exercises. Kibler 1984 is a comprehensive text that provides practice in reading complete texts of two famous Anglo-Norman poems.
  156.  
  157. Ayres-Bennett, Wendy. A History of the French Language through Texts. London and New York: Routledge, 1996.
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  159. First sections on the earliest texts (pp. 15–57), Old French (pp. 58–97), and Middle French (pp. 98–139) include brief selections, with ample linguistic and literary commentary. Discusses dialectal features.
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  161. Einhorn, Elsabe. Old French: A Concise Handbook. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
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  163. A brief and to-the-point manual for Old French to 1300. Anglo-Norman differences are noted. Selected passages are reproduced toward the end of the book.
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  165. Kibler, William W. An Introduction to Old French. New York: Modern Language Association, 1984.
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  167. A treatment of the history, morphology and syntax of Old French (to 1300). The complete texts for reading, which illustrate linguistic points under discussion, are in Anglo-Norman: a lai of Marie de France, and a life of Thomas Becket.
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  169. Texts and Translations of Selected Primary Sources
  170.  
  171. Since 1939 the Anglo-Norman Text Society (ANTS) has published consistently reliable editions. Some are mentioned among primary sources listed here, but a full list of all titles is available at its website. Many ANTS editions and other editions not published by ANTS may be found via the Anglo-Norman Source Texts. ANTS editions do not include translations, but the recently inaugurated French of England Translation Series (FRETS) is devoted to providing non-canonical but centrally important Anglo-Norman texts in English translation, many from existing ANTS editions. FRETS has as of 2012 published four volumes and one further volume in the Occasional Publication Series; numerous others are planned. The Selden Society publishes annual and supplemental series of items, primarily in Latin but also containing significant amounts of French.
  172.  
  173. Anglo-Norman Source Texts. The Anglo-Norman On-Line Hub.
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  175. This valuable electronic resource supplies many of the editions published by ANTS, along with miscellaneous editions produced by other publishers.
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  177. Anglo-Norman Text Society.
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  179. Through its three series—the Annual Text Series, the Occasional Publications Series, and the Plain Text Series—ANTS has the distinction of having made available a large and significant corpus of literary, didactic, and hagiographic work in Anglo-Norman, as well as important collections of modern essays devoted to topics in the French of England.
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  181. French of England Translation Series. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2008–
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  183. FRETS, a new series and a first of its kind, has already brought out five important volumes and projects many more in the next few years. Published by the Medieval and Renaissance Text Society (MRTS), Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies (ACMERS), Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. A list of titles and ordering information is available online.
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  185. Selden Society.
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  187. Although the Selden Society, founded more than one hundred years ago with the aim of publishing the historical records of English law, has concentrated on documents in Latin, researchers may also find information relevant to Anglo-Norman. A list of the Society’s publications may be found at its website.
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  189. The Christian Religion
  190.  
  191. The French of England filled an enormous desire for an accessible and prestigious literature of religious expression. Apocryphal biographies of Jesus and his mother supplied stories that could not be found in the Gospels. Books of the Bible began to be translated into Anglo-Norman from the early 12th century and in the next century were often accompanied by lavish artwork. Devotional works were also in demand, especially those offering religious instruction, as were miracle stories, and biblical subjects and lessons were taught in public performance. Saints’ lives, an enormous corpus currently the object of increased scholarly attention, featured a wide variety of traditional insular and Eastern figures whose biographies were recast in Anglo-French. On the other hand, the murder of St. Thomas à Becket inspired freshly conceived lives.
  192.  
  193. Apocryphal Literature
  194.  
  195. Interest in apocrypha centered especially on childhood stories of Jesus and Mary. Wace’s The Conception de Nostre Dame (Ashford 1933) and Herman de Valenciennes’ Li romanz de Dieu et de sa mère d’Herman de Valenciennes (Spiele 1997) both speak to the popular desire for biographic material. The lavishly presented Les Enfaunces de Jesu Crist (Boulton 1985) joins La Vengeance de Nostre-Seigneur (Ford 1993) in portraying a vengeful Jesus.
  196.  
  197. Ashford, William Ray, ed. Conception de Nostre Dame de Wace. Menasha, WI: George Banta, 1933.
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  199. Recounts the establishing of the Feast of the Conception and the Virgin Mary’s early life, followed by the Three Maries (see Dean 490, 491) and the Assumption. Edition is author’s thesis of the same year; variants lack those from one Oxford manuscript. Like Wace’s Life of Saint Margaret (see Saints’ Lives in Eastern Settings), extant manuscript versions are all Continental. The title translates as “The conception of Our Lady by Wace.”
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  201. Boulton, Maureen B. M., ed. Les Enfaunces de Jesu Crist. London: Anglo-Normal Text Society, 1985.
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  203. An early-13th-century adaptation into French, found in the lavishly illustrated Oxford, Bodleian MS Supra Selden 38, of the apocryphal childhood of Jesus Christ. Although paralleling Bible picture books made for wealthy patrons such as the Holkham Bible Picture Book (see Brown 2007, cited under Biblical Literature), the inclusion in Selden of an extensive picture program is unique among manuscripts of Christ’s infancy. The title translates as “The childhood of Jesus Christ.”
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  205. Ford, Alvin E., ed. La Vengeance de Nostre-Seigneur: The Old and Middle French Versions: The Cura Sanitatis Tiberii (The Mission of Volusian), the Nathanis Judaei legatio (Vindicta salvatoris), and the Versions Found in the Bible française of Roger d’Argenteuil or Influenced by the Works of Flavius Josephus, Robert de Boron and Jacobus de Voragine. Studies and Texts 115. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1993.
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  207. Apocryphal stories of Jesus’ vengeance against Jews were popular and appeared in verse, prose, epic, mystery plays, and other forms. This volume contains the Anglo-Norman version of the Vengeance, also known as the Destruction de Jerusalem (Destruction of Jerusalem) or Curaison de Tiberie (Tiberius’s healing).
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  209. Spiele, Ida, ed. Li romanz de Dieu et de sa mère d’Herman de Valenciennes. Leiden, The Netherlands: Presse Universitaire, 1997.
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  211. An adaptation of Hebrew Bible narrative is followed by apocryphal legends concerning the Virgin Mary: her conception, birth, and marriage. Among the thirty-five extant manuscripts of this late-13th-century text of Continental origin, nineteen are in Anglo-Norman. The title translates as “The romance of God and of His Mother by Herman of Valenciennes.”
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  213. Biblical Literature
  214.  
  215. Books of the Bible were translated into the French of England from the early 12th century. The Book of Psalms in translation was especially desirable: the Oxford Psalter (Michel 1860) is extant in at least a dozen manuscripts. It and various other early biblical translations, including Sanson de Nantuil’s Les Proverbes de Salemon (Isoz 1994), continued to be translated into the 14th century. The Poème anglo-normand sur l’Ancien Testament (Nobel 1996) comprises selected stories from Genesis to 2 Chronicles 31, in decasyllables, while the Holkham Bible Picture Book (Brown 2007) features biblical history told through a picture program.
  216.  
  217. Brown, Michelle P., ed. The Holkham Bible Picture Book: A Facsimile. London: British Library, 2007.
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  219. Excellent example of a luxury book prepared for a wealthy reader. British Library MS Additional 47680. Holkham Bible Picture Book: Introduction and Commentary, edited by W. O. Hassall (London: Dropmore, 1954) is an earlier, well-respected facsimile of the same manuscript. Text alone in The Anglo-Norman Text of the Holkham Bible Picture Book, edited by F. P. Pickering (Oxford: Blackwell, for ANTS, 1971).
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Isoz, C. Claire, ed. Sansun de Nantuil: Les Proverbes de Salemon. 3 vols. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1994.
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  223. Earliest known French verse translation of this biblical book, and the only Anglo-Norman verse rendering with a complete commentary. The biblical text is divided into sections, each presented first in Latin. Little is known of the author, but a good deal is made of his patroness, Aëliz de Cundé, plausibly also Alice de Clare of the powerful family of the Clares. Text available online.
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  225. Michel, Francisque, ed. “The Oxford Psalter.” In Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica. Edited by Francisque Michel. Oxford: Clarendon, 1860.
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  227. Prose translation, sometimes also called the “Montebourg Psalter,” from the Douce manuscript. Extracts may also be found in Samuel Berger, La Bible française (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1884), pp. 11–13, 208. The title translates as “In Book of Psalms, Gallican Version.”
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Nobel, Pierre, ed. Poème anglo-normand sur l’Ancien Testament: Édition et commentaire 2 vols. Paris: Honoré Champion, 1996.
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  231. Dates from the early 13th century and is unfinished at a little over 17,700 lines. Excellent edition. Vol. 1 is in two parts: the first treats the author and the work, while Part 2 contains a complete critical apparatus and discussion of the manuscripts. Vol. 2 presents the edition itself. The title translates as “Anglo-Norman poem on the Old Testament: Edition and commentary.”
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  233. Devotional and Homiletic Literature
  234.  
  235. Much vernacular literary production in medieval England was in the form of devotional works, especially those offering religious instruction. The varied texts of Cher Alme (Hunt 2010) testify to the energy of pastoral reform before and after Lateran IV. Robert Grosseteste’s Chasteau d’Amour (Mackie 2003) and Henry of Lancaster’s Li Livre de Seyntz Medicines (Arnould 1940) constitute two carefully wrought, complex allegories intended for religious edification. Nicolas Bozon, an English Franciscan, was a prolific author of moralizing material, including Les Contes moralisés (Smith and Meyer 1889). The trilingual author John Gower, perhaps best known for his Confessio amantis (in English), was a passionate moralist who also wrote the lengthy Mirour de l’omme (Macauley 1899) in French. Peter d’Abernon of Fetcham’s Lumere as lais (Hesketh 1996–1999) is a work of instruction, perhaps, given its scholasticizing format, intended as an aid for less educated clergy. The Ancrene riwle (or Ancrene wisse) (Trethewey 1958) and its French translation are witnesses to the attractions to women of the eremitic life.
  236.  
  237. Arnould, E. J., ed. Li Livre de Seyntz Medicines, by Henry of Lancaster. Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1940.
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  239. A devotional book, composed in 1354, as an elaborate literary allegory in which sins are considered to be illnesses or wounds, treatable with various medicines known in 14th-century England. Translation of an extract by M. Teresa Tavormina in Cultures of Piety, Medieval English Devotional Literature in Translation (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1999), pp. 9–40. The first complete translation is in preparation by Catherine Batt for FRETS.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Hesketh, Glynn, ed. La Lumere as Lais, by Pierre d’Abernon of Fetcham. 3 vols. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1996–1999.
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  243. Begun as a translation of the Elucidarium by the writer known as Honorius of Autun, the Lumere as Lais became a summa of other sources, especially Peter Lombard’s Sentences. Fascinating discussion of the gender of God and other topics. The title translates as “Instruction for the laity, by Peter d’Abernon of Fetcham.”
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Hunt, Tony, ed. Cher Alme: Texts of Anglo-Norman Piety. Translated by Jane Bliss; introduction by Henrietta Leyser. French of England Translation Series, Occasional Publication 1; Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 385. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2010.
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  247. Meticulous edition and translation of sixteen texts by and for women and men that speak to the Fourth Lateran ruling that married people could achieve salvation through true faith and correct deeds. Texts deal with the tenets of the Christian faith; Marian devotion; the passion; prayers; vices and confession; and virtues and rewards. The title translates as “Dear soul.”
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  249. Macauley, George C., ed. “Mirour de l’omme.” In The Complete Works of John Gower. Vol. 1, The French Works. By John Gower. Oxford: Clarendon, 1899.
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  251. Gower’s ambitious work in more than 30,000 verses on the virtues and vices, on human society and its sins, and the ways in which a sinner may find God. Gower is also known for his Traité pour essampler les amamtz mariez and Cinkante Ballades (see Yeager 2011, cited under Lyric).
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Mackie, Evelyn, trans. “Robert Grosseteste’s Anglo-Norman Treatise on the Loss and Restoration of Creation, Commonly Known as Le Château d’Amour: An English Prose Translation.” In Robert Grosseteste and the Beginnings of a British Theological Tradition: Papers Delivered at the Grosseteste Colloquium Held at Greyfriars, Oxford on 3rd July 2002. Edited by Maura O’Carroll, 151–179. Rome: Istituto Storico dei Cappuccini, 2003.
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  255. An allegory in octosyllables, composed c. 1215, by one of the most important intellectuals of the Middle Ages, for the purpose of providing instruction in Christian doctrine. The castle of the title represents the Virgin Mary. Edition is Le Chasteau d’Amour de Robert Grosseteste, évêque de Lincoln (The castle of love by Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln), edited by J. Murray (Paris: Champion, 1918). A second translation is in preparation by Maureen Boulton for FRETS.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Smith, Lucy Toulmin, and Paul Meyer, eds. Les Contes moralisés de Nicole Bozon, frère mineur. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1889.
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  259. The Contes moralisés (Moralized tales), a collection of moral lessons, is Bozon’s most famous work. He also wrote four allegorical poems, of which the Char d’orgueil is probably the best known. Besides a number of other poems and a collection of proverbs, Bozon wrote three saints’ lives, including a life of Elisabeth of Hungary, which is being translated for FRETS by Laurie Postlewate.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Trethewey, W. H., ed. The French Text of Ancrene riwle, Edited from Trinity College, Cambridge MS R.14.7, with Variants from Bibliothèque nationale MS F.fr. 6276 and Bodley MS 90. London and New York: Oxford University Press for the Early English Text Society, 1958.
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  263. Anglo-Norman translation of Middle English anchoresses’ rules. See Watson and Wogan-Browne 2004 (cited under Hagiography) and D. A. Trotter, “The Anglo-French Lexis of Ancrene Wisse,” in A Companion to Ancrene Wisse, edited by Yoko Wada (Cambridge, UK: Brewer, 2003), pp. 83–101. See also The French Text of the Ancrene Riwle, Edited from British Museum MS. Cotton Vitellius F.viii, edited by J. A. Herbert (London: Early English Text Society OS 219, 1944).
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Drama and Performance
  266.  
  267. Liturgical performance in Latin existed in England before the Norman period. The Jeu d’Adam (van Emden 1996) is the first extant European play in the vernacular, but its stage directions are still in Latin. The somewhat later Seinte Resureccion (Jenkins, et al. 1943), extant in two interestingly different versions, features instructions in French in the verse itself.
  268.  
  269. Jenkins, T. Atkinson, J. M. Manly, Mildred K. Pope, and Jean G. Wright, eds. La Seinte Resureccion from the Paris and Canterbury MSS. Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1943.
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  271. Also known as La Resurrection du Sauveur (Resurrection of the savior), this play survives in two forms that have passages in common, but neither is a copy of the other. Dating from c. 1200, the Resurreccion is written in flexible Anglo-Norman octosyllables and rhymed in couplets, even in its stage directions. The title translates as “Holy resurrection.”
  272. Find this resource:
  273. van Emden, Wolfgang, ed. Le Jeu d’Adam. British Rencesvals Publications 1. Edinburgh: Société Rencesvals British Branch, 1996.
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  275. With translation into English. Also known as Ordo representaciones Ade (Order for the representation of Adam) and, misleadingly, Le Mystère d’Adam. Many earlier editions; see Dean 1999 §716 (cited under Guides and Manuals). The first extant European play in the vernacular (with stage directions in Latin). Considered a masterpiece, the Jeu is known to us in a unique manuscript copy written in southern France, although the original is widely held to have appeared in Anglo-Norman in the mid-12th century. The work is tripartite: the Fall of Man, the first murder, and the Procession of the Prophets announcing the Redeemer. The title translates as “The play of Adam.”
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Miracle Collections
  278.  
  279. Stories about the Virgin Mary were enduringly popular in medieval England. In addition to the apocryphal accounts of the Virgin’s childhood (see Biblical Literature), stories of miracles performed by Mary, as in Adgar’s Gracial (Kunstmann 1982), flourished.
  280.  
  281. Kunstmann, Pierre, ed. Le gracial. Ottawa: Editions de l’Université d’Ottawa, 1982.
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  283. A collection of miracles of the Virgin composed in the second half of the 12th century. Adgar dedicated the first version to his friend Gregory, and a second version to a lady named Mahaut, probably Maud, daughter of King Henry II and abbess of Barking Abbey.
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  285. Saints’ Lives in Insular Settings
  286.  
  287. Many biographies of Anglo-Saxon saints were rewritten in French in the 12th century and figured significantly in the literary recovery of the past under the Norman kings. Denis Piramus’s life of St. Edmund (Kjellman 1935), the Nun of Barking’s life of Edward the Confessor (Södergard 1948), and the life of St. Etheldreda (McCash and Barban 2006) are examples. Others, like Brendan (see Burgess 2002, cited under Travel) and Marie de France’s St. Patrick (Marie de France 1993), are based on Celtic material. Stories of royal saints like Edward the Confessor continued to lend themselves to political reinvention, as in Matthew Paris’s astute reimagining of Edward’s life (Fenster and Wogan-Browne 2008). Paris is also the author of an important translation/adaptation of the life of St. Alban, similarly a figure who stood at England’s origins (Wogan-Browne and Fenster 2010). The Life of Saint Osith (Russell 2005) is dedicated to Osith, abbess of St. Osith’s and the daughter of parents who founded the abbey of Chertsey. The life of Thomas à Becket by Guernes de Pont-Sainte-Maxence (Thomas 2002) is a contemporary and original composition begun almost immediately after Becket’s dramatic murder in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
  288.  
  289. Fenster, Thelma, and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, eds. and trans. Matthew Paris, History of Saint Edward the King. French of England Translation Series 1, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 341. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2008.
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  291. Matthew Paris, chronicler of St. Albans Abbey, dedicated his life of Edward the Confessor to Queen Eleanor of Provence, wife of Henry III. Paris also generously illustrated the manuscript. Edition is Le Estoire de seint Aedward le Rei (The history of Saint Edward the King), edited by K. Y. Wallace (London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1983). Text available on ANTS online.
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  293. Kjellman, Hilding, ed. Denis Piramus, La Vie seint Edmund le Rei, poème anglo-normand du XIIe siècle. Gothenburg, Sweden: Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1935.
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  295. A biography of the pre-Conquest Saxon figure who became king of East Anglia. Contains a prologue criticizing courtly literature and naming the author of Partenopeus and Marie de France. Features a rare medieval description of a sea voyage (see also Travel). The title translates as “The life of St. Edmund the King: An Anglo-Norman poem of the 12th century.”
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  297. Marie de France. Saint Patrick’s Purgatory: A Poem by Marie de France. Translated by Michael J. Curley. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 94. Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1993.
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  299. Engaging account of the pilgrimage of the Irish knight Owein to the saint’s “purgatory” (a covered ditch), translated from the 12th-century Tractatus de Purgatorio Sancti Patricii. Edition is Espurgatoire saint Patrice (St. Patrick’s purgatory), edited by Yvonne de Pontfarcy (Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 1995); editor finds no reason to doubt Owein’s real existence.
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  301. McCash, June Hall, and Judith Clark Barban, eds. and trans. Marie de France, La Vie de Sainte Audree. Jefferson, NC, and London: McFarland, 2006.
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  303. New edition of the life of St. Etheldreda of Ely by “Marie.” The editors’ attribution of authorship to Marie de France will encourage further investigation. First modern edition is by Östen Södergård (Uppsala, Sweden: Årskrifft, 1955). See also the Electronic Campsey Project website.
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  305. Russell, Delbert, ed. Life of Saint Osith. Translated by Jane Zatta; revised and annotated by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne. Papers on Language and Literature 41 (2005): 339–444.
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  307. Translation from Latin designed to argue the independence from the See of London of the church in Chich. Deserves to be better known. Edition by A. T. Baker, Modern Language Review 6.4 (1911): 81, available online. See also the Electronic Campsey Project website.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Södergård, Östen, ed. The Nun of Barking, La Vie d’Edouard le Confesseur: Poème anglo-normand du XIIe siècle. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksells, 1948.
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  311. Composed (from a Latin biography) by an anonymous nun of Barking Abbey during the reign of Henry II, this is the first life of King Edward the Confessor in French and an excellent early witness to Anglo-Saxon exemplary biography implicitly linked to Angevin aspirations. See also the Electronic Campsey Project website. The title translates as “The life of Edward the Confessor: An Anglo-Norman poem of the 12th century.”
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  313. Thomas, Jacques T. E., ed. La vie de Saint Thomas de Canterbury. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters, 2002.
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  315. The first life of Becket in French. English translation by Janet Shirley in Garnier’s Becket: Translated from the 12th-Century Vie de saint Thomas le martyr de Cantorbire of Garnier of Pont-Sainte-Maxence (London: Phillimore, 1975). The 1935 Walberg edition available through ANTS online. See also the Electronic Campsey Project website. For the Becket life by Beneit and that attributed to Matthew Paris, see Dean 1999 (cited in Guides and Manuals).
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Wogan-Browne, Jocelyn, and Thelma Fenster, eds. and trans. Matthew Paris, The Life of St. Alban. French of England Translation Series 2, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 342. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2010.
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  319. First English translation of the verse life of England’s protomartyr, composed 1230–1250, in a unique manuscript mostly in Paris’s hand, with Paris’s illustrations. The translation is richly served by Margaret Lamont and Thomas O’Donnell’s translation of Paris’s Latin source and by essays by Christopher Baswell and Patricia Quinn. Edition is La Vie de seint Auban, edited by Arthur Robert Harden (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1968).
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Saints’ Lives in Eastern Settings
  322.  
  323. As in other types of writing, stories from the East held a fascination for medieval people, and not just in England. Crusaders brought back their impressions, fueling interest, and no doubt fear, in the minds of those back home. The Life of St. Alexis (Odenkirchen 1978) combines the advocacy of ascetism with love for Eastern themes. Roman or other persecution of Christians was a frequent theme: The Life of St. Lawrence (Burgess and Wogan-Browne 1996b), The Life of St. Catherine [of Alexandria] by Clemence of Barking (Burgess and Wogan-Browne 1996a), the Set dormanz (Merrilees 1977), or the Vie de St. Georges (Matzke 1909). Wace’s St. Margaret (Keller 1990) is the daughter of a pagan priest who persecutes her for converting to Christianity.
  324.  
  325. Burgess, Glyn, and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, eds. and trans. “The Life of St. Catherine [of Alexandria] by Clemence of Barking.” In Virgin Lives and Holy Deaths: Two Exemplary Biographies for Anglo-Norman Women. Edited by Glyn Burgess and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne. London: Everyman, 1996a.
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  327. A life of Catherine, who defeated the “learned clerks” in debate, written by a nun named Clemence, at Barking Abbey. The only known biography of a medieval woman composed by another medieval woman, living in Britain. Edition is The Life of St. Catherine, by Clemence of Barking, edited by William MacBain (Oxford: Blackwell, for ANTS, 1964). See also the Electronic Campsey Project website.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Burgess, Glyn, and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, eds. and trans. “The Life of St. Lawrence.” In Virgin Lives and Holy Deaths: Two Exemplary Biographies for Anglo-Norman Women. Edited by Glyn Burgess and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne. London: Everyman, 1996b.
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  331. Earliest known Old French rhymed life of St. Lawrence, patron of the poor who was tortured and killed by the Romans. Commissioned by a nun or unmarried laywoman who probably lived in St. Lawrence parish. Edition is La vie de saint Laurent: An Anglo-Norman Poem of the Twelfth Century, edited by D. W. Russell (London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1976).
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Keller, H. E., ed. Wace, La Vie de Sainte Marguerite. Tübingen, Germany: M. Niemeyer, 1990.
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  335. Wace, author of the Brut (see under Verse Histories), also wrote saints’ lives. St. Margaret of Antioch is sought in marriage by a Roman official named Olibrius, who beseeches her to abjure her Christian faith. When she refuses to do so, she is decapitated. First modern edition by E. A. Francis (Paris: Edouard Champion, 1932).
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Matzke, John E., ed. “La Vie de Saint Georges.” In Les Oeuvres de Simund de Freine. Edited by John E. Matzke, 61–117. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1909.
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  339. Author of works in Latin and in French, canon of Hereford Cathedral and admirer of Gerald of Wales, Simund wrote several lives of saints, including, in addition to St. George, who was persecuted by the Roman emperor, St. Edmund, St. Francis of Assisi, and St. Modwenna. He also translated or adapted Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy, entitled Roman de Philosophie. The title translates as “Life of St. George in collected works of Simund de Freine.”
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Merrilees, Brian S., ed. La Vie des Set Dormanz. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1977.
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  343. Chardri’s charming Life of the Seven Sleepers deals with seven young Christian men of Ephesus who escaped to a cave to avoid persection by the Roman emperor. In the cave they fell asleep and awoke in safety several centuries later.
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  345. Odenkirchen, Carl J., ed. and trans. Vie de saint Alexis. Brookline, MA: Classical Folio Editions, 1978.
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  347. Edition is of poem in the Hildesheim manuscript, part of the St. Albans Psalter, thought to have been made c. 1120 for Christina of Markyate, then an anchoress. Also translated in Medieval Hagiography: An Anthology, edited by Thomas Head (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 317–340. For ms. illustrations and much helpful explanation and commentary, see the St Albans Psalter Project.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Saints’ Lives in Collections
  350.  
  351. For some of the most important and best-known lives, see the Campsey Manuscript, a collection owned by the female Augustinian convent of Campsey in the 14th century. Readers may consult full online texts of some of the lives it contains, many of which are available at Anglo-Norman Source Texts. For editions of the lives by the Nun of Barking, Matthew Paris, Marie’s life of St. Audree, Guernes de Pont-Sainte-Maxence’s life of Becket, and the lives of Modwenna and Osith, see Saints’ Lives in Insular Settings.
  352.  
  353. Campsey Manuscript. The Electronic Campsey Project. London: British Library Additional 70513.
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  355. This collection of saints’ lives, once mealtime reading for the nuns of Campsey Abbey, Suffolk, and containing three texts by female authors, includes work by Nicole Bozon, Guernes de Pont-Ste-Maxence, Guillaume le Clerc de Normandie, a nun of Barking, Matthew Paris, the nun Marie, Simon of Walsingham, Pierre d’Abernon of Fetcham, Clemence of Barking, and two others. It is the only known medieval collection consisting exclusively of rhymed saints’ lives in French.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Historiography
  358.  
  359. In this group are works variously titled Chronique (chronicle), Estoire (history), Geste (deeds), or Roman (romance), all listed by Dean under Historiography, a practice followed here, except for the division into five subcategories: Genealogical Literature, Historical Documents, Verse Histories, Verse Accounts of Contemporary Events, and Prose Histories.
  360.  
  361. Genealogical Literature
  362.  
  363. Although the Mohun Chronicle (Spence 2011), presumably a family chronicle and dedicated to Joan de Mohun, is extant in only a defective copy, what remains may suggest something of the contours of the entire work. The Chaworth Roll (Bovey 2005) is an exquisitely illustrated example of genealogical rolls figuring as popular history.
  364.  
  365. Bovey, Alixe, ed. The Chaworth Roll: A Fourteenth-Century Genealogy of the Kings of England. London: Sam Fogg, 2005.
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  367. The roll features dramatic mini-biographies of kings written in the French of England. This edition offers some passages transcribed from the Roll and translated into English. Not in Dean 1999 (cited under Guides and Manuals).
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Spence, John. “The Mohun Chronicle: An Introduction, Edition and Translation.” Nottingham Medieval Studies 55 (2011): 149–215.
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  371. The Mohun Chronicle (once known as the Red Book) was probably written by Walter de la Hove, abbot of Newenham, for Joan de Mohun. All that remains is the introduction, consisting of a rapid world history, plus some material from Brut (see under Verse Histories).
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Historical Documents
  374.  
  375. Many of these can be located through the online bibliography of the Medieval Studies Program of Fordham University and in the Internet Medieval Source Book. See also Holt 1974 (cited under Law).
  376.  
  377. Internet Medieval Source Book.
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  379. Founded at Fordham University by Paul Halsall, this medieval website is among the most frequently used of its kind in the world. The associated Source Book provides full texts or translations for a wide range of items.
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  381. Medieval Studies Program of Fordham University.
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  383. Well-designed online bibliography pointing to titles in social, political, and economic history of the European Middle Ages.
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  385. Prose Histories
  386.  
  387. Prose historiography appeared after verse histories and prompted the translation from verse into prose as well as original prose compositions. The Brut listed here (Marvin 2006) dates from the end of the 13th century and continues the tradition of Arthurian legendary history. The Anonimalle Chronicle (Childs and Taylor 1991) and the Croniques de London (Aungier 1844) are records of contemporary events.
  388.  
  389. Aungier, George James, ed., Croniques de London. Camden Society 28. London: J. B. Nichols, 1844.
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  391. Prose chronicle centered on but not restricted to London 1259–1343. Entries are made by year and often provide a fair amount of narrative. A more recent but unpublished edition appears in David C. Cox, “A Study of the French Chronicle of London,” PhD thesis, University of London, 1971.
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  393. Childs, Wendy R., and John Taylor, eds. The Anonimalle Chronicle, 1307–1334. Leeds, UK: Yorkshire Archaeological Society, 1991.
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  395. The “Anonymous” Chronicle is a valuable account in French prose of early-14th-century English history, including the reigns of Edward I and Edward II and the English incursions into Scotland. From Brotherton Collection MS 29, available at ANTS.
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  397. Marvin, Julia, ed. and trans. The Oldest Anglo-Norman Prose “Brut” Chronicle: An Edition and Translation. Medieval Chronicles 4. Woodbridge, UK, and Rochester, NY: Boydell, 2006.
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  399. Important first modern edition of the Anglo-Norman prose Brut, dated to the end of the 13th century and surviving in more than fifty manuscripts. Brut was the most widely circulated Arthurian text. (See Dean 1999, cited under Guides and Manuals, for different versions of Brut.) The Anglo-Norman Brut continued to be copied into the 14th and 15th centuries. (See Verse Histories for the Brut in verse.)
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Verse Histories
  402.  
  403. Verse was the principal vehicle for accounts of all kinds composed in the vernacular, especially in the earlier medieval centuries. The 12th century saw an explosion of histories designed to enhance Norman legitimacy and the luster of the French-speaking Anglo-Norman aristocracy; Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis (Short 2009), Wace’s Roman de Brut and Roman de Rou (Burgess and van Houts 2004), and Benoit’s Chronique des Ducs de Normandie (Fahlin 1951) are examples. In many manuscripts of the Brut, a tale of Britain’s founding by the Trojan Brutus, a prequel appears called Des Grantz Geanz (Brereton 1937), an account of the even earlier founding of Britain by the exiled daughters of a Greek king. Prophecies such as those of Merlin (Blacker 2005) also figured as a type of historical narrative. Ambroise’s Histoire de la Guerre Sainte (Ailes and Barber 2003) is an eyewitness composition.
  404.  
  405. Ailes, Marianne, and Malcolm Barber, eds. and trans. The History of the Holy War: Ambroise’s Estoire de la Guerre Sainte. Woodbridge, UK, and Rochester, NY: Boydell, 2003.
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  407. An account in octosyllables of the Third Crusade, finished before 1196 by a jongleur who accompanied Richard Lionheart. Anglo-Norman version is not complete.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Blacker, Jean, ed. and trans. Anglo-Norman Verse Prophecies of Merlin. Dallas: Scriptorium, 2005.
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  411. When Wace wrote his Roman de Brut, he omitted Merlin’s Prophecies. More than Continental or insular English-language readers, however, Anglo-Norman readers delighted in the Prophecies. Volume contains an edition from Durham, Cathedral Chapter Library MS C.IV.27 and edition of Lincoln, Cathedral Chapter Library MS 104. English translation.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Brereton, Georgine E., ed. Des Grantz Geanz: An Anglo-Norman Poem. Medium Aevum Monographs 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937.
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  415. The invented title obscures the heart of this anonymous tale: that Britain was founded by Albina and her sisters, later routed by Brutus to found Britain. The story is a prologue to Wace’s Brut in more than fifteen manuscripts and was composed variously in octosyllables, alexandrines, and prose. Lesley Johnson’s “Return to Albion,” Arthurian Literature 13 (1995): 19–40, is an essential introduction. The title translates as “About the great giants.”
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Burgess, Glyn S., and Elisabeth van Houts, eds. and trans. The History of the Norman People: Wace’s Roman de Rou. Rochester, NY: Boydell, 2004.
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  419. History of the Norman dukes, composed sporadically from 1160 to 1174, and designed to show the legitimacy of the Plantagenets. Originally published as Le Roman de Rou de Wace, 3 vols., edited by A. J. Holden (Paris: Société des Anciens Textes Français, 1970–1973).
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Fahlin, Carin, ed. Chronique des Ducs de Normandie par Benoît. Vol. 1. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksells, 1951.
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  423. Lengthy (44,544 octosyllables) but unfinished work, written toward the end of King Henry II’s reign, and under his patronage; continued in Vol. 2 (1954), Vol. 3’s Glossary edited by Östen Södergård (1967), and Vol. 4’s Notes by Sven Sandqvist (Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Ludensis, 1979). Translation from two other histories of the dukes of Normandy, composed in Latin by Dudo of St. Quentin and William of Jumièges. The title translates as “Chronicle of the dukes of Normandy by Benoît [de Sainte-Maure].”
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Short, Ian, ed. and trans. Geffrei Gaimar, Estoire des Engleis: History of the English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  427. Composed 1136–1137, Gaimar’s is the oldest surviving historiographic work in the French vernacular and the earliest rhymed French chronicle. Adapted for a secular public, the Estoire des Engleis is a reminder that provincial courts, especially in the 12th century, were places of literary production. Earlier edition by A. Bell in ANTS is based on a less satisfactory manuscript.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. Wace’s Roman de Brut: A History of the British. Exeter, UK: Exeter University Press, 1999.
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  431. The Jerseyman known simply as Wace completed his history, based largely on Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britannie (History of the kings of England) in 1155. Reprint of Ivor Arnold, Le Roman de Brut, 2 vols. (Paris: Société des Anciens Textes Français, 1938, 1940), with some revisions. Complete translation.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Verse Accounts of Contemporary Events
  434.  
  435. Many accounts of contemporary events were initially cast in the same meter and rhyme as more traditional historical ones; verse would have been both expected and prestigious. Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle (Johnston 1981), for example, has attracted attention not only for its account of the Scottish incursions into England but also for its fine writing and innovative prosody. William Marshal (Holden 2002–2006), arguably among the greatest medieval heroes, is the subject of a biography done in the popular octosyllable. The Deeds of the Normans in Ireland (Mullally 2002) and Langtoft’s Reign of Edward I (Thiolier 1989) remain valuable witnesses to the events they describe poetically.
  436.  
  437. Holden, A. J., ed. History of William Marshal. 3 vols. Edited by A. J. Holden; translated by S. Gregory; historical notes by D. Crouch. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 2002–2006.
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  439. Valuable primary source for the role Marshal played in service to the Young King, then to kings Henry II, Richard, John, and Henry III (though not to Stephen, since Marshal had supported the rival claimant, Matilda). Marshal’s extraordinary career culminated in the defeat of Louis, son of the French king, and the securing of the kingdom for Henry III.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Johnston, R. C., ed. and trans. Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle. Oxford: Clarendon, 1981.
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  443. Treats events of 1173–1174, most reliably the Scottish invasions in northern England, less reliably the fighting in northern France and in England, and unreliably the earl of Leicester’s incursions into East Anglia. Facing-page English translation.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Mullally, Evelyn, ed. and trans. The Deeds of the Normans in Ireland: La geste des Engleis en Yrelande (formerly known as The Song of Dermot and the Earl). Dublin: Four Courts, 2002.
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  447. Important account of the beginnings of the English occupation of Ireland: Richard fitz Gilbert (Strongbow) came to Ireland to support the exiled king of Leinster and was followed by Henry II. Survives, in fragmentary form, in only one manuscript, and complements the better-known Latin account, Expugnatio Hibernica, by Gerald of Wales.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Thiolier, Jean Claude, ed. Pierre de Langtoft, Le règne d’Edouard Ier. Vol. 1. Créteil, France: Centre d’études littéraires et iconographiques du Moyen âge, University of Paris XII, 1989.
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  451. Part 3 of a chronicle of England by Langtoft, canon of Bridlington (Yorkshire), especially valuable because the author lived during Edward’s reign. Introduction discusses Langtoft’s place in the tradition of Anglo-Norman historiography. Complete chronicle (Part 1: legendary history of Britain from Brutus’s arrival; Part 2: reigns of Anglo-Saxon and Norman kings to King Henry III) last edited by Thomas Wright (London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, 1866). The title translates as “Peter of Langtoft, the reign of Edward I.”
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  453. Language and Language Teaching
  454.  
  455. Although continuing until late in the medieval period as the maternal tongue of royalty and some members of the aristocracy, Anglo-Norman early ceased to be the vernacular of insular nobility in general. Nonetheless, its prestige as a literary language and its use in other key spheres of English life encouraged its acquisition as a second language, sometimes to a level of great proficiency. Books of instruction date from the middle to the end of the 13th century and can be found as late as the 15th century: examples are Le Tretiz (Rothwell 2009), Liber Donati (Merrilees and Sitz-Fitzpatrick 1993), and Manières de langage (Kristol 1995). Hunt 1991 shows the importance of French and English glosses to the teaching of Latin. The relationship between French and English during this period has been a perennial topic for speculation and is treated again in Kibbee 1991.
  456.  
  457. Hunt, Tony. Teaching and Learning Latin in 13th-Century England. 3 vols. Woodbridge, UK: Brewer, 1991.
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  459. Impressive and much-needed collection of materials designed to encourage modern scholars to study the French and English glossing of Latin texts. Vol. 1, texts; Vol. 2, glosses; Vol. 3, indexes.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Kibbee, Douglas. For To Speke French Trewely: The French Language in England, 1000–1600, Its Status, Description and Instruction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1991.
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  463. Exploration of French in England, divided into five periods, each examined for official and unofficial uses of French, its speakers, and the teaching of French. Argues that the use of French as a vernacular after the Conquest was less significant than has been otherwise proposed.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Kristol, A. M., ed. Manières de Langage (1396, 1399, 1415). London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1995.
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  467. Heterogeneous lessons in French, from the basic formulas for greetings, asking for news and/or information, how to ask the way or the time, to managing insults, speaking to a lady, and paying court. Author is an Englishman who perfected his French on the Continent. Available through ANTS.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Merrilees, B., and B. Sitz-Fitzpatrick, eds. Liber Donati: A Fifteenth-Century Manual of French. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993.
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  471. The title reference to Donatus, a 4th-century grammarian who wrote in Latin, is not to be taken at face value: it serves only to indicate that this is a work of introductory grammar. Contains a section on the grammar of French followed by sample dialogues in French.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Rothwell, William, ed. Walter de Bibbesworth, Le Tretiz, from MS G (Cambridge University Library G.g. 1.1) and MS T (Trinity College, Cambridge 0.2.21), Together with Two Anglo-French Poems in Praise of Women (British Library, MS Additional 46919). Aberystwyth, UK: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 2009.
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  475. A treatise from the end of the 13th century composed for Dionysia of Merchensy to use in teaching French to her daughter. Numerous glosses in English. Although an earlier (book format) edition is also by William Rothwell (London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1990), the 2009 electronic version seeks to provide improved lexicographic information to the reader. Very important comments about Bibbesworth’s French appear on pp. 95–96. Available at the Anglo-Norman Online Hub.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Law
  478.  
  479. The use of French in courts of law in England and then to record proceedings was a principal factor in the survival of Anglo-Norman into the later Middle Ages in England and beyond. The Leis Willelme (Otaka 1993) is the oldest surviving example (except for the Strasbourg Oaths) of a juridical text in French. The earliest document of political importance known in the vernacular is the French translation of Magna Carta (Holt 1974). The Old French (Löfstedt 1992) version of Gratian’s Decretum may have a link with Thomas Becket.
  480.  
  481. Holt, J. C. “A Vernacular Text of Magna Carta, 1215.” English Historical Review 89 (1974): 346–364.
  482. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/LXXXIX.CCCLI.346Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A French version of the original Latin document, produced for dissemination in Hampshire. Article contains, in addition to the text, a full introductory discussion. For laws (mostly) in English before 1215, see the Early English Laws website.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Löfstedt, Leena, ed. Gratiani Decretum: La traduction en ancien français du Décret de Gratien. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 95. Helsinki: Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1992.
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  487. Continued in Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 99 (1993), 105 (1996), 110 (1997), and 117 (2001). This French version of Gratian’s Decretum, a collection of canon law composed in Latin, may have been translated by Thomas Becket, or by a team under his direction, during his years of exile in France (1164–1170).
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Otaka, Yorio. “Sur la langue des Leis Willelme.” In Anglo-Norman Anniversary Essays. Edited by Ian Short, 293–308. Anglo-Norman Text Society Occasional Publications Series 2. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993.
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  491. The William in question is William the Conqueror, and the text dates from the second half of the 12th century. This contribution contains an edition, brief introduction, and concordance. See also F. Liebermann, ed., Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Vol. 1 (Halle, Germany: M. Niemeyer, 1903–1916), pp. 488–489.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Literature
  494.  
  495. While the chanson de geste developed most vigorously on the Continent, there are notable insular witnesses to its popularity in England, including the best extant manuscript of the Chanson de Roland (Song of Roland), written in Anglo-Norman. The literature of entertainment includes Marie de France’s canonical Lais, which survive in an Anglo-Norman orthography. The romance, with which Marie’s Lais have thematic similarities, gave rise to insular interpretations of Continental courtly romance and the creation of baronial romance. Anglo-Norman was also a vehicle for lyric poetry.
  496.  
  497. Chanson de Geste
  498.  
  499. Nearly all the chansons de geste listed by Dean 1999 (cited under Guides and Manuals) are insular redactions of Continental versions, with accounts from the Charlemagne Cycle outnumbering others. Two of the most important French medieval epics, however—the Song of Roland and La Chanson de Guillaume—are known to us today in Anglo-Norman manuscripts. The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition (Brault 1978) is an authoritative resource for teaching and research, while The Song of Roland: Student Edition (Brault 1984) is a pared-down, user-friendly text that presents the core information students need. The Turpin of the Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle (Short 1973) is a pseudonym for its author, who borrowed the name from the Chanson de Roland for his translation into Anglo-Norman of two important Latin stories of Charlemagne.
  500.  
  501. Brault, Gerard J., ed. The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition. 2 vols. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978.
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  503. Canonical epic telling the story of Charlemagne’s campaign in Spain and the death of his fictitious nephew Roland. Brault’s editing has been controversial; while refusing to correct manuscript readings that others agree are impossible, Brault has in other places emended the poem without a note or rejected reading. Vol. 1, Introduction and Commentary. Vol. 2, Oxford Text and English Translation. Translation by Glyn S. Burgess in The Song of Roland (London and New York: Penguin, 1990).
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Brault, Gerard J., ed. and trans. La Chanson de Roland: Student Edition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1984.
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  507. Better for advanced undergraduate use than the two-volume Analytical Edition. Contains the text in Old French as idiosyncratically edited by Brault (see annotation of Brault 1978), facing-page translation into English, and a generous, useful introduction.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. McMillan, Duncan, ed. La Chanson de Guillaume. 2 vols. Paris: Société des Anciens Textes Français, 1949–1950.
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  511. The only surviving manuscript of the Chanson de Guillaume is in fact in Anglo-Norman. Evidence that at least one chanson de geste from the important Continental William Cycle circulated in Britain. The title translates as “The song of William.”
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Short, Ian, ed. The Anglo-Norman Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle of William de Briane. Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1973.
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  515. Translation into Anglo-Norman of the Historia Karoli Magna et Rotholandi (History of Charlemagne and Roland), made during 1214–1216 by Willem de Briane, as requested by Alice de Curcy and her husband, Warin fitz Gerold. The author of the Historia assumed the name Archbishop Turpin, a fictitious character in the Song of Roland (see Brault 1978).
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Literature of Entertainment
  518.  
  519. The Lais of Marie de France, short courtly tales about love between a man and a woman who is often married, are central to the French literary canon. Marie’s highly valued Fables (Brucker 1998) are based on Aesop. Short and Pearcy 2000 draws attention to fabliaux in Anglo-Norman and offers a revised definition of the fabliau.
  520.  
  521. Brucker, Charles, ed. and trans. Marie de France: Les Fables. Paris and Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 1998.
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  523. Complete scholarly edition, with translation into modern French; replaces K. Warnke’s 1898 edition (Halle, Germany: Niemeyer). See also The Fables of Marie de France, edited and translated beautifully into iambic tetrameters by Harriet Spiegel, Toronto Medieval Texts and Translations 5 (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1987); and Yorio Otaka, ed., Marie de France: Oeuvre complète (Tokyo: Maison d’édition Kazama, 1994), with an introduction on Marie’s language.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Marie de France. The Lais of Marie de France. 2d ed. Translated by Keith Busby and Glyn Burgess. London: Penguin, 1999.
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  527. Collected courtly tales by Marie, a Frenchwoman residing in England and writing in a Continental dialect. Translated from Alfred Ewert’s 1944 edition (Oxford: Blackwell), with two further lais in Old French. The Lais have been edited and translated many times.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Short, Ian, and Roy Pearcy, eds. Eighteen Anglo-Norman Fabliaux. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 2000.
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  531. Pointing out that the fabliau has been undervalued, most often because it eluded definition, and that Anglo-Norman fabliaux in particular have suffered from invidious comparison with their Continental sources, the editors offer a new definition of the humorous tales, as well as a presentation that gives full value to the collection. Available online from ANTS.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Lyric
  534.  
  535. The French of England is generally not seen as a vehicle for lyric poetry, a perspective that Jeffrey and Levy 1990 aims to alter in the Anglo-Norman Lyric. Yeager 2011, an edition of John Gower’s French balades, provides updated access to two major poetic sequences in Anglo-Norman. Gessler 1934 offers the complete lyric poetry of the Maniere de langage, not all of which appears in Kristol’s edition.
  536.  
  537. Gessler, Jean, ed. La Maniere de langage. Brussels: L’Edition universelle, 1934.
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  539. Edition of all the poems in Manieres de langage, a teaching manual edited by A. Kristol for ANTS (see Kristol 1995, cited under Language and Language Teaching) that contains a selection only of the poems.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Jeffrey, David L., and Brian J. Levy, eds. and trans. The Anglo-Norman Lyric: An Anthology. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1990.
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  543. This first-of-its-kind collection recognizes that Anglo-Norman lyric is equal to the finest poetry produced in medieval England. Themes are varied, although of the fifty-two poems here, the first twenty-six are devotional and liturgical, the next thirteen are homiletic. The final thirteen treat social and domestic matters and love and friendship. Most are anonymous, but a few were written by Nicholas Bozon (see Smith and Meyer 1889, cited under Devotional and Homiletic Literature) and Pierre d’Abernun de Fetcham.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Yeager, R. F., ed. and trans. John Gower: The French Balades. Kalamazoo, MI: TEAMS/Medieval Institute Press, 2011.
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  547. A new edition and translation of the fifty-four poems in Gower’s Cinkante balades (Fifty ballads) and the eighteen in his Traitié pour essampler les amantz marietz (Exposition of examples for married lovers) on good and bad marriages. Yeager suggests that both give evidence of having been the earliest deliberately created poetic sequences.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Courtly Romance
  550.  
  551. Romances catered to a taste for stories centered on individuals and their journey toward personal fulfillment. The Continental courtly romance was popular for having depicted heterosexual love and the male lover in particular as following a prescribed behavior in his courtship of the lady. But some insular romances, such as Ipomédon (Holden 1979), mocked courtly literary conventions, while others (Thomas’s Tristan, Gregory 1991) expressed doubts about the value of a liaison that could lead only to death. The Tristan legend appeared in other, less tragic versions than Thomas’s, however, and was popular as a story of “return,” that is, of yet another attempt by Tristan to be alone with Iseut. Two such Folies Tristan (Tristan’s Madness) exist: the “Berne” version is Continental, while the “Oxford” Folie is Anglo-Norman (Weiss 2009). Amis and Amilun (Weiss 2009), a story of friendship between men, tests the integrity of the two friends and is in that way a romance of individual development. Fergus of Galloway (Guillaume le Clerc 1991) is yet another reference to Continental romance, this time specifically to the romances of Chrétien de Troyes, the famous Continental author.
  552.  
  553. Gregory, Stewart, trans. Tristran. Garland Library of Medieval Literature 78. New York and London: Garland, 1991.
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  555. The Anglo-Norman story of Tristan and Iseut (second half of the 12th century, perhaps c. 1260), far more somber than Béroul’s mostly amusing Continental version, emphasizes the risky love between the young lovers, with its tragic irreconcilables. Only the beginning and the end of Thomas’s version remain today.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Guillaume le Clerc. Fergus of Galloway, Knight of King Arthur. Translated by D. D. R. Owen. London: J. M. Dent, 1991.
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  559. A 13th-century Arthurian romance set in Scotland. Edition is Guillaume le Clerc, The Romance of Fergus (probably not Guillaume le Clerc de Normandie; see Campsey Manuscript, cited under Saints’ Lives in Collections), edited by Wilson Frescoln (Philadelphia: W.H. Allen, 1983).
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Holden, A. J., ed. Ipomedon: Poème de Hue de Rotelande, fin du XIIe siècle. Paris: Klincksieck, 1979.
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  563. An adventure narrative in verse that parodies certain conventions of the courtly romance. Draws (perhaps indirectly) on the French romances of Antiquity, such as the Romance of Thebes, the Romance of Troy, and the Romance of Eneas. See also Protheslaus, by the same author and a sequel to Ipomédon; Protheslaus is Ipomedon’s youngest son; edited by A. J. Holden (ANTS online). The title translates as “Ipomedon: A poem by Hue of Rotelande, end of the 12th century.”
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  565. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. The Birth of Romance in England: The Romance of Horn, The Folie Tristan, The Lai of Haveloc, and Amis and Amilun. French of England Translation Series 4, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 344. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2009.
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  567. The Folie Tristan is a further episode in Tristan narratives, while Amis is an Anglo-Norman story of male friendship. Both are available at ANTS). See Baronial Romance for Horn and Haveloc.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Baronial Romance
  570.  
  571. Whereas Continental romance tended to feature royal or aristocratic protagonists, a group of romances composed in Anglo-Norman and original to its culture explored values cherished by the English barony. Until fairly recently, modern scholarship has tended to undervalue these baronial romances, but the work of Judith Weiss and others has made them more accessible and better appreciated. As a group, baronial romances develop the theme of the hero’s wrongful disinheritance, his recapture of his lands, and the prestige of ownership; their designation by earlier scholarship as “ancestral romances” is no longer accepted. The superb Romance of Horn (Weiss 2009a), written for descendants of barons who had come to England with William the Conqueror, is among the more significant Anglo-Norman literary achievements. Le Lai d’Haveloc (Weiss 2009b) situates a story of land lost and regained in East Anglia, where Danish groups are known to have settled as early as 500 CE. The romances of Boeve de Haumtone and Gui de Warewic (Weiss 2008a, Weiss 2008b) adopt the Eastern settings especially popular as a result of the Crusades. Fouke le Fitz Waryn (Burgess 1997) puts its hero at odds with King John (1199–1216), the monarch who was historically forced to grant the Magna Carta after the baronial revolt. The hero of the Roman de Waldef (Holden 1984) is based on the historic Waltheof, earl of Northumbria, envisaged as a resister to Norman power.
  572.  
  573. Burgess, Glyn, ed. and trans. “Fouke le Fitz Waryn.” In Two Medieval Outlaws: Eustace the Monk and Fouke Fitz Waryn. Edited by Glyn Burgess. Cambridge, UK and Rochester, NY: D. S. Brewer, 1997.
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  575. A 14th-century prosification of a 13th-century verse romance about the Fitz Waryn family and the outlaw adventures of Fouke III, caused by a rupture between the hero and King John. Edition is Fouke le Fitz Waryn, edited by E. J. Hathaway, P. T. Ricketts, C. A. Robson, and A. D. Wilshere (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1975).
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Holden, A. J., ed. Le Roman de Waldef (Cod. Bodmer 168). Bibliotheca Bodmeriana, Textes 5. Cologny-Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Martin Bodmer, 1984.
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  579. Anonymous verse romance in more than 22,000 verses, focused on East Anglia, composed in the very early 13th century and claiming a pre-Conquest source. It may have had a connection with the Abbey of Crowland, given that the historical prototype of its hero, Waltheof, protected the abbey. Extant in one manuscript only. The title translates as “The romance of Waldef.”
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. Boeve de Haumtone. In Boeve de Haumtone and Gui de Warewic: Two Anglo-Norman Romances. Edited by Judith Weiss. French of England Translation Series 3, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 332. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2008a.
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  583. Sold to Saracen merchants by his mother, Boeve begins a life of adventure lived mostly in the Middle East, a narrative influenced by the early Crusades and by other literature on that theme. Edition is Der Anglonormannische Boeve de Haumtone, edited by Albert Stimmung (Halle, Germany: Bibliotheca Normannica, 1899).
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. “Gui de Warewic.” In Boeve de Haumtone and Gui de Warewic: Two Anglo-Norman Romances. Edited by Judith Weiss. French of England Translation Series 3, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 332. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2008b.
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  587. Gui goes from the tournament life to life as a wandering mercenary; it is his son, not Gui himself, who finally returns to England to claim his land. The story was immensely popular, and Anglo-Norman versions of it continued to circulate even after Middle English versions appeared. Edition is Gui de Warewic, edited by Alfred Ewert, 2 vols. (Paris: Champion, 1933).
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. “Thomas: Romance of Horn.” In The Birth of Romance in England. Edited by Judith Weiss, 45–137. French of England Translation Series 4, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 344. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2009a.
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  591. Horn foregrounds thematic and structural repetition, hence generational succession. Horn successfully avenges his father’s murder, which furnishes a linear plot, but Horn’s life also echoes his father’s. At poem’s end, Horn’s son Hadermod is to continue Horn’s work, while Thomas’s own son Gilimot will recount Hadermod’s story. Edition is The Romance of Horn, by Thomas, edited by Mildred K. Pope (Oxford: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1955) available online.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Weiss, Judith, ed. and trans. “Le Lai d’Haveloc.” In The Birth of Romance in England. Edited by Judith Weiss, 155–169. French of England Translation Series 4, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies 344. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2009b.
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  595. Composed c. 1200 in a French dialect, this brief octosyllabic poem draws on the Havelok episode in Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis (see Historiography). Havelok is a dispossessed Danish prince who succeeds in getting back his land and that of his wife. Edition is Le Lai d’Haveloc and Gaimar’s Haveloc Episode, edited by Alexander Bell (London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1925).
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Medicine
  598.  
  599. Anglo-Norman medical texts afford an appreciation of vernacular lexicology, the history of science in England, and the French culture of England generally. A debt is owed to Tony Hunt in particular for making numerous medical texts available in modern editions, such as Hunt 1994–1997, Hunt 1990, and Hunt 1993. These titles are but a sampling; for fuller listings, see their notes and bibliographies.
  600.  
  601. Hunt, Tony. “Anglo-Norman Medical Receipts.” In Anglo-Norman Anniversary Essays. Edited by Ian Short, 179–234. Occasional Publications 2. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993.
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  603. Medical receipts from various manuscripts, again with glossary. For botanical names, readers are directed to Hunt’s Plant Names of Medieval England (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
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  605. Hunt, Tony, ed. Popular Medicine in Thirteenth-Century England. Cambridge, UK, and Wolfeboro, NH: D. S. Brewer, 1990.
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  607. An extraordinary volume containing a generous introduction followed by a collection of receipts and charms, the “Lettre d’Hippocrate,” the Physique Rimée (Versified receipts), an Anglo-Irish collection, and gleanings from several manuscripts. Closes on the antidotarium, a more complex form of the receipt. Clearly demonstrates the free intermixing of Latin, French, and English.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Hunt, Tony, ed. Anglo-Norman Medicine. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1994–1997.
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  611. Vol 1. contains Roger Frugard’s Chirurgia and the Practica Brevis of Platearius; Vol. 2 (Shorter Treatises) “Visiting the Sick,” “Trotula,” Euperiston (14th-century medical texts), and the Trinity “Practica” (mixed French and Latin). Full introductions in all cases; glossaries designed for readers with little to no knowledge of Anglo-Norman or Old French.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Travel
  614.  
  615. Modern students of the Middle Ages may think of it as a period when travel would have been discouraged by difficulties and dangers, a view quite often supported by medieval literary texts anxious to dramatize their subject. In fact, medieval Westerners showed great curiosity about other places and peoples, and many traveled eagerly. The legendary voyage of St. Brendan (Burgess 2002) is among the earliest examples of a sea voyage, while Mandeville’s Travels (Deluz 2000) is assuredly among the most popular travel accounts of the medieval period.
  616.  
  617. Burgess, Glyn, trans. “The Anglo-Norman Version.” In The Voyage of Saint Brendan: Representative Versions of the Legend in English Translation. Edited by W. R. J. Barron and Glyn S. Burgess, 65–73. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2002.
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  619. Legendary voyage of the Irish monk Brendan, in an account important as one of the earliest datable French poems of the 12th century. Based on Celtic material and written for one of the wives of King Henry I (either Matilda or Adeliza). Edition is The Anglo-Norman Voyage of St. Brendan, edited by Ian Short and Brian Merrilees (Manchester, UK: Manchester Univesity Press, 1979). Available through ANTS.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Deluz, Christiane, ed. Jean de Mandeville: Le Livre des Merveilles du Monde. Paris: CNRS, 2000.
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  623. Popular, fanciful travel book. Chaucer and the Cleanness author used the Anglo-Norman version (although modern English translations are uniformly based on various Middle English manuscript texts.) Earliest extant version may have been written in insular French, as Michael Bennett argues in “Mandeville’s Travels and the Anglo-French Moment,” Medium Aevum 75 (2006): 273–292. The title translates as “The book of the wonders of the world; Mandeville’s travels.”
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Recent Approaches in Scholarship
  626.  
  627. Apart from a handful of excellent researchers who have devoted their careers to Anglo-Norman, the field has been understudied, bracketed off from mainstream medieval English literary and cultural studies, in which insular French literature has not been recognized as English literature. For their part, Continental French scholars, with few exceptions, have missed an opportunity to examine medieval francophonie. Newer scholarship, however, indebted equally to earlier seminal studies and to the efflorescence of modern editions over the past several decades, is grounded in the cultural trilingualism of medieval England.
  628.  
  629. Art History
  630.  
  631. Few works of art have intrigued both scholars and general educated readers more than the tapestry now in Bayeux, in northern France, that narrates the Norman conquest of England in visual form. The CD-ROM The Bayeux Tapestry (Foys 2003) is a state-of-the-art introduction to the tapestry. Binski 1995 and Binski 2004 are brilliant volumes that study their iconic subjects through the lens of (especially royal) cultures and personalities. Just as the Plantagenets were both patrons and consumers of durable works of art, so the English aristocracy sought its own objets, for which wealthy women were often the patrons.
  632.  
  633. Binski, Paul. Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets: Kingship and the Representation of Power, 1200–1400. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995.
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  635. Excellent, authoritative study of Henry III’s patronage of the visual arts.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Binski, Paul. Becket’s Crown: Art and Imagination in Gothic England, 1170–1300. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press for Paul Mellon Center for Studies in British Art, 2004.
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  639. A brilliant, eclectic study of themes in 13th-century English art, as these are embedded in cultural layers.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Foys, Martin K., ed. The Bayeux Tapestry. CD-ROM. Leicester, UK: Scholarly Digital Editions, 2003.
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  643. One could not hope for a better or more accessible introduction to the multiple aspects of this late-11th-century tapestry, which depicts people and events in and around the Norman invasion of England. Identifies scenes, people, and objects; provides historical background and commentary featuring the various scholarly views that have informed study of this work of art.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Book and Manuscript Studies
  646.  
  647. Under the series title Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles, four foundational volumes are relevant to French of England studies: Kauffmann 1975, Morgan 1982, Sandler 1986, and Scott 1996. Two further volumes deal with the period before 1066, making a series of six, under the general editorship of J. J. G. Alexander. Joslin and Watson 2001 represents an attempt to come to grips with a work about which very little is known with certainty. Essays in Morgan and Thomson 2008 provide a thorough education on three hundred years of book production in England.
  648.  
  649. Joslin, Mary Coker, and Carolyn Coker Joslin Watson, eds. and trans. The Egerton Genesis. British Library Studies in Medieval Culture. London: British Library, 2001.
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  651. Study with transcription and translation of this illustrated Bible story with picture captions in the French of England. The Egerton Genesis has proven a challenge; for a statement of the problems, see the review by Lucy Freeman Sandler, Speculum 78 (2003): 912–916.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Kauffmann, C. M. Romanesque Manuscripts, 1066–1190. Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles 3. London: Harvey Miller, 1975.
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  655. An introductory essay is followed by a catalogue of manuscripts, plates, and indices. Now more than thirty-five years old, the volume remains foundational for art historians and medievalists, not least for its reproduction of a generous number of manuscript illustrations.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Morgan, Nigel. Early Gothic Manuscripts. 2 vols. Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles. New York: Oxford, 1982.
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  659. Both volumes (Vol. 1, 1190–1250; Vol. 2, 1250–1285) devoted to this period of ambitious book production contain illustrations accompanied by Morgan’s characteristically detailed and penetrating commentaries. Introductions discuss conditions affecting book production in the 13th century.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Morgan, Nigel, and Rodney M. Thomson, eds. Cambridge History of the Book in Britain. Vol. 2, 1100–1400. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  662. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521782180Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. Twenty important articles by recognized experts covering a vast area. Those more directly relevant to French of England studies include Thomson and Morgan, “Language and Literacy,” pp. 22–40; Nigel Ramsay, “Law,” pp. 250–290; and Tony Hunt’s “Vernacular Literature and Its Readership,” pp. 367–379.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Sandler, Lucy. Gothic Manuscripts, 1285–1385. 2 vols. Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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  667. Sandler’s contribution to the series divides manuscripts according to their styles. Arrangement of volumes here is somewhat different from that of other volumes: Vol. 1, Text and Illustrations, contains the introduction and plates, while Vol. 2, Catalogue, offers the catalogue of manuscripts.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Scott, Kathleen L. Later Gothic Manuscripts, 1390–1490. 2 vols. Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles. London: Harvey Miller, 1996.
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  671. Final publication in the series. Vol. 1 provides text and illustrations; Vol. 2 contains catalogue and indexes.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Chronicles and Genealogies
  674.  
  675. Medieval chronicles and genealogies, like medieval histories and certain romances, were a means of shaping family, regnal, and national historical identities through awareness of a group’s cohesiveness and importance. Genealogies especially sometimes served to legitimate the claims of the present by invoking the glories of the past. Gillingham 1997 regrets that little use has been made by modern scholars of Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis. Le Saux 2005 is a well-organized and clearly written introduction to Wace. Radulescu and Kennedy 2008 provides a volume whose essays make clear the significance of Anglo-Norman genealogical literature. Spence 2008 considers the English medieval public for Anglo-Norman chronicles in prose.
  676.  
  677. Gillingham, John. “Kingship, Chivalry and Love: Political and Cultural Values in the Earliest History Written in French: Geoffrey Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis.” In Anglo-Norman Political Culture and the Twelfth-Century Renaissance: Proceedings of the Borchard Conference on Anglo-Norman History, 1995. Edited by C. Warren Hollister, 33–58. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1997.
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  679. Asks why Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis is not treated more seriously, taking as an example Gaimar’s account of Rufus (King William II), which Gaimar wrote as an alternative to the ecclesiastical account of Rufus’s reign. See also Short 2009 (cited under Verse Histories).
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Le Saux, Françoise. A Companion to Wace. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2005.
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  683. Recounts what is known about Wace’s life and career, and surveys his religious writing (two saints’ lives and the Conception Nostre Dame; see Apocryphal Literature), and his historiography: the Roman de Brut and Roman de Rou.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Radulescu, Raluca L., and Edward Donald Kennedy, eds. Broken Lines: Genealogical Literature in Medieval Britain and France. Medieval Texts and Cultures of Northern Europe 16. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2008.
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  687. Collected essays. See, in particular, Radulescu on genealogy in Insular romance, pp. 7–26; Olivier de Laborderie, genealogical rolls of the kings of England, pp. 45–62; John Spence, genealogies of noble families in Anglo-Norman, pp. 63–122; and Julia Marvin on lineage in the Prose Brut, pp. 205–220.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Spence, John. “Anglo-Norman Prose Chronicles and Their Audiences.” In Regional Manuscripts, 1200–1700. Edited by A. S. G. Edwards, 27–59. English Manuscript Studies, 1100–1700, 14. London: British Library, 2008.
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  691. Readers were avid for histories, especially of England, but manuscripts freely mixed historical and non-historical material. Anglo-Norman was the language of authority, even though Middle English literature was already flourishing.
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  693. Hagiography
  694.  
  695. Although somewhat understudied in the past, the centrality of saints’ lives in England, in Anglo-Norman, has begun to receive the scholarly attention it merits. Campbell 2008 offers a theoretically informed discussion of saints’ lives. Kay 2001 views Marian miracles through a Lacanian lens and sees their similarities to the courtly writing of Marie de France. Laurent 1998 offers a comprehensive treatment of the narrative structure and rhetoric of a group of Anglo-Norman saints’ lives. Watson and Wogan-Browne 2004 disputes Tolkien’s use of Ancrene Wisse as the keystone of English-language purity and continuity. Wogan-Browne 2001 links English women’s predilection for saints’ lives in Anglo-Norman with a long and multifaceted meditation on the uses of virginity.
  696.  
  697. Campbell, Emma. Medieval Saints’ Lives: The Gift, Kinship and Community in Old French Hagiography. Woodbridge, UK, and Rochester, NY: D. S. Brewer, 2008.
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  699. Analyzes the social and sexual importance of saints’ lives and their unique creation of connections and communities.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Kay, Sarah. Courtly Contradictions: The Emergence of the Literary Object in the Twelfth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
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  703. Chapter 5, “The Virgin and the Lady: The Abject and the Object in Adgar’s Gracial and the Lais Attributed to Marie de France,” is a reading by one of the foremost medievalist practitioners of Lacanian analysis. It treats an important collection of the Virgin Mary’s miracles, seen in tandem with Marie de France’s courtly narrative poems.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Laurent, Françoise. Plaire et édifier: Les Récits hagiographiques composés en Angleterre aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles. Paris: Honoré Champion, 1998.
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  707. With special emphasis on the Vie de Saint Gilles by Guillaume de Berneville, which Laurent later published in a bilingual (Anglo-Norman and modern French) edition (Paris: Champion, 2003). The title translates as “To please and edify: Hagiographical stories composed in England in the 12th and 13th centuries.”
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Watson, Nicholas, and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne. “The French of England: The Compileison, Ancrene Wisse, and the Idea of Anglo-Norman.” Journal of Romance Studies 4.2 (2004): 35–59.
  710. DOI: 10.3167/147335304782106619Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Argues that between Lateran IV and the purported efflorescence of English-language devotional and didactic literature in the later 14th century, it is the substantial corpus of writing in French that forms the chief language of vernacular pastoralia. Traces the evolution of Ancrene Wisse into a large French Compileison.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Wogan-Browne, Jocelyn. Saints’ Lives and Women’s Literary Culture: Virginity and Its Authorizations, c. 1550–1500. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  715. Among works in Anglo-Norman commissioned by, dedicated to, owned, read, or written by women, saints’ lives were by far the most numerous. This deeply informative monograph shapes the field.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. History
  718.  
  719. French of England studies centers on linguistic, literary, and cultural matters primarily, while nonetheless recognizing that no hard and fast boundaries can be set between those areas and studies in history, whether political, social, economic, or other. The titles cited here furnish useful introductions to their subjects. Aurell 2007 contributes to the debate about the rise and brief life of Henry II’s empire. Bartlett 2000 and Carpenter 2003 cover a great deal of ground in compelling fashion. Clanchy 1998 and Gillingham 2001 are excellent introductions. Thomas 2003 is an up-to-date consideration of one of the most intriguing aspects of the Norman presence in England, the matter of personal and community identity. In a different vein, Chibnall 1999 surveys the intellectual and historical afterlife of the Conquest. Williams 1995 discusses the trauma in England caused by the Conquest.
  720.  
  721. Aurell, Martin. The Plantagenet Empire, 1154–1224. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education, 2007.
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  723. A deeply interesting discussion of the “Plantagenêt zone,” a “conglomeration of kingdoms, duchies, marches, counties and viscounties,” ruled over by Henry II from 1154, an empire inherited and ruled over by his son Richard I, then lost in 1204 by Henry’s second son John. Fluid, engaging translation by David Crouch from L’Empire des Plantagenêt 1154–1224 (Paris: Perrin, 2003).
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Bartlett, Robert. England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225. The New Oxford History of England. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000.
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  727. Comprehensive, thematically organized study that covers both the traditional political, economic, and administrative history of England as well as newer areas of research.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Carpenter, David. The Struggle for Mastery: Britain, 1066–1284. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  731. Informative and immensely readable introduction to the history and cultures of England over two formative centuries. No footnotes; annotated bibliographies for each chapter.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Chibnall, Marjorie. The Debate on the Norman Conquest. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1999.
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  735. A brief but wide-ranging survey of historians’ changing views on the Conquest and its effects. Chapters cover the Middle Ages up to the end of the 20th century.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Clanchy, M. T. England and Its Rulers, 1066–1272. 2d ed. Blackwell Classic Histories of England. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1998.
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  739. In addition to providing a concise overview of its announced subject, this classic discusses political and social institutions, the system of law, religious figures and the church, literature, patrons, and more. With an epilogue on Edward I (1272–1307).
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Gillingham, John. The Angevin Empire. 2d ed. London: Arnold, 2001.
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  743. Revised and expanded over 1st ed., published in 1984. Admirable brief introduction to the period extending from 1144 through the reign of King John and England’s territorial losses on the continent. Asks compelling questions. “Further Reading” concentrates on Angevin holdings outside England.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Thomas, Hugh M. The English and the Normans: Ethnic Hostility, Assimilation, and Identity, 1066–c. 1220. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  747. As interesting for its method as for its conclusions, Thomas’s book complicates the matter of “identity,” insisting on it as process, not stasis. Many elements contributed to the disappearance of cultural Normanitas in England. Thomas cautions against assuming that medievals understood ethnicity, assimilation, and related concepts in ways more attuned to our own understandings.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Williams, Ann. The English and the Norman Conquest. Woodbridge, UK, and Rochester, NY: Boydell, 1995.
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  751. The Conquest affected institutions in England profoundly, particularly the system of land tenure, and it caused upheavals in the English aristocracy and clergy.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Government Men
  754.  
  755. Turner’s now classic monograph (Turner 1988), examining the rise to power and influence of men from non-noble backgrounds, complements other cultural studies (e.g., Clanchy 1993, cited in Monographs and Articles) that show the increasing importance of literacy in medieval England. Vincent 2007 gives a perceptive portrait of Henry II’s court by looking at the shaping effect of individuals and personalities.
  756.  
  757. Turner, Ralph V. Men Raised from the Dust: Administrative Service and Upward Mobility in Angevin England. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
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  759. Original in conception, Turner’s book sets out to show, through six case histories, the changing character and preparation of the men chosen as royal officials. Contributing to the change was the newly valued role of literacy and education, particularly by the late 12th century.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Vincent, Nicholas. “The Court of Henry II.” Paper presented at a conference held at the University of East Anglia, September 2004. In Henry II: New Interpretations. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill and Nicholas Vincent, 278–334. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2007.
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  763. Fascinating observations about the men who surrounded Henry, about the king himself, and about the self-conscious ambitions of the court.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Women’s History
  766.  
  767. Women as well as men participated in the expansion and retention of Norman power in England, but that has sometimes been underappreciated in modern scholarship. Marriages between Norman men and English women, for example, as examined in Clark 1978 and Searle 1981, certainly affected the course of Norman history in England. Women did not lose status after the Conquest, as Stafford 1994 shows.
  768.  
  769. Clark, Cecily. “Women’s Names in Post-Conquest England: Observations and Speculations.” Speculum 53 (1978): 223–251.
  770. DOI: 10.2307/2853397Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. An early, important article observing that aristocratic men from the Continent who came to England after the Conquest (women from the Continent were scarce) often married English-speaking women. Their children must have known some English, given their mothers’ maternal language, not to mention that of nannies and other servants.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Searle, Eleanor. “Women and the Legitimization of Succession at the Norman Conquest.” In Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies, III, 1980. Edited by R. Allen Brown, 159–170, 226–229. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1981.
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  775. Argues, among other interesting points, that pursuant to the Conquest, marriage to Anglo-Saxon women was a means of producing children with legitimate claims to their grandfathers’ and fathers’ holdings as well as a way of maintaining a check on the ambitions of rival males.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Stafford, Pauline. “Women and the Norman Conquest.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser., 4 (1994): 221–249.
  778. DOI: 10.2307/3679222Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. It has been argued that women suffered a decline in status and power as a result of the Conquest. Stafford examines the evidence of both Anglo-Saxon and post-Conquest women’s lives to correct that misapprehension.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. On the Writing of History
  782.  
  783. The recording of history in the French vernacular in England, begun earlier than on the Continent, presents an endlessly interesting corpus that is crucial to appreciating the multifaceted political aspirations of English nobility and aristocracy after the Conquest. Ashe 2007 contributes a stimulating view of cultural and literary transformation and of the particularity of English literature. Blacker 1994 is a comparative study of eight 12th-century histories, divided between Latin and French. Damian-Grint 1999 argues that 12th-century vernacular historians had a unified vision of their task and a sure sense of its value. Given-Wilson 2004 and Gransden 1974 deal primarily with history writing in Latin but contain some material of interest to French of England studies. Laurent 2010 reevaluates Benoît de Ste Maure. Warren 2000 is an original analysis of “boundary writing.”
  784.  
  785. Ashe, Laura. Fiction and History in England, 1066–1200. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Joining the debate about English identity during the 12th century, Ashe examines, among others, the Bayeux Tapestry, Roman de Rou, Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle, the Roman d’Eneas, and the Romance of Horn.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Blacker, Jean. The Faces of Time: Portrayal of the Past in Old French and Latin Historical Narrative of the Anglo-Norman Regnum. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
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  791. French verse accounts examined are Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis, Wace’s Roman de Rou and Roman de Brut, and Benoît de Sainte-Maure’s Chronique des ducs de Normandie. Blacker looks at the perceived role of the historian, characterization, and social function of the histories.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Damian-Grint, Peter. The New Historians of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1999.
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  795. Pays particular attention to the ways writers established the authority of their histories. Prologues and epilogues are examined for writers’ own declarations of purpose.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Given-Wilson, Chris. Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England. London and New York: Hambledon and London, 2004.
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  799. Concentrates on Latin writing, but the chapter “Language, Form and Identity” will be of interest to French of England studies scholars.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Gransden, Antonia. Historical Writing in England, c. 550 to 1307. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974.
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  803. Concentrates on Latin writings but discusses in passing some important French works, such as Ambroise’s Estoire de la guerre sainte (History of the Holy War), Guernes de Pont-Sainte-Maxence’s Vie de Thomas Becket (Life of Thomas Becket), the Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal (History of William Marshal), Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle, and Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis (History of the English).
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Laurent, Françoise. Pour Dieu et pour le roi: Rhétorique et idéologie dans l’Histoire des ducs de Normandie de Benoît de Sainte-Maure. Paris: Champion, 2010.
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  807. A comprehensive study of an underappreciated work. Sets out to show that Benoît was much more than the simple compiler modern criticism has elected to see in him. An ample bibliography adds to the value of the discussion. The title translates as “For God and for king: Rhetoric and ideology in the history of the dukes of Normandy by Benoît de Sainte-Maure.”
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Warren, Michelle R. History on the Edge: Excalibur and the Borders of Britain, 1100–1300. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.
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  811. Ingeniously exploits the contradictions and ambivalences of real and cognitive edges and boundaries in the medieval making of history and literature.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Language and Linguistics
  814.  
  815. The example of medieval England offers a rich linguistic opportunity to study contact languages and their effects on one another. Gregory and Trotter 1997 and Trotter 2000 are useful essay collections, and Trotter 1996 is an important discussion of lexical “borrowing.” Ingham, in addition to editing an essay collection (Ingham 2010), has published a number of article-length linguistic studies of the French of England, with an emphasis on their electronic accessibility (see his website, Sources for Researching Anglo-Norman). His Anglo-Norman Correspondence Corpus is a valuable resource. See also the articles by William Rothwell under Law French, The Ends of French in England, Dictionaries and Specialized Glossaries, and Guides and Manuals.
  816.  
  817. Anglo-Norman Correspondence Corpus.
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  819. About eighty personal letters in French by ecclesiastical writers, from the late 13th to century to the mid-14th. This collection has been assembled for the use of linguists studying characteristics of Anglo-Norman that more closely resemble everyday, non-literary discourse.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Gregory, Stewart, and D. A. Trotter, eds. De mot en mot: Aspects of Medieval Linguistics: Essays in Honour of William Rothwell. Cardiff: University of Wales Press with Modern Humanities Research Association, 1997.
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  823. Broad collection of fifteen articles, some written in French, by leading scholars in their fields, many relevant to French of England studies.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Ingham, Richard, ed. The Anglo-Norman Language and Its Contexts. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2010.
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  827. Representative of the most recent directions in the study of the French languages of England. Twelve essays by diverse hands on a variety of theoretical, philological, and cultural issues. Useful demonstrations of method, materials, and approaches.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Ingham, Richard. Sources for Researching Anglo-Norman.
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  831. This website contains three brief essays: “Sources for Researching Anglo-Norman,” which constitutes a useful orientation to those beginning research; “Noun Gender Marking in Insular French Legal Texts”; and “The Transmission of French in Medieval England.”
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Trotter, David. “Language Contact and Lexicography: The Case of Anglo-Norman.” In The Origins and Development of Emigrant Languages: Proceedings from the Second Rasmus Rask Colloquium, Odense University, November 1994. Edited by Hans R. Nielsen and Lene Schøsler, 21–39. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1996.
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  835. An important and forceful discussion of lexical borrowing, mostly from Middle English into Anglo-Norman and from Anglo-Norman into English, but also from Latin. Users of these languages tended to recur to what was available, without necessarily seeing linguistic boundaries; nor was such “lexical hybridization” restricted to specialized registers.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Trotter, D. A., ed. Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2000.
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  839. Thirteen essays maintaining a steady focus on the effects of multilingualism and language contact in medieval England. The introduction argues against modern scholarship’s frequent monoglot approach to the medieval culture of England, including that of literary criticism.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Law French
  842.  
  843. Studies in the French language of law in medieval England continue to address questions about the dating of various usages and the definitions of terms used. Brand 2000 is an excellent recent examination of French use among branches and types of law in later medieval England, whereas Hyams 2010 sheds light on French in common law formation; Hyams 1983 is a reading with both juridical and cultural implications of two central literary trial scenes; Rothwell 1992 argues for better contextualization in modern studies of law French in medieval England.
  844.  
  845. Brand, Paul. “The Languages of the Law in Later Medieval England.” In Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Edited by David A. Trotter, 63–76. Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2000.
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  847. Argues that Anglo-Norman was used in pleading in royal courts, in county and city courts, and in the records of such pleading, which were then used to teach law students. Treats different languages in the legal system.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Hyams, Paul. “Henry II and Ganelon.” Syracuse Scholar 4 (1983): 23–35.
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  851. Hyams, a scholar of 12th- and 13th-century English law, provides valuable readings of the trial of Ganelon in the Chanson de Roland and that of Lanval in Marie de France’s Lai de Lanval, showing, among other things, the importance to knightly culture of forensic debate. Article concludes that a “common law” probably did not exist in Henry II’s time.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Hyams, Paul. “Thinking English Law in French: The Angevins and the Common Law.” In Feud, Violence and Practice: Essays in Medieval Studies in Honor of Stephen D. White. Edited by Belle S. Tuten and Tracey L. Billado, 175–196. Farnham, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. Studies selected French lexical items used in the earlier period of common law formation, concluding that French elements in the culture of the medieval English law court were more numerous than modern scholarship has realized.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Rothwell, William. “The Problem of Law French.” French Studies 46 (1992): 257–271.
  858. DOI: 10.1093/fs/46.3.257Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Argues that in order to reach more precise definitions of law French, we must see it in its historical semantic context, where its lexicon, not bracketed off from daily use, was a usual part of the language understood by those literate in French.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Social History of French in Medieval England
  862.  
  863. Burnley 1986 studies curial French in an article that remains relevant. Campbell 2010 looks at some teaching manuals used in the later period of the French phenomenon in England. Lewis 1995 makes clear that the French language did not arrive in England with the Conquest but was already flourishing before 1066, at Edward the Confessor’s court. Lusignan 2004 addresses the royal pedigree of Anglo-Norman as an important factor in its survival, and Short 1996 examines an issue that continues to capture the modern imagination: bilingual and thus bicultural identity (see also Thomas 2003, cited under History).
  864.  
  865. Burnley, J. D. “Curial Prose in England.” Speculum 61.3 (1986): 593–614.
  866. DOI: 10.2307/2851597Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. Very interesting survey of “curial style” in French—characterized by its drive toward textual cohesion, precision, and clarity—in the Rolls of Parliament. Explores what happens when the style is transferred from French into English in the early 15th century.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Campbell, Kimberlee. “Speaking the Other: Constructing Frenchness in Medieval England.” In French Global: A New Approach to Literary History. Edited by Christie McDonald and Susan Rubin Suleiman, 179–192. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.
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  871. Brief survey of “Frenchness” in England (oddly construed as “other”). Discussion of teaching manuals. In spite of the title and stated intention of the collection as a whole, articles on medieval topics in this collection seem unaware of the enormous Norman contribution to medieval “French Global.”
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Lewis, C. P. “The French in England before the Norman Conquest.” In Anglo-Norman Studies, XVII: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1994. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill, 123–144. Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1995.
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  875. Describes the court of Edward the Confessor, who was raised in Normandy, as fundamentally “cosmopolitan,” with a “French element,” and finds evidence as well for a French presence among the urban élite and rural landowners—not surprising considering the constant search for new land by nobles, and not just in England.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Lusignan, Serge. La Langue des rois au Moyen Âge: Le Français en France et en Angleterre. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004.
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  879. Lusignan’s work is essential reading. This study explores the prestige of Anglo-Norman in England, which encouraged its use in law and gave to English, once a thoroughly Germanic language, a markedly French vocabulary and orthography. See also Lusignan’s Parler vulgairement: Les Intellectuels et la langue française aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles, 2d ed. (Montreal: Presses de l’Université de Montreal, 1987).
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Short, Ian. “Tam Angli quam Franci: Self-Definition in Anglo-Norman England.” In Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill, 153–175. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1996.
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  883. Important exploration of the changing labels by which the Conqueror’s descendants referred to themselves as they moved gradually toward an insular identification and distanced themselves from Continental French.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. The Ends of French in England
  886.  
  887. One of the central topics for medievalists studying England in the Middle Ages has been the approximate date at which French yielded to English, and some have described the process as the “conquest” of English over French. Dodd 2011, however, shows that there was no sudden “triumph of English,” and as we now know, French was used varyingly by different classes and professional groups in England, declining at varying rates in different spheres. Looking at maritime commerce, for example, Kowaleski 2009 suggests that French endured as a language of the sea. Ormrod 2003 urges caution about the implications of the Statute of Pleading of 1362. Rothwell 1976 elucidates the spheres in which French was used in English, and Rothwell 1993 argues against supposing its demise in the mid-14th century. In Kristol 1989 the “polycentrism of norms” for written French, though approaching the French of England from a wider perspective, has important implications for Anglo-Norman.
  888.  
  889. Dodd, Gwilym. “The Rise of English, the Decline of French: Supplications to the English Crown, c. 1420–1450.” Speculum 86 (2011): 117–150.
  890. DOI: 10.1017/S0038713410003507Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Examines that portion of “Crown records” containing either French or English supplications from the king’s subjects for what they reveal about the two languages’ positions relative to each other at this very late period in the use of French in England. Dodd’s conclusion emphasizes that the ultimate shift to English was not the result of an exclusionary patriotism.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Kowaleski, Maryanne. “The French of England: A Maritime lingua franca?” In Language and Culture in Medieval Britain: The French of England, c. 1100–c. 1500. Edited by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, et al., 103–117. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2009.
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  895. With French the language of maritime law and of some port-town records, it is plausible that English sailors and shipmasters knew enough French to facilitate communication with speakers of other languages. Kowaleski persuasively argues that French could reasonably have been a practical argot shared along the Atlantic littoral.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Kristol, Andres. “Le Début du rayonnement parisien et l’unité du français au Moyen Âge: Le Témoignage des manuels d’enseignement du français écrits en Angleterre entre le XIIIe et le début du XVe siècle.” Revue de linguistique romane 53 (1989): 335–367.
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  899. Compelling study of Anglo-Norman teaching manuals, classified into four types—glossaries, treatises on orthography, collections of model letters, and conversation manuals—finding that no notion of French-language unity can be applied before the very end of the 14th century. For a long time the norm for written French was “polycentric.” The title translates as “The beginning of Parisian influence and the unity of French in the Middle Ages: Evidence from manuals of instruction in French, written in England, between the 13th century and the beginning of the 15th.”
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Ormrod, Mark. “The Use of English: Language, Law, and Political Culture in Fourteenth-Century England.” Speculum 78 (2003): 750–787.
  902. DOI: 10.1017/S0038713400131537Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  903. A very important discussion of the uses of English and French in late medieval England. Taking the Statute of Pleading of 1362 as a point of departure, the author examines the limits of its implementation, cautioning against any rush to assume that English became the language of written record as early as the second half of the 14th century.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Rothwell, William. “The Role of French in Thirteenth-Century England.” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 58 (1976): 445–466.
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  907. An early elucidation of the spheres of insular French usage: not a vernacular for all, rather an acquired language for some, French was by the 13th century not only an official language on a par with Latin, but also a language of culture and education generally, the vehicle for scientific and philosophic material, as well as for storytelling of many varieties.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Rothwell, William. “The ‘Faus Franceis d’Angleterre’: Later Anglo-Norman.” In Anglo-Norman Anniversary Essays. Edited by Ian Short, 309–326. ANTS Occasional Publications 2. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993.
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  911. Influential article arguing that far from being in decline after the mid-13th century, French was the principal language for recording English life, law (including marine), and in government and administration. The Oxford English Dictionary has in the past ignored the Anglo-Norman origins of many English words. See also Rothwell, “English and French in England after 1362,” English Studies 6 (2001): 539–559.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Literary Studies
  914.  
  915. By all accounts, the 12th-century literary flowering, especially but not only during the reign of Henry II, was extraordinary; Short, in two complementary articles written almost twenty years apart (Short 1992, Short 2007), seeks to account for its success. Amer 1999, studying Marie de France’s Fables, posits that a wider ethnicity informs its creation than has been supposed. Kinoshita 2006 approaches some canonical 12th-century texts in the vein of “postcolonial medievalism.” Two collections of essays published within a year of each other testify to continuing fascination with Henrician culture: Harper-Bill and Vincent 2007 (which contains Short 2007) deals with a heterogenous group of topics (see Essay Collections), and Kennedy and Meecham-Jones 2006 concentrates on writers alone. Hanna 2005 takes an integrated, synchronic approach to an eighty-year period of writing in London.
  916.  
  917. Amer, Sahar. Esope au féminin: Marie de France et la politique de l’interculturalité. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1999.
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  919. Argues for Marie de France’s acquaintance with the Arabic tradition of Aesop’s Fables and, in turn, for a more extensive European and English interculturality than is usually admitted.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Hanna, Ralph. London Literature, 1300–1380. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  922. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511483318Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. A study of writing in London: Latin, Middle English, Anglo-Norman; romance, law, history, and biblical literature. See especially chapter 4, “Pepys 2498, Anglo-Norman Audiences and London Biblical Texts,” and chapter 5, on the Chandos Herald’s Vie du Prince Noir.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Kennedy, Ruth, and Simon Meecham-Jones, eds. Writers of the Reign of Henry II: Twelve Essays. New York: Palgrave, 2006.
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  927. Essays on French, Latin, and English writing. Of special interest for French of England studies are J. Gillingham on history, legend, and courtesy at Henry’s court; E. van Houts, French and Latin as “languages of the past”; F. Le Saux, Marie de France; L. Ashe, the death of Tristan; J. Weiss, the Arthurian biography; R. Field, 12th-century Anglo-Norman romance. Excellent introduction by S. Meecham-Jones.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Kinoshita, Sharon. Medieval Boundaries: Rethinking Difference in Old French Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
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  931. An innovative study of literature from the period 1150–1225, a time of growing religious and political compartmentalization. Six previously published essays with added final chapter, introduction, and conclusion. Contains chapters on Chanson de Roland and Marie de France.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Short, Ian. “Patrons and Polyglots: French Literature in Twelfth-Century England.” In Anglo-Norman Studies XIV. Edited by Marjorie Chibnall, 229–249. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1992.
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  935. Essential reading for its rich demonstration of insular literary production in French (many “firsts”) in England’s multilingual environment.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Short, Ian. “Literary Culture at the Court of Henry II.” Paper presented at a conference held at the University of East Anglia, September 2004. In Henry II: New Interpretations. Edited by Christopher Harper-Bill and Nicholas Vincent, 335–361. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2007.
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  939. Describes the unique and innovative character of Henry II’s court, arguing that its openness to oral tradition, in the midst of its flourishing written culture, and its ethnic richness (English, Norman, and Celtic) contributed to its originality.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Arthurian
  942.  
  943. The relative dearth of Arthurian texts in the Anglo-Norman literary corpus of Britain has been surprising. But Continental Arthurian stories and manuscripts did make their way there, as Busby 1993 and Middleton 2003 have shown, where they were well appreciated. Schmolke-Hasselmann 1998 is a fundamentally important discussion of Arthurian literature and England.
  944.  
  945. Busby, Keith. “The Text of Chrétien’s Perceval in MS London, College of Arms, Arundel XIX.” In Anglo-Norman Anniversary Essays. Edited by Ian Short, 75–85. Anglo-Norman Text Society Occasional Publications Series 2. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993.
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  947. Study of this unique Anglo-Norman rendering of Perceval, which would have appeared in the original codex with works of British history (for example, Wace’s Brut, Gaimar’s Estoire des Engleis, and Langtoft’s Chronicle) reveals, in Busby’s view, that Arthurian romance was accepted as British history.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Middleton, Roger. “Manuscripts of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle in England and Wales: Some Books and Their Owners.” In A Companion to the Lancelot-Grail Cycle. Edited by Carol Dover, 218–235. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2003.
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  951. Traces history of manuscripts of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle now in England or Wales: of forty extant, six are likely to have been written in England in the Middle Ages, and nine more show signs of having been in England then. They have marginal entries in English or French, were utilitarian in nature, and were read with careful attention.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Schmolke-Hasselmann, Beate. The Evolution of Arthurian Romance: The Verse Tradition from Chrétien to Froissart. Translated by Margaret Middleton and Roger Middleton; foreword by Keith Busby. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  954. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139166492Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. Useful for its thinking about Arthurian literature in general, but essential to French of England studies for its survey, in Part 2, of the impact of Arthurian verse romances. See especially chapter 9, “Arthurian Literature in French and Its Significance for England,” pp. 282–294; Busby’s foreword should not be missed. German original, Der arturische Versroman von Chrestien bis Froissart (Tübingen, West Germany: Max Niemeyer, 1980).
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Romance
  958.  
  959. Medieval England saw the creation of a unique group of romances that transmit baronial values rather than royal or courtly ones, but earlier critical readings of them tended to be negative and dismissive. Crane’s groundbreaking reassessment (Crane 1986) was followed by the perceptive studies of Rosalind Field (Field 1991, Field 1999) and Field’s co-editing, with Alison Wiggins, of an essay collection focused on the Guy of Warwick narratives (Wiggins and Field 2007). Continental romances, such as the romans d’antiquité, were not taken up in England in great numbers, but Baswell 2002 shows that the French Eneas was known in late medieval England. Stein 2006 investigates a literary and social phenomenon: the appearance of new forms of writing in the 12th century. Otter 1991 elucidates the importance of “gaainable tere.”
  960.  
  961. Baswell, Christopher. “Aeneas in 1381.” In New Medieval Literatures V. Edited by Rita Copeland, David Lawton, and Wendy Scase, 7–58. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  963. The Eneas, a translation into Old French of Virgil’s Aeneid, was among the earliest romances written on the Continent, those known as the romans d’antiquité, based on the “Matter of Rome.” Although they seem to have had a far smaller audience in England than did Continental courtly romances, Baswell shows that Eneas was used for political ends.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Crane, Susan. Insular Romance: Politics, Faith, and Culture in Anglo-Norman and Middle English Literature. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
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  967. An approach to Anglo-Norman romance that redirected scholarly effort away from invidious aesthetic comparisons with Continental romance toward more open assessment of how romance in England reformulates itself to represent insular values and experience(s), sometimes in marked opposition to the ethos of Continental romance. Crane observes that almost all the Anglo-Norman romances reappeared in Middle English.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Field, Rosalind. “Romance as History, History as Romance.” In Romance in Medieval England. Edited by Maldwyn Mills, Jennifer Fellows, and Carol Meale, 163–173. Cambridge, UK, and Rochester, NY: D. S. Brewer, 1991.
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  971. Underlines the “conscious historicity” that characterizes much French romance of medieval England, its “chronicle realism” allowing for the portrayal of suffering, especially in war, in a way that makes it far different from courtly romance.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Field, Rosalind. “Romance in England, 1066–1400.” In The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Edited by David Wallace, 152–176. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  974. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521444200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. Excellent survey of the types of the romance written in French in England and their audiences. Links French romance with the beginnings of Middle English romance in the 13th century and the “new” interest in Arthurian stories.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Otter, Monika. “‘Gaainable Tere’: Symbolic Appropriation of Space and Time in Geoffrey of Monmouth and Vernacular History Writing.” In Discovering New Worlds: Essays on Medieval Exploration and Imagination. Edited by Scott D. Westrem, 157–177. New York: Garland, 1991.
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  979. The phrase “gaainable tere” is taken from Denis Piramus, Vie de seint Edmund le rei, although the theme itself was first developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It refers variously to arable land, land available to be conquered, or desirable, coveted land. Article discusses Fouke Fitz Waryn (see Baronial Romance).
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Stein, Robert M. Reality Fictions: Romance, History, and Governmental Authority, 1025–1180. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006.
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  983. Explores the simultaneous growth of historiography and romance and their link to state formation. A sophisticated study which will interest all medievalists in literature, but Chapter 2, “Narrating the English Nation after 1066,” will be of particular interest to French of England studies, not least for its comments on the figure of Earl Waltheof (see the Roman de Waldef, under Baronial Romance).
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Wiggins, Alison, and Rosalind Field, eds. Guy of Warwick: Icon and Ancestor. Studies in Medieval Romance. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2007.
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  987. An essay collection recognizing the importance to the romance genre in England of Guy of Warwick narratives. Four essays are devoted to the Anglo-Norman Gui de Warewic: Judith Weiss on Gui as a European hero; Marianne Ailes on the manuscript context; Ivana Djordevic on translating Gui de Warewic into Middle English; and Rosalind Field on resemblances between the Anglo-Norman and English versions as germane to the development of popular romance in England.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Theater
  990.  
  991. In the article mentioned here (Symes 2011) and in other of her writings, Carol Symes revivifies the study of medieval theater, questioning the assumptions and conclusions of previous scholarship and offering original observations.
  992.  
  993. Symes, Carol. “The Medieval Archive and the History of Theatre: Assessing the Written and Unwritten Evidence for Premodern Performance.” Theatre Survey 52 (2011): 29–58.
  994. DOI: 10.1017/S0040557411000056Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. Starting with the observation that the extant medieval dramatic text poses the special problem of understanding the relationship between it and actual performance, Symes proceeds to sort out the variables and, in the process, maps out a new approach to medieval drama studies. Comments on the Seinte Resureccion (see under Drama and Performance), among others.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Versification
  998.  
  999. The poetic feet of English prosody are characterized by alternating stress patterns, whereas the French poetic line is determined by number of syllables, not stress. The syllable count of French poetry written in medieval England, however, is flexible, perhaps under the influence of English stress. Understanding the pattern being followed has challenged modern interpretation. Duffell 2005, Johnston 1981, and Pensom 2006 all make useful observations and proposals.
  1000.  
  1001. Duffell, Martin J. “Some Phonological Features of Insular French: A Reconstruction.” In Studies on Ibero-Romance Linguistics dedicated to Ralph Penny. Edited by Roger Wright and Peter Ricketts, 103–125. Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 2005.
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  1003. Interesting proposal that the meter of Anglo-Norman poems composed in approximate octosyllabic verse is the four-ictic dolnik, well suited to a language that, under the influence of English, had strong word stress, variable deletion of word-final schwa, and stress timing.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Johnston, R. C. “Introduction.” In Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle. Edited and translated by R. C. Johnston. Oxford: Clarendon, 1981.
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  1007. Johnston’s detailed treatment of Fantosme’s innovations is informed by years of acquaintance with the Chronicle; see pp. xxiii–xxxviii for meter. See also his bibliography to this edition and his earlier study, The Versification of Jordan Fantosme (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974).
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Pensom, Roger. “Pour la versification anglo-normande.” Romania 124 (2006): 50–65.
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  1011. Using a comparison between two texts with apparently widely differing versification practices, copied at different periods and in geographically distant places, Pensom shows that their scribes nonetheless had a common metrical pattern in mind for constructing their verses.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Medical Knowledge
  1014.  
  1015. As the number of primary source documents suggests (see under Medicine), vernacular access to available medical knowledge was of considerable importance. Kealey 1981 points to a relatively enlightened healthcare practice in Anglo-Norman England. Green 2009 sees a southern Italian influence on women’s patronage of Anglo-Norman works on gynecology and cosmetics.
  1016.  
  1017. Green, Monica. “Salerno-on-the-Thames: The Genesis of Anglo-Norman Medical Literature.” In Language and Culture in Medieval Britain: The French of England, c. 1100–c. 1500. Edited by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, 220–231. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2009.
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  1019. Conjectures that women in England, aware that gynecological and cosmetic writings were being produced in southern Italy, were patrons of Anglo-Norman texts on those subjects. Along the way, article sees fascinating implications in Anglo-Saxon precedents and in the multilingualism of medieval Britain.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Kealey, Edward J. Medieval Medicus: A Social History of Anglo-Norman Medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
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  1023. An overview of 12th-century medicine in England, arguing that expanded healthcare was one of the century’s important accomplishments. Discusses health practitioners, including court physicians, and institutional care of the ill. Contains a directory of physicians and a register of hospitals.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Women’s Influence and Patronage
  1026.  
  1027. Wealthy Englishwomen, often owners of land in their own right, enjoyed a level of agency that, until recently, has gone unremarked. Their patronage of the literary object speaks to the roles they played in furthering high culture and in supporting producers of its objects: authors, scribes, and illustrators, among others, were no doubt indebted to female patrons, as visual artists generally would also have been. The intellectual life of Anglo-Saxon convents was arguably both incentive and model to Anglo-Norman literary culture.
  1028.  
  1029. Women, Books, and Patronage
  1030.  
  1031. English women of means owned books in French (Blacker 1997)—not infrequently, attractive illustrated manuscripts (Bennett 1990, Smith 2003)—and commissioned or otherwise encouraged literary creation, especially of biblical, devotional, and hagiographical material, and this was true into the 15th century (Meale 1996). Krueger 2005 is a much-cited study of medieval women readers and literary representations of women and includes discussion of some Anglo-Norman texts.
  1032.  
  1033. Bennett, Adelaide. “A Book Designed for a Noblewoman: An Illustrated Manuel des Péchés of the Thirteenth Century.” In Medieval Book Production: Assessing the Evidence; Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Seminar in the History of the Book to 1500, Oxford, July 1988. Edited by Linda L. Brownrigg, 163–181. Los Altos Hills, CA: Anderson-Lovelace, 1990.
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  1035. The Manuel des Péchés, a penitential treatise in verse composed c. 1260, survives in twenty-seven manuscripts, of which only one, Princeton University Library, Taylor Medieval MS 1, is illustrated. It was made for Joan Tateshal, who is depicted in two of the historiated initials in a manner suggesting her commanding role and involvement in the production of the book.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Blacker, Jean. “‘Dame Custance la gentil’: Gaimar’s Portrait of a Lady and Her Books.” In The Court and Cultural Diversity. Edited by Evelyn Mullally and John Thompson, 109–119. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1997.
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  1039. Gaimar’s references to Constance FitzGilbert in his Estoire des Engleis are studied carefully to reveal the portrait of a woman presented as a devotee of books. The Estoire provides an early record of a woman’s book ownership, her direct commissioning and purchase of a book, and conceivably, her literacy.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Krueger, Roberta. Women Readers and the Ideology of Gender in Old French Verse Romance. Cambridge Studies in French. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  1043. This study of the Continental example also includes mention of royal female patrons in England. It pays attention to the Voyage of St. Brendan (see Burgess 2002, cited under Travel) and treats Ipomédon at some length (see Holden 1979, cited under Courtly Romance). First published in 1993, Women Readers continues to be a valuable contribution to the field.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Meale, Carol M. “‘Alle the bokes that I haue of latyn, englisch, and frensch’: Laywomen and Their Books in Late Medieval England.” In Women and Literature in Britain, 1150–1500. 2d ed. Edited by Carol M. Meale, 128–158. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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  1047. Informative survey of named female book owners in 15th-century England. Devotional and didactic works still dominated Englishwomen’s French holdings (although at this time more such holdings were in English), followed by Arthurian subjects. Christine de Pizan’s Cité des dames was in demand, though perhaps sometimes in English translation.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Smith, Kathryn A. Art, Identity and Devotion in Fourteenth-Century England: Three Women and Their Books of Hours. London: British Library, 2003.
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  1051. A study of three illustrated books of hours made for women in the first half of the 14th century: the De Lisle Hours, for Margaret de Beauchamp; the De Bois Hours, for Hawisia de Bois; and the Neville of Hornby Hours, for Isabel de Byron. Prayers are in Anglo-Norman.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Women’s Reach and Influence
  1054.  
  1055. Women’s patronage of the book arts is to be seen in the context of their patronage of the visual arts generally (Gee 2002). Johns 2003 looks at the power given to women by their land holdings. Tyler 2009 makes an important link between Anglo-Saxon nunnery education in the pre-Conquest period and the development of Anglo-Norman literature. Wogan-Browne 2005 suggests that women played a significant role in promoting religious instruction.
  1056.  
  1057. Gee, Loveday Lewes. Women, Art and Patronage from Henry III to Edward III: 1216–1377. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2002.
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  1059. Valuable and well-rounded study of women’s patronage of architecture, visual culture, and manuscripts. Offers an important context for examining the nature and aims of women’s patronage of literary texts.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Johns, Susan M. Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-Century Anglo-Norman Realm. Manchester, UK, and New York: Manchester University Press, 2003.
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  1063. Argument for the importance of female land tenure—women’s lordship—as a determinant of women’s power and influence in 12th-century England. Looks at the ways women are portrayed in literature, their power as patrons, the special influence of countesses, witnessing, countergifts, and seals. Appendix 1 describes 142 seals belonging to women, and Appendix 2 charts women’s names in the Rotuli de Dominabus.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Tyler, Elizabeth. “From Old English to Old French.” In Language and Culture in Medieval England: The French of England c. 1100–c. 1500. Edited by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, 164–178. York, UK: York Medieval Press, 2009.
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  1067. A significant step forward, showing that there are more continuities than previously acknowledged between Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman literary cultures, and that English nunnery education in particular strongly influenced the French-language literature of England and indeed European literature generally.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Wogan-Browne, Jocelyn. “‘Our Steward, Saint Jerome’: Theology and the Anglo-Norman Household.” In Household, Women and Christianities in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Edited by Anneke B. Mulder-Bakker and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, 149–157. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2005.
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  1071. Speculates that aristocratic women, seldom acknowledged as providing both status and economic support for manuscript creation, may deserve more credit for the dissemination of theological teaching after Lateran IV than previously thought.
  1072. Find this resource:
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